Donnloaded from:

9 779727 027003

ISSN 972-7027X

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m

AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER Publishing Date: 01 January, 2019

VOL. NO. XVII, ISSUE NO. 08 3

January, 2019 / VOLUME XVII / ISSUE NO. 08

CHIEF EDITOR Dr. S. S. Purohit

ASSOCIATE EDITOR Dr. P. Balasubramaniyan (Madurai)

Dr. Tanuja Singh (Patna), Dr. Ashok Agrawal (Mathura) Dr. H. P. Sharma (Ranchi), Dr. Kachhawha N (Jaipur)

Dr. Smita Purohit (Jaipur)

EDITORIAL OFFICE Agro House, Behind Nasrani Cinema Chopasani Road, Jodhpur - 342 003

Phone: +91-291-2643993 E-mail: [email protected];

[email protected] Website: www.agrobiosonline.com

TYPESETTING Yashee Computers, Jodhpur

PRINTED BY Manish Kumar, Chopra Offset, Jodhpur

PUBLISHED BY Dr. Updesh Purohit, for Agrobios (India),

Behind Nasrani, Cinema, Chopasani Road, Jodhpur RNI No.: RAJENG/2002/8649

ISSN: 0972-7027

Disclaimer: The views expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent those of editorial board or publishers.

Although every care has been taken to avoid errors or omission, this magazine is being published on the condition and

undertaking that all the information given in this magazine is merely for reference and must not be taken as having authority of or binding in any way on the authors, editors and publishers who do not owe any responsibility for any damage or loss to

any person, for the result of any action taken on the basis of this work. The Publishers shall be obliged if mistakes brought to their

notice.

SUBSCRIPTION RATES SINGLE COPY: ` 75.00

ANNUAL INDIVIDUAL: ` 750.00 ANNUAL INSTITUTIONAL: ` 1500.00

© The articles published in Agrobios Newsletter is subject to copy right of the publisher. No material can be reproduced

without prior permission of the publisher.

Issues of “Agrobios Newsletter” are mailed by ordinary post at Subscriber’s risk and our responsibility ceases once we hand

over the magazine to post office.

Note: “Agrobios Newsletter” does not accept unsolicited manuscripts and material and does not assume responsibility

for them. DATE OF PUBLISHING: 01 January, 2019

DATE OF POSTING 07-08 OF EVERY MONTH AT RMS POST OFFICE

Contents BIOTECHNOLOGY 1. Virus Induced Gene Silencing: Tools for Functional

Characterization of Gene................................................. 6 Saurabh Pandey

2. RNA Interference (RNAi), Mechanism and their Application ...................................................................... 7 Jayant Kumar Rajwade

3. Detection of Adulteration in Bt Cotton Seeds using Biotechnological Tools .................................................... 9 Dr. Yogendra Singh

4. Targeted Transcription Factors: Tools for Modulating Gene Expression ........................................ 10 Saurabh Pandey and Sunidhi Mishra

5. CRISPR-Cas System: Precise Genome Editing Tool for Plant Biology ............................................................ 11 Saurabh Pandey

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 6. RNAi: Mechanism and Applications .............................. 13

I. Arumuka Pravin, Srivignesh Sundaresan, Durgadevi Dhakshinamoorthy

MICROBIOLOGY 7. Role of Polyamines in Bacteria ..................................... 14

Sunita Devi, Ruchi Sharma, Neeraj Sankhyan, Joginder Pal and Anita Kumari

MICROBIOLOGY 8. Trichoderma viride: An Effective Biocontrol Agent ....... 15

Dr. Pasupuleti Reddypriya BIOCHEMISTRY 9. Role of Enzymes and Toxins in Pathogenesis ............... 16

Pankaj Kumar Sharma and Rakesh Kumar Meena 10. Cow Milk Allergy (CMA): A Journey from Problem

to Solution ..................................................................... 17 Arti Kumari and Navneet Kumar

CROP PHYSIOLOGY 11. Iron Uptake Strategies by Plants .................................. 19

Debanjana Saha PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 12. Seed Priming as a Valuable Tool for Seed

Germination .................................................................. 20 Navneet Kumar and Arti Kumari

13. Carbon Sequestration ................................................... 22 Priyanka J. Bonde, Pravin S. Bisne and Nikhilesh M. Kelwatkar

14. Impact of Climate Change on Carbon Trading .............. 23 Pravin S. Bisne Priyanka J. Bonde, and Nikhilesh M. Kelwatkar

AGRONOMY 15. Characteristics of Crop Ideotype for Rice, Wheat,

Maize, Cotton and Red Gram ........................................ 24 S. Alagappan

16. Strategies to Improve Productivity and Production of Pulse Crop ................................................................. 26 Sudhanshu Verma

17. Vermicompost in Crop Production ................................ 27 C. Agila

18. Sorghum Crop Gift in Changing Climate ....................... 29 Pritam O. Bhutada

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m

javascript:;

Publishing Date: 01 January, 2019 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER

4 VOL. NO. XVII, ISSUE NO. 08

19. Role of Crop Simulation Models in Agriculture ............. 30 Dr. Pooja Goswami and Dr. Shikha Sharma

20. Azolla Cultivation: An Alternative Green Fodder for Livestock ....................................................................... 31 Pattam Keerthi and Kautilya Chaudhary

21. Iron Biofortification in Rice ........................................... 32 Debarchana Jena, Vineeta Singh, Manish Kumar, Dahiphale A V, Sandeep Kumar, Abhinandan Singh and Yogendra Kumar Budania

22. An Evaluative Study on Soil Health ............................... 33 Abhinandan Singh, Manish Kumar, Dahiphale A V., Sandeep Kumar, Vineeta Singh, Debarchana Jena and Yogendra Kumar Budania

23. Phytoremediation .......................................................... 35 Malavathu Mallikarjun

24. Conservation Agriculture as Key to Climate Smart Agriculture..................................................................... 36 Mohammad Hasanain

25. Ragi: A Nutritionally Promising Crop ............................ 37 Jinu Jacob, Swarna Ronanki and Deepika C

26. Natueco Farming: Beyond Organic Farming ................. 38 Siddagangamma, K. R.

27. Winged Bean: A Vegetable of 20th Century ................... 39 G. KranthiRekha and D. Srikanth

28. Diversification in Agriculture– Issues and Actions ....... 41 V. S. Hooda, Meenakshi Sangwan and Astha Duhan

29. C4 Rice for Climate Resilience ...................................... 42 Minakshi R. Neware

30. Role of Hydrogel in Dry Land Agriculture ..................... 44 Kartikeya Choudhary, Sandeep Kumar and Anoop Kumar Devedee

31. Pearl Millet: A Miracle Grain ......................................... 45 Manav

WEED SCIENCE 32. Sustainable Weed Management Approaches

through Conservation Agriculture ................................. 46 Rajbir Singh Khedwal and Ankur Chaudhary

33. Sorghum Allelopathy for Weed Management ............... 47 Swarna Ronanki, Jinu Jacob and Deepika C

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 34. Organic State Sikkim ..................................................... 49

Shubhi Patel 35. Green Manuring: Concept and its Role in

Agriculture..................................................................... 50 Meenakshi Sangwan, Astha Duhan and Sudesh Devi

36. Role of Phyto Remediation in Sustainable Agriculture..................................................................... 52 Rathnam Kadamanda

37. Sustainable Agriculture: Parameters and Indicators ...................................................................... 53 Astha Duhan, V. S. Hooda and Meenakshi Sangwan

38. Panchgavya: Importance and Uses in Agriculture ........ 54 Sunny Sharma and P K Mishra

AGRICULTURE WASTE MANAGEMENT 39. Agro-Industrial Waste and its Management ................. 55

Abhishek Aneja, Aman Deep Ranga, Sourav Kumar and Mayur S. Darvhankar

40. Earthworm: A Potential Player in Waste Management ................................................................. 57 Sikha Snehal and Rajeswari Das

AGROMETEOROLOGY, REMOTE SENSING & GIS 41. Weather Effects on Crop Production ............................. 58

Gurupreet Singh Gandhi WATER MANAGEMENT 42. Alternate Wetting and Drying: A Smart Water

Technique for Rice ........................................................ 59 G. Rajitha

43. Importance of Watershed Management ....................... 61 S. Vanitha and N. Sridhar

44. Advancement of Pulse Irrigation (Drip) in Sandy Soil ................................................................................ 62 Dnyaneshwar A. Madane and Nitin M. Changade

SOIL SCIENCE 45. Improvement of Soil Properties through Organic

Matter Management ..................................................... 63 Asha Serawat and Minakshi Serawat

46. Management of Herbicide Residues in Soil .................. 65 Smt. S. Rama Devi, Dr. Sahaja Deva and K. Balaji Naik

47. Technological Intervention for Enhancing the Productivity of Problematic Soil ................................... 66 Roohi and Usha Kaushik

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 48. Importance of Nano Fertilizers in Agriculture

Production. .................................................................... 68 Kharag Singh, Vijay Kant Singh and Anuj Nehra

HORTICULTURE 49. Senna Cultivation Practices in India and its Uses ........ 69

V. Karpagam 50. Successful Pest Management for Winter Potato .......... 70

A. Nandi, S. P. Mishra and A. K. Padhiary 51. Nutritive Value of some Underutilized Fruit and

Vegetable Crops ............................................................ 71 Arghya Mani

52. Family Nutritional Security through Backyard Kitchen Gardening ........................................................ 73 Reetanjali Meher and Siba Prasad Mishra

53. Rose Apple: An Underutilized Tropical Fruit Crop ......... 75 G. Ranganna

54. Vegetable Forcing ......................................................... 76 Srivighesh Sundaresan, Durgadevi Dhakshinamoorthy and I. Arumuka Pravin

55. Methods of Preparation of Jam and Jelly ..................... 78 Dr. Shahroon Khan

56. Physiological Disorders In Fruit Crops ......................... 78 Dr. Shahroon Khan

MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND PROCESSING 57. Shiitake Mushroom: Lentinus edodes .......................... 80

Dr. S. Maheswari and Vindyashree. M 58. Economic Viability through Mushroom Cultivation ....... 81

Senpon Ngomle and Bharat Singh Ambesh MEDICINAL PLANTS 59. Medicinal and Therapeutic Value of Sea Buckthorn ..... 83

Ankit Dongariyal, Rajat Sharma and Manpreet Singh Preet

PLANT BREEDING AND GENETICS 60. Transgenics in Maize .................................................... 84

Aman Deep Ranga, Sourav Kumar and Mayur Darvhankar

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



61. CRISPR/Cas9: A New Tool for Genome Editing ............. 85 Ashutosh, Monu Kumar, Prashant Singh and Sameer Upadhyay

62. Different Genome Editing Technologies ........................ 87 Saurabh Pandey

63. MutMap: As Novel Approach in Crop Improvement ...... 88 R. D. Vekariya and D. K. Janghel

64. Orphan Crops – Promising Future ................................. 90 Vinod Kumar and Arjun Negi

PLANT PATHOLOGY 65. Effector Proteins of Phytopathogenic Bacteria ............. 91

D. Ladhalakshmi and P. Valarmathi 66. Induction of Pathogenesis–Related Proteins and

their Role in Induced Resistance against Pathogens ..................................................................... 92 Sujata Singh and Yogita Bohra

67. Resistant Gene: Role, Type and their Function in Plant’s Defense ............................................................. 94 Raina Bajpai

68. Plant Defense through RNA Silencing ........................... 95 Shikha Sharma and Pooja Goswami

69. Biopesticides ................................................................. 96 Vijayalakshmi, Humma Ambuja and Triveni B

70. Molecular Basis of Plant Response to Biotrophic and Hemibiotrophic Pathogens ..................................... 98 K. V. Shivakumar

71. Black Pod Disease of Cocoa.......................................... 99 Janani, P, A. Balusamy, Ngursangzuala Sailo and Clarissa Challam

72. Mycorrhiza for Soil Borne Plant Disease Management ............................................................... 100 Aravind T, Ashish Kumar Satpathi and Karibasappa C. S.

73. Exploitation of Hypovirulence in Controlling Plant Diseases ...................................................................... 101 B. Siva Bharathi

74. Mycotoxins and Mycotoxicoses .................................. 103 ¹Ashish Kumar Satpathi, ²Arvind T and Karibasappa C. S.

75. Major Diseases and their Management in Potato Cultivation ................................................................... 104 Pankaj Kumar Sharma

76. Cause and Remedies of Citrus Fruit Disease .............. 105 Dr. Shahroon Khan

BIOCONTROL 77. Biopesticides ............................................................... 106

M. Kirithiga DISEASE MANAGEMENT 78. New Innovative Approaches to Crop Protection .......... 108

Vindyashree, M, Kavyashri, V, V and Maheswari, S PLANT DISEASES MANAGEMENT 79. Diseases of Grapes and their Management ................ 109

K. K. Suryawanshi, K. E. Shewale and N. M. Kelwatker 80. Biological Approaches in Plant Diseases

Management ............................................................... 110 Pankaj Kumar Sharma

NEMATOLOGY 81. Threat to India’s Maize Crop from Invasive Worm ...... 111

Dr. M. Shanmuga Priya

82. Wheat Seed Gall Nematode (Anguina tritici) and its Management .......................................................... 112 Dr. A. Muthukumar

ENTOMOLOGY 83. Various Integrated Approaches for the

Management of Mango Hoppers ................................. 113 Rakesh Kumar

84. Means to Protect the Honey Bee Losses from Pesticides.................................................................... 115 Gaurava Kumar, Ajaykumara K. M. and Neha Kunjwal

85. Role of Genetic Engineering in Improvement of Natural Enemies for Insects Control ........................... 116 Kamal Ravi Sharma and Sudeshna Thakur

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY 86. Controller Area Network (CAN) Technology in

Agricultural Machines ................................................. 117 Siddesh Marihonnappanavara and Mareppa Hirekurubaru

87. Effect of Soil Compaction on Crop Productivity: Causes, Effects and Control ........................................ 118 Mareppa Hirekurubaruand Siddesh Marihonnappanavara

88. Software Tools Used for Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems ...................................................................... 120 Siddesh Marihonnappanavara and Mareppa Hirekurubar

89. Electronic Noses in Food Quality Assessment ............ 121 Manasa M and Shrinivas Deshpande

90. Safety Aspects in Agricultural Tractors ...................... 123 P K Mishra and Sunny Sharma

POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT 91. Value Addition of Walnut Kernels ............................... 124

Poonam Sharma FOOD TECHNOLOGY 92. Low Cost Food Warmer for Rural Use ........................ 124

Poonam Sharma 93. Use of Acoustics as Non-Destructive Technique

for Food Quality Assessment ...................................... 125 Shrinivas Deshpande and Manasa M.

HUMAN HEALTH 94. Why do I Feel Sick in Morning? .................................. 127

Kirti M. Tripathi EXTENSION EDUCATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT 95. Market-Led Extension: A Boon for Farmers ................ 128

Akanchha Singh and Debashis Dash and Rupan Raghuvanshi

96. Farming Systems: Present and Future Scenario of in India ........................................................................ 129 I. Venkata Reddy

97. Market Led Extension: Enhanced Role of Agricultural Extension Personnel ................................ 131 K. Sindhu

98. Smart Phone App in Agriculture ................................. 132 Vikas Kumar

99. Role of Extension in Eradication of Malnutrition in India ............................................................................ 133 Pavan M K and Devegowda S R

ECONOMICS 100. Agriculture Price Policy in India ................................. 134

Palvi R. A.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



101. Agricultural Economics: How Doubling of Farmers’ Income is Possible Even with Small Landholdings ..... 135 Shivani Dechamma and Shanabhoga M. B.

102. Coordination of Dairy Supply Chain Management ...... 136 Arnab Roy and Deepa M P M

103. Agriculture NPA Mess in India .................................... 137 Devegowda S R and Pavan M K

104. Goods and Services Tax (GST); Impact on Indian Economy ...................................................................... 138 Preethi V. P. and Anusree Padmanabhan P. S.

105. Pradhan Mantri Annadata Aay Sanrakshan Abhiyan: A New Umbrella Scheme to Empower Farmers....................................................................... 140 Arghyadeep Das and Shruti Mohapatra

VETERINARY 106. Poultry Farming Under Cold Arid Conditions of

Leh-Ladakh: Challenges and Opportunities ................ 141 Dr. Nazir Ahmad Mir

1. BIOTECHNOLOGY 17266

Virus Induced Gene Silencing: Tools for Functional Characterization of Gene

Saurabh Pandey

Ph.D. Scholar, National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi-110067

In this genomic era characterization of genes for knowing their function is obligatory. Reverse genetics is one of the approach used for this purpose. Virus–induced gene silencing (VIGS) is an important tool for gene function investigation by use of viral vectors having a target gene segment which generates dsRNA which elicit RNA-mediated gene silencing. Many plant viruses have been adapted for effective silencing of gene of interest in a sequence specific manner. Based upon the infection, plant species and purpose of silencing different types of approaches have been adapted and amended for the VIGS. Entry of gene of interest through viral vectors are accomplished on host plants by means of agro-infiltration and in vitro transcriptions. VIGS approach possess various benefits in comparison to other loss-of-gene function approaches. Some of them are speedy generation of phenotype, avoiding the necessity for plant transformation, relatively low cost and large scale studies in less amount of time. Moreover, this approach have restrictions to be overcome. Recently, virus-derived vectors are improved in such a way that they can silence more than one host plant such as TRV-derived viral vectors are utilized to silence Arabidopsis as well as Nicothiana benthamiana. Monocot plants can also be targeted as silencing host by the modified viral vectors for example, Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV) enabled VIGS silencing of monocot plants barley and wheat genes.

Origin and Types of Viral Vectors

Various virus species based upon their infection to dicot and monocot species were modified as viral vectors for silencing of gene of interest. Tobacco mosaic virus is one of the well explored vector system used to silence PDS (Phytoene Desaturase) gene in Nicotiana benthamiana plants. The entry of virus down-regulate the target gene transcript through homology dependent degradation and thus can potentially use for the gene function analysis. Tobacco rattle virus (TRV)

system was also used as a silencing tool in N. benthamiana and in tomato plants. This TRV based system is highly amenable and successful for the Solanaceous species. In this system gene of interest is cloned in TRV vector mobilized into agrobacterium and infiltrated into the plants. TRV vector is more vigorous and spread all over the plant through the vasculature while generating mild symptoms. Examples of TRV vectors are pYL156, pYL279 etc. TRV based vector system is also used for different crop plants. Very recently a viral vector derived from Turnip yellow mosaic virus (TYMV) was shown to have the ability to induce VIGS in Arabidopsis thaliana. Potato virus X (PVX) mediated gene silencing was also developed and used in N. benthamiana plant. PVX based vectors has more limited host range (only three families of plants are susceptible to PVX) than TMV based vectors (nine plant families show susceptibility for TMV) but PVX based vectors are more stable compared to TMV

Geminivirus derived vectors for example Tomato golden mosaic virus (TGMV) was used in N. benthamiana for studying meristematic genes. Satellite virus based vectors along with their helper virus were also used for VIGS and known as Satellite-virus induced silencing system, SVISS. For example Tomato yellow leaf curl China virus being helper and a modified satellite DNA was used to silence gene in N. benthamiana. For monocot species barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV) was developed for efficient silencing of PDS gene in barley. This system was then explored for silencing of wheat genes.

Methods used in VIGS

1. PVX (Potato Virus X): Derived VIGS for Potato Silencing: PVX is RNA virus and infects broad range of solanaceous plants. A PVX derivative vector, an agro infection vector, pGR106, has been previously constructed for gene silencing. The vector was also used for the PVX mediated VIGS in

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



leaves and tubers of potato plants 2. TRV-Derived VIGS for Solanaceous and other

Crop Species: The most widely used viral delivery vectors are Tobacco rattle viruses (TRV) because introduction of virus into plant including is easy in meristematic tissue. TRV mediated gene silencing was applied to many plant from diverse genus such as Nicotiana benthamiana, tomato, pepper (Capsicum annuum), potato (Solanum tuberosum), and petunia (Petunia hybrida) from Solanaceae family, opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), from Papaveraceae, and Arabidopsis thaliana a model organism. The TRV silencing in plants is usually mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens. TRV vectors pTRV1 and pTRV2 are placed between LB and RB sites separately. One of these vectors pTRV1/2 is constructed with GOI for targeted gene silencing.

3. ‘One-step’ TYMV: Derived Vector: Turnip

yellow mosaic virus is a positive strand of RNA virus from the genus Tymovirus, and infects many brassicaceae including Arabidopsis. Recently, a TYMV-derived vector used to induce VIGS in Arabidopsis. The TYMV-derived vector for efficient silencing includes inverted repeats of target gene fragments. The system has ability to silence the gene even expressed in meristem, and contains only a single vector. The other advantage of the TYMV mediated VIGS system that allows direct delivery of plasmid DNA to plant cells using rub-inoculation is the precluding of in vitro transcription, biolistic and agro-infiltration steps.

4. Barley Stripe Mosaic Virus (BSMV) Mediated Silencing: The BSMV contains positive strand tripartite RNA virus (, β and γ). Where γ genome can be used to make construct for silencing.


RNA Interference (RNAi), Mechanism and their Application Jayant Kumar Rajwade*

Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, IGKV, Raipur (C.G.) *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

RNA interference (RNAi) is a biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression or translation, by neutralizing targeted mRNA molecules.” Or “The process by which dsRNA silences gene expression degradation of mRNA or translation inhibition. RNA interference (RNAi) is a method of blocking gene function by inserting short sequences of ribonucleic acid (RNA) that match part of the target gene’s sequence, thus no proteins are produced. Since Science named it as “Breakthrough of the Year” and Fortune as “Biotech’s Billion Dollar Breakthrough” in 2003, RNAi has significantly gained prominence as the method of choice for researchers sleuthing the structure and function of important genes. RNAi has the potential to become a powerful therapeutic approach the range of diseases and disorders it might address is unprecedented; from cancer to cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders and even HIV. Even more exciting is the potential of RNAi in agriculture. RNAi has provided a way to control pests and diseases, introduce novel plant traits and increase crop yield. Using RNAi, scientists have developed novel crops such as nicotine free tobacco, non-allergenic peanuts, decaffeinated coffee, and nutrient fortified maize among many others. The RNAi pathway is found in many eukaryotes, including animals, and is initiated by the enzyme Dicer, which cleaves long double stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules into short double-stranded fragments of ~20 nucleotide siRNAs. Each siRNA is unwound into two single-stranded RNAs (ssRNAs), the passenger strand

and the guide strand. The passenger strand is degraded and the guide strand is incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). The well-studied outcome is post-transcriptional gene silencing, which occurs when the guide strand pairs with a complementary sequence in a messenger RNA molecule and induces cleavage by Argonaute 2 (Ago2), the catalytic component of the RISC complex. In some organisms, this process spreads systemically, despite the initially limited molar concentrations of siRNA. RNAi is a valuable research tool, both in cell culture and in living organisms, because synthetic dsRNA introduced into cells can selectively and robustly induce suppression of specific genes of interest. RNAi may be used for large-scale screens that systematically shut down each gene in the cell, which can help to identify the components necessary for a particular cellular process or an event such as cell division. The pathway is also used as a practical tool in biotechnology, medicine and insecticides

A Brief History of RNA Interference (RNAi)

RNA Interference (RNAi) is one of the most important technological breakthroughs in modern biology, allowing us to directly observe the effects of the loss of function of specific genes.

Napoli and Jorgensen were the first to report an RNAi type of phenomenon in 1990. The goal of their studies was to determine whether chalcone synthase (CHS), The discovery of RNAi was preceded first by observations of transcriptional inhibition by antisense RNA expressed in

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



transgenic plants,] and more directly by reports of unexpected outcomes in experiments performed by plant scientists in the United States and the Netherlands In an attempt to alter flower colors in petunias, researchers introduced additional copies of a gene encoding chalcone synthase, a key enzyme for flower pigmentation into petunia plants of normally pink or violet flower color. The overexpressed gene was expected to result in darker flowers, but instead produced less pigmented, fully or partially white flowers, indicating that the activity of chalcone synthase had been substantially decreased; in fact, both the endogenous genes and the transgenes were down regulated in the white flowers. Soon after, a related event termed quelling was noted in the fungus Neurospora crassa, although it was not immediately recognized as related. Further investigation of the phenomenon in plants indicated that the down regulation was due to post-transcriptional inhibition of gene expression via an increased rate of mRNA degradation. This phenomenon was called co-suppression of gene expression, but the molecular mechanism remained unknown.

In an attempt to generate violet petunias, Napoli and Jorgensen overexpressed chalcone synthase in petunias, which unexpectedly resulted in white petunias.

The levels of endogenous as well as introduced CHS were 50-fold lower than in wild-type petunias, which led them to hypothesize that the introduced transgene was “co-suppressing” the endogenous CHS gene.

Fig 1. Co-suppression

Andrew Fire and Craig Mello In 1998 The mechanism causing these effects was not known until American scientists Andrew Fire and Craig Mello discovered that injecting double stranded-ribonucleic acids (dsRNA) into the worm Caenorhabditis elegans triggered the silencing of genes with sequences identical to that of the dsRNA was the source of sequence-specific inhibition of protein expression, which they called “RNA interference” In investigating the regulation of muscle protein production, they observed that neither mRNA nor antisense RNA injections had

an effect on protein production, but double-stranded RNA successfully silenced the targeted gene. Fire and Mello won the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of RNA interference.

Mechanism of RNAi

Cell has specific enzyme (in C. Elegans) called Dicer. It recognize D.S RNA & chop it into small fragments (21-25 bp).

Short pieces are called as small interferencing RNA (SiRNA) Bind to RNA Induced Silencing Complex. (RISC).

RISC is activated when SiRNA unwinds & activated complex bind to the corresponding RNA using Antisense RNA. The RISC contain an Enzyme to cleavage the bound m-RNA (called silencer in drosophila). & therefore called gene suppression.

Once the m-RNA is has been cleaved it can be no longer into functional protein.

Fig 2. Mechanism of action of Rnai

Applications of RNA Silencing

1. Reverse genetics: a) Overexpression b) Suppression (knock-down, knock-out).

2. Functional analysis of genes. 3. Blocking expression of unwanted genes and

undesirable substance. 4. Inducing plants resistant to viruses. 5. Enhancement of abiotic stress tolerance 6. Altering agronomic or physiological

characters. 7. Identification of gene sequence.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m




Detection of Adulteration in Bt Cotton Seeds using Biotechnological Tools

Dr. Yogendra Singh

Scientist (Senior Scale)-Biotechnology Department of Plant Breeding & Genetics Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.) *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Advances in biotechnology have enabled the development and production of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) with properties such as tolerance to herbicides, resistance to insects and the addition of nutrition values. Transformation of plants is done by inserting DNA into a single cell, which is then regrown into a complete organism, the plant. DNA is the blueprint of each cell that is transcribed into the messenger RNA (mRNA), which is then translated into a protein. However, considering the fact that new genes are being discovered and deployed in GM crops all the time in almost all over the world, development of GM crop diagnostic kits has emerged as a challenging task. Biosafety of all GM crops is now a universal concern. Post-release detection and monitoring of the spread of transgenes in the environment is a significant challenge. The deliberate or inadvertent mixing of GM products with non-GM products carries the risk of adversely affecting international seed trade and is incompatible with biosafety norms. Detection of unapproved transgenic events and unapproved transgenic varieties in the environment is important from biosafety perspective. Additionally, quality control and genetic purity of legal transgenic seed is an important concern. Reliable, efficient and cost-effective techniques for detection, identification and quantification of GMOs are essential to ensure that bio-safety concerns are efficiently addressed. Technology for reliable detection of unapproved events and unapproved varieties is not as yet available at large extent and on economic cost anywhere in the world. Therefore specific initiatives are imperative to address the challenge of developing appropriate diagnostic tools to ensure biosafety.

Need for Detecting GMOs: However, since the technology has enormous impact on agriculture, Detection of GM crops is one of the most important prerequisites to address biosafety concerns. A seed company needs to certify that it is producing and marketing pure inbred or hybrid seed, or GM seed. The quarantine stations need to test for GMOs in commodities under trade and also germplasm and research material under exchange. Concerns have been raised globally as to whether these GM products are safe for human beings, animals and to the environment. These concerns have led to demands to regulate and perhaps label seed, feed and food products to

inform the consumer whether the products being imported or marketed are made of GM seed or plants. A processed food manufacturer needs to demonstrate that a food product does or does not contain GMOs such as starlink (Bt) protein in corn or the Roundup (RR) transgene corn or soybeans. An organic farmer needs to ensure that the seed or planting material being used is free from GMOs. A researcher needs to profile and identify a newly developed GMO.

Detecting Genetically Modified Organisms: There are two broad methods one depending on proteins (Immuno assays) and other one on DNA (PCR based)

1. Detecting GMOs by Immunoassays: Immunoassay is based on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody. Among the immunoassays most commonly used are the classical ELISA test (plate-based) and the Lateral flow Strip Method (membrane-based). a) Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay:

ELISA is an immunological test, using an enzyme as a label to determine presence of target protein. The enzyme linkage or labelling allows us to follow our target protein and if present (qualify) and at what amounts (quantify). The antigen of interest is immobilized on the surface of a micro titer plate (specially constructed ELISA plates, having small wells at uniform intervals. Now, antibody specific to the antigen is added and allowed to react with the adsorbed antigen. Unreacted molecules of the antibody are washed away leaving only the antigen antibody complex. That is detected later generally coloured based using ELISA reader. The intensity of Colour developed is an indicator of secondary antibody bound to primary antibody which is in turn an indicator of the quantity of antigen.

b) Lateral Flow Strip Method: The lateral flow test (dipstick format) uses a membrane- based detection system. The membrane contains two capture zones, one captures the bound transgenic protein, the second captures color reagent. Paper strips or plastic paddles are used as support for the capture antibody that is immobilized onto a test strip on specific zone. The lateral flow

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



strip is dipped into the prepared sample in extraction solution and the sample migrates up the strip by capillary action. As the sample flows through the detection antibody strip and the capture antibody strip, the protein of interest will accumulate and thus give a high intensity band, but the volume is not as well controlled. These tests generally provide qualitative or semi-quantitative results using antibodies and colour reagents incorporated into a flow strip.

2. Detecting GMOs by PCR based techniques: Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is the most widely used and accepted analytical method for GM Detection. Duplex & Multiplex PCR, a derivative of conventional PCR, is reliable, efficient and cost effective qualitative assay, as fewer reactions are required to test the transgenic nature of a crop by simultaneously detecting the target sequences of the inserted gene construct, i.e. specific transgene, marker genes, promoter and terminator gene sequences in a single PCR assay. The method works by pairing the targeted genetic sequence with custom designed complementary bits of DNA called primers. In the presence of the target sequence, the primers match with it and trigger a chain reaction. DNA replication enzymes use the primers as docking points and start doubling the target sequences. The process is repeated over and over again by sequential heating and cooling until doubling and redoubling has multiplied the target sequence several million-fold. The millions of identical fragments are then purified in a slab of gel, dyed, and can be seen with UV light. Based on requirements and facilities and cost of detection, following PCR based detections are used a) Quantitative detection: b) Qualitative detection c) Event-specific detection d) Construct-specific detection

Methods to Test Bt Cotton by Central Institute for Cotton Research (CICR), Nagpur

Bt detection kits were developed and commercialized by Central Institute for Cotton

Research (CICR). Patents for the Bt detection kit were granted in the following countries vide patent numbers (Inventor: Dr K. R. Kranthi: Patents: South Africa, 2007: Patent No. 2004110268. /ZA200410268; China, 2008: Patent No. ZL 03817641.6CN1672049; Mexico, 2008: Patent No. MXPA04011769; Uzbekistan, 2008: Patent No. WO03102208 and South Korea, 2008: Patent No. KR20050026396).

A working sample of 25 g should be taken in a random manner from the seed packet.

1. ELISA test / dip-stick-strip test: 90 seeds to be tested from working sample size of 25 g drawn from a single packet of 450 g. A minimum number of 81 seeds tested positive for the test protein, Cry1Ac, Cry2Ab, Cry1C and fusion-gene protein Cry1Ab- Cry1Ac, may be taken as the acceptable value for90% gene purity.

2. PCR test: 30 seeds to be tested from working sample size of 25 g drawn from a single packet of 450 g. A minimum number of 27 seeds tested positive for primers specific to the gene (cry1Ac, cry2Ab, cry1C and fusion cry1Ac gene (cry1Ab+cry1Ac)) may be taken as the acceptable value for 90% gene purity. If only 25-26 seeds are positive, 30 freshly drawn seeds from the same working sample may be re-tested again on PCR. The total number of positive seeds from the two tests should be equivalent to or more than 54 out of the total 60 seeds tested from the working sample

3. Event specific PCR (only for referral purposes): 10 seeds to be tested from working sample size of 25 g drawn from a single packet of 450 g. A minimum number of 9 seeds tested positive for the event may be taken as the acceptable value for 90% event purity.

4. Gus-Reporter test: 90 seeds to be tested from working sample size of 25 g drawn from a single packet of 450 g. A minimum number of 81 seeds tested positive for the test protein GUS (ß-Glucuronidase) which is the reporter gene for Bollgard-II may be taken as the acceptable value for 90% gene purity of Cry2Ab.


Targeted Transcription Factors: Tools for Modulating Gene Expression

Saurabh Pandey1* and Sunidhi Mishra2 1Ph.D. Scholar, National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi-110067

2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Vegetable Sciences, IGKV, Raipur-492012

In the era of genome editing modular properties of ZFN (Zinc finger nucleases) and TALE proteins along with CRISPR –Cas 9 gives opportunity to alter the gene expression by fusing transcriptional

activator and repressor protein domains from its promoter or enhancer sequences.

Few examples first fully synthetic transcriptional effector proteins to be generated

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



were fusion of engineered zinc-finger proteins with either the Herpes simplex–derived trans-activation domain or the Kruppel-associated box (KRAB) repression protein. Over the years these fusions include Dnmt3 a methyltransferase domain and the ten-eleven translocation methyl cytosine dioxygenase 1(TET1) which can alter transcription via targeted methylation or demethylation, respectively.

TALE transcription factors have also used for targeted transcriptional modulation. Effector domains are generally fused to the carboxyl terminus of the synthetic TALE array. Like zinc fingers, TALEs are also compatible with numerous epigenetic modifiers, including the TET1 hydroxylase catalytic domain and the lysine-specific histone demethylase 1 (LSD1) domains, which have been used for targeted CpG demethylation and histone demethylation, respectively. Specifically, the ease with which a large number of TALE scan be constructed has enabled the discovery that tiling a promoter sequence with combinations of synthetic transcription factors can lead to a synergistic increase in gene expression. And, like zinc fingers, TALE activators have also been successfully engineered to regulate gene expression in response to external or endogenous chemical stimuli, optical signals and even proteolytic cues.

CRISPR-Cas9 system has also been adapted for transcriptional modulation through fusion of specific effector domains to a catalytically inactivated variant of theCas9 protein. Deactivation is achieved by introducing amino acid substitutions endonuclease domains of Cas9. Although unable to cleave DNA, this mutant, referred to as dCas9, retains its ability to bind DNA in an RNA-directed manner. Effector domains are fused to the carboxyl terminus of the dCas9 protein and can modulate gene expression from either strand of the targeted DNA sequence. Additionally, dCas9 can inhibit gene expression by simply blocking transcriptional initiation or elongation through a process known as CRISPR interference although fusing dCas9 to transcriptional repressor domain scan also lead to efficient silencing from the promoter. Although flexible, first-generation dCas9 activators were routinely found to display suboptimal levels of activation. So development of second-generation

CRISPR activators quickly emerged. One particularly elegant approach for overcoming the low activation thresholds was by strategically inserting an RNA aptamer within a functionally inert region of the gRNA. This aptamer recruits specific activation helper proteins that work in concert with a dCas9 activator to enhance transcription. Other strategies based on directly fusing additional helper activation domains to dCas9 have used to enhance transcription. Finally, by simply reducing the length of the gRNA, catalytically active variants of Cas9 can stimulate transcription without inducing DNA breaks, enabling orthogonal gene knockout and activation with the same Cas9 variant in a single cell.

Applications

These synthetic transcriptional modulators are effective tools for a broad range of applications, enabling such tasks as

1. Inhibiting viral replication 2. Modulating the expression of disease-

associated loci 3. Inducing angiogenesis for accelerated wound

healing and 4. Genomic screening of cellular targets for

cancer progression and drug resistance. 5. TALEs and CRISPR-Cas9 have enabled rapid

construction of custom genetic circuits and logic gates complex gene regulation networks and even facilitated cellular reprogramming and the differentiation of mouse embryonic fibroblasts to skeletal myocytes

6. dCas9 transcriptional effectors have even been used to efficiently mediate repression and activation of endogenous genes in Drosophila and in plant cells.

7. Genome-wide screens using Cas9 transcriptional activators and repressor can be easily implemented to discover genes involved in a number of diverse processes, including drug resistance and cancer metastasis.

8. In particular, CRISPR-based genome-scale screening methods have the potential to overcome many of the technical hurdles associated with other contemporary screening technologies, such as cDNA libraries and RNAi, indicating its potential for facilitating drug discovery and basic biological research.


CRISPR-Cas System: Precise Genome Editing Tool for Plant Biology

Saurabh Pandey


After the discovery of CRISPR-Cas system it is becoming an essential tool in biological research. This system was discovered as the bacterial immune system against invading viruses, the

amenability of the Cas9 enzyme is now transforming diverse fields of biological research including biotechnology, and agriculture. CRISPR-Cas9 with catalytically impaired inactive Cas9

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



applied for various applications including gene regulation, epigenetic editing, chromatin engineering, and imaging. The discovery of artificially designed mega nucleases followed by ZFNs and TALENs opens the area of precise genome editing but difficulty in cloning and protein engineering of ZFNs and TALEN prevented their fast adoption in biological research.

CRISPR has revolutionized the field because of its robustness in terms of editing efficiency, easiness and flexibility of handling. CRISPR stands for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat DNA sequences. These repeat elements were initially noticed in Escherichia coli by Dr. Nakata’s group. This system is composed of an endonuclease protein whose DNA-targeting specificity and cutting activity can be programmed by a short guide RNA. Particularly, CRISPR had been simply known as a peculiar prokaryotic DNA repeat element for several decades. Interestingly, unlike typical tandem repeats in the genome, the CRISPR repeat clusters were separated by non-repeating DNA sequences called spacers.

The genome sequencing projects led to observe peculiar features of it. Firstly, CRISPR sequences are present in more than 40% of sequenced bacteria and 90% of archaea. Secondly, the CRISPR elements are adjacent to multiple well-conserved genes called CRISPR-associated (Cas) genes. Finally, the non-repeating spacer DNA sequences were recognized to belong to viruses and other mobile genetic elements. The example for potential function of CRISPR systems in defence came from the work of Horvath and colleagues where they demonstrated that after a viral challenge, Streptococcus thermophiles bacteria integrate new spacers derived from the phage genomic sequence into its genome. These spacer sequences are the key for CRISPR to dictate the targeting specificity of Cas enzymes, which ultimately provide defence against the phage. The activity of Cas enzymes is guided by short CRISPR RNAs (crRNA) transcribed from the spacer sequences and that it can block horizontal DNA transfer from bacterial plasmids. The acquired spacer sequences are highly similar to each other at regions called proto spacer-adjacent motifs (PAMs) and this sequence is very critical for the CRISPR system to work. Among many Cas proteins, Cas9 was the only one with DNA catalytic activity in S. thermophilus. Further the Charpentier group revealed the mechanism of biogenesis of the two short RNAs required for Cas9 action. More importantly, a CRISPR system from one bacterium was transferable to different bacterial strains for example CRISPR locus from S. thermophiles is able to reconstitute the interference in E. coli. The crucial work, which debatably marked the beginning of CRISPR as a biotechnology tool, has been the demonstration that Cas9 enzymes can be reprogrammed to target a desired DNA sequence in bacteria.

The endogenous CRISPR system requires two

short RNAs: the mature crRNA and a trans-activating crRNA (tracrRNA). The crRNA is composed of the part that helps as guiding sequence and another part base pairs with the tracrRNA. Both crRNA and tracrRNAs are required to form the Cas9 protein–RNA complex that cleaves DNA with Double Stranded Breaks (DSB) at target sites. CRISPR Cas9 can also be guided by a single chimeric RNA designed by the fusion of tracrRNA and crRNA, called single guide RNA (sgRNA). Because of these advancements CRISPR can be adapted for in vivo genome editing in eukaryotic and plant cells.

Different CRISPR Systems and their uses in Genome Editing

The evolutionary arms race between prokaryotes and environmental mobile genetic elements such as phages generated various CRISPR-type immune responses as defense mechanisms in bacteria. These CRISPR systems are classified based on the structure of CRISPR-associated (Cas) genes that are typically adjacent to the CRISPR arrays. There are two classes of CRISPR systems, each containing multiple CRISPR types. A) Class 1- contains type I and type III CRISPR systems that are commonly found in Archaea. B) Class2- contains type II, IV, V, and VI CRISPR systems.

While researchers reprogrammed many different CRISPR/Cas systems for genome targeting, the most widely used one is the type II CRISPR-Cas9system from Streptococcus pyogenes. Because of the simple “NGGPAM” sequence requirements, S. pyogenes’ Cas9 (spCas9) is used in many different applications. In the last few years, more than 10 different CRISPR/Cas proteins have been reprogrammed for genome editing. Among these, some of the recently discovered ones, such as Cpf1 proteins from Acidaminococcus sp. (AsCpf1) and Lachnospiraceae bacterium (LbCpf1), are particularly interesting. In contrast to the native Cas9, which requires two separate short RNAs, Cpf1 naturally requires one sgRNA. Furthermore, it cuts DNA at target sites 3′ downstream of the PAM sequence in a staggering fashion, generating a 5′ overhang rather than producing blunt ends like Cas9. Naturally found Cas9 variants are large proteins, which adds particular limitation when it comes to their packaging and delivery into different cell types via Lenti or Adeno Associated viruses (AAV). For example, the widely used SpCas9 protein is 1366 aa in size, which creates a particular therapeutic delivery challenge due to the limited packaging capacity of AAV. Thus, smaller Cas9 variants have greater therapeutic potential. The discoveries of 1082 aa Cas9 from Neisseria meningitides (NmCas9), 1053 aa Cas9 from Staphylococcus aureus (SaCas9), and 984 aa Cas9 from Campylobacter jejuni (CjCas9) are major forward steps toward this goal. However, these smaller Cas9 proteins require more complex PAM sequences for the specificity reasons. The SaCas9 requires a 5′-NNGRRT-3′ PAM sequence

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



whereas CjCas9 requires a 5′-NNNNACAC-3′ PAM sequence. Therefore, these smaller Cas9 proteins have relatively limited targeting scope

and flexibility in genome targeting compared to SpCas9 despite the reduction in size.

6. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 17232

RNAi: Mechanism and Applications I. Arumuka Pravin1*, Srivignesh Sundaresan2, Durgadevi Dhakshinamoorthy3

1Ph.D. Scholar (Plant Pathology), Department of Plant Pathology, TNAU, Coimbatore; 2National Post-Doctoral Fellow, 3Senior Research Fellow, Department of Nano Science and Technology, TNAU,

Coimbatore- 641003 *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

What is RNAi?

RNAi is a sequence specific gene silencing phenomenon caused by the presence of dsRNA system within living cells that takes part in controlling which genes is active and how active they are. In 2006, Andrew Fire and Craig C. Mello shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for their work on RNA interference in the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans, published in 1998. This technique has become widely important in the ongoing efforts to know gene functions, because it can disrupt gene function without creating a mutant organism. RNA interference was known by other names Co-suppression, Post transcriptional gene silencing and Quelling. Two types of small RNA molecules are central to RNA interference MicroRNA (miRNA) and Small interfering RNA (siRNA). RNAs are the direct products of genes, and these small RNAs can bind to other specific RNAs (mRNA) and either increase or decrease their activity. RNA interference has an important role in defending cells against parasitic genes, Gene expression, Translation inhibition of mRNA, Destruction of mRNA and Transcription Silencing.

Cellular Mechanism of RNAi Pathway

DsRNA Cleavage: Endogenous dsRNA initiates RNAi by activating the ribonuclease protein DICER. Produce double-stranded fragments of 20–25 bp with a 2-nucleotide overhang at the 3' end. These short double-stranded fragments are called small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). These siRNAs are then separated into single strands and integrated into an active RISC complex. After integration into the RISC, siRNAs base-pair to their target mRNA and induce cleavage of the mRNA, thereby preventing it from being used as a translation template.

MicroRNAs / stRNAs: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are genomically encoded non-coding RNAs that help in regulating gene expression, particularly during developmental stages of organism. The phenomenon of RNA interference includes the endogenously induced gene silencing effects of miRNAs as well as silencing triggered by foreign dsRNA. Mature miRNAs are structurally similar to siRNAs produced from exogenous dsRNA, but before reaching maturity, miRNAs must first

undergo extensive post-transcriptional modification. A miRNA is expressed from a much longer RNA-coding gene as a primary transcript known as a pri-miRNA which is processed, in the nucleus, to a 70-nucleotide stem-loop structure called a pre-miRNA by the microprocessor complex. Complex consists of an RNase III enzyme called DROSHA and a dsRNA-binding protein PASHA. The dsRNA portion of this premiRNA is bound and cleaved by Dicer to produce the mature miRNA molecule that can be integrated into the RISC complex; thus, miRNA and siRNA share the same cellular machinery downstream of their initial processing.

RISC Activation and Catalysis: The active components of an RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) are endonucleases called Argonaute proteins, which cleaves the target mRNA strand complementary to their bound siRNA. As the fragments produced by dicer are double-stranded, they could each in theory produce a functional siRNA. However only one of the two strands, which are known as the guide strand, binds the Argonaute protein and directs gene silencing. The other anti-guide strand or passenger strand is degraded during RISC activation. Argonaute proteins, the catalytic components of RISC, are localized to specific regions in the cytoplasm called P-bodies (also cytoplasmic bodies or GW bodies), which are regions with high rates of mRNA decay; miRNA activity is also clustered in P-bodies. Disruption of P-bodies decreases the efficiency of RNA interference, suggesting that they are the site of a critical step in the RNAi process.

Transcriptional Silencing: Components of the RNA interference pathway are also used in many eukaryotes in the maintenance of the organization and structure of their genomes. Modification of histone and associated induction of heterochromatin formation serves to down regulate genes pre transcriptionally; this process is referred to as RNA-induced transcriptional silencing (RITS), and is carried out by a complex of proteins called the RITS complex The mechanism by which the RITS complex induces heterochromatin formation and organization is not well understood. In maintenance of existing heterochromatin regions, RITS forms a complex with siRNAs complementary to the local genes

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



and binds stably to local methylated histone, acting co-transcriptionally to degrade any nascent pre-mRNA transcripts that are initiated by RNA polymerase. The formation of such a heterochromatin region, though not its maintenance, is dicer-dependent, presumably because dicer is required to generate the initial complement of siRNAs that target subsequent transcripts. Heterochromatin maintenance has been suggested to function as a self-reinforcing feedback loop, as new siRNAs are formed from the occasional nascent transcripts by RdRP for incorporation into local RITS complexes.

RNA-Induced Transcriptional Silencing- Crosstalk with RNA Editing

The type of RNA editing that is most prevalent in

higher eukaryotes convert adenosine nucleotides into Inosine in dsRNAs via the enzyme Adenosine Deaminase (ADAR). It was originally proposed in 2000, that the RNAi and A→I RNA editing pathways might compete for a common dsRNA substrate. Indeed, some premiRNAs do undergo A→I RNA editing, and this mechanism may regulate the processing and expression of mature miRNAs.

Applications of RNAi

It serves as an antiviral defense mechanism and is becoming a handy tool for the analysis of gene functions in invertebrates, mammals and plants. Also DNA vector-based strategy allows the suppressions of endogenous gene to produce transgenic lines with suitable modified traits.

7. MICROBIOLOGY 17376

Role of Polyamines in Bacteria Sunita Devi1, Ruchi Sharma1, Neeraj Sankhyan1, Joginder Pal2 and Anita Kumari3

1Department of Basic Sciences, College of Forestry; 2Department of Plant Pathology, College of Horticulture; 3Department of Tree Improvement and Genetic Resources, College of Forestry, Dr YS

Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan- 173230 *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Polyamines are small polycationic hydrocarbon molecules with quaternary nitrogen groups that are positively charged under physiological ionic and pH conditions. They are present in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and interact with negatively charged cellular constituents, including RNA, DNA and proteins due to their cationic properties to modulate various cell processes. Intracellular polyamine pools are stringently regulated in all organisms and polyamines are required for optimal cell growth and division. Most bacteria have denovo biosynthesis pathways and membrane transporters to satisfy cellular polyamine requirements. Cadaverine, putrescine and spermidine are the most common and well-characterized bacterial polyamines. The intracellular content of spermidine (1–3 mM) is higher than that of putrescine (0.1–0.2 mM) in almost all bacteria, although putrescine (10–30 mM) is the predominant polyamine in Escherichia coli, followed by spermidine (1–3 mM).

Synthesis of Polyamines: Bacteria satisfy their need for polyamines through biosynthesis as well as uptake from the surrounding environment. Biosynthesis usually commences with the decarboxylation of precursor amino acids usually ornithine, arginine or lysine directly into polyamines or other intermediates, which are subsequently modified to yield functional polyamines. In E. coli and many Pseudomonas species, putrescine is synthesized via two pathways: (i) decarboxylation of ornithine to putrescine by ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) encoded by the speC gene and (ii) arginine

decarboxylation to agmatine by arginine decarboxylase (speA), followed by the conversion of agmatine to putrescine and urea by agmatine ureohydrolase (speB). Pseudomonas aeruginosa has an additional pathway in which agmatine is converted to putrescine via N-carbamoyl putrescine.

Roles of Polyamines

1. Intracellular polyamines account for stabilizing or causing structural changes in DNA and RNA that may influence protein synthesis or the activity of DNA binding proteins.

2. Known to protect certain cells like Escherichia coli from oxidative stress by interacting directly with free radicals.

3. Involved in the cellular response to acid stress.

4. Known to interact with cell envelopes that may involve simple ionic interactions with anionic polysaccharides, proteins on the cell surface, or covalent interactions with peptidoglycan.

5. Help in modulating the activity of porins, transmembrane channels that allow the diffusion of hydrophilic compounds across the outer membrane of Gram-negative cells.

6. Shown to influence biofilm formation in Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, Yersinia pestis, and Vibrio cholerae.

Polyamine transport systems: Bacteria have transport systems that allow uptake of extracellular polyamines. Polyamine transporters have primarily been characterized in E. coli but

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



microbial genome sequence analysis indicates that they are likely to be present in many Gram-positive and Gram-negative human pathogens as well as in archaea, yeast and protozoa. This high degree of conservation suggests that these systems provide a significant adaptive and/or survival advantage to microorganisms.

Escherichia coli polyamine transport systems (Pot) include two ABC (ATP-binding cassette) transporters that are selective for either putrescine or spermidine. Additionally, two antiporters, one that exchanges putrescine for ornithine (PotE) and one that allows exchange of lysine and cadaverine (CadB), as well as uniporters for putrescine and cadaverine uptake have also been reported. The order of preference for extracellular polyamines in E. coli is: putrescine followed by spermidine and spermine.

Conclusion: Polyamines constitute a ubiquitous family of small molecules that have

diverse functions in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cellular physiology especially in pathogenesis, survival and virulence of many human microbial pathogens.

References Li B, Kim SH, Zhang Y, Hanfrey CC., Elliott KA,

Ealick SE and Michael AJ. 2015. Different polyamine pathways from bacteria have replaced eukaryotic spermidine biosynthesis in ciliates Tetrahymena thermophila and Paramecium tetraurelia. Molecular Microbiology 97(5): 791–807

Shah P and Swiatlo E. 2008. A multifaceted role for polyamines in bacterial pathogens. Molecular Microbiology 68(1): 4–16

Shah P, Nanduri B, Swiatlo E, Ma Y and Pendarvis K. 2011. Polyamine biosynthesis and transport mechanisms are crucial for fitness and pathogenesis of Streptococcus pneumonia. Microbiology 157: 504–515.

8. MICROBIOLOGY 17378

Trichoderma viride: An Effective Biocontrol Agent Dr. Pasupuleti Reddypriya*

Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Microbiology and Bioenergy, Agricultural College, Aswaraopet, Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Telangana - 507301, India.

*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Extensive applications of agrochemicals lead to numerous health and environmental problems. In addition to that, chemical pesticides are not a long term and only remedy for sustainable agriculture because development of resistance to certain toxic chemicals are reported and also have less selectivity and their effect is temporary as well. This has increased the interests on biocontrol agents that are used effectively to control the plant pathogens.

Biological Control

Biological control is a good alternative for sustainable agriculture to overcome the problems of public concern associated with pesticides and pathogens resistant to chemical pesticides and to become eco-friendly. Biological control involves the use of one or more biological organisms to control pathogens or diseases. The microbial inoculants as biocontrol agents are effective and attractive alternatives to prevent the deficiencies brought about by the exclusive reliance on chemicals. Biocontrol agents like Trichoderma spp. are acclaimed as effective, ecofriendly and cheap, nullifying the ill effects of chemicals. The members of genus Trichoderma are free-living fungi that are common in soil and root ecosystems. They are opportunistic, avirulent plant symbionts, as well as being parasites of other fungi. These filamentous fungi are very wide spread in nature, with high population densities in soils and plant litters. They are saprophytic, quickly growing and easy to culture and they can

produce large amount of conidia with long shelflife.

These Trichoderma species (T. viride, T. harzianum, T. longibrachiatum, T. hamatum, T. koningii and T. longibrachiatum) are very promising against phytopathogenic fungi such as F. oxysporum, Pythium ultimum and Sclerotinia sclerotium. Trichoderma species have shown biocontrol potential against many plant pathogens including diseases caused by Sclerotinia minor, Botryosphaeria berengeriana f. spp. piricola, Cladosporium herbarum, Dioscorea spp. and Pythium ultimum. Besides, Trichoderma species have also shown efficacy against diseases caused by Rhizoctonia solani, Pythium aphanidermatum, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium culmorum, Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici, Sclerotium rolfsii, Phytophthora cactorum, Botrytis cinerea and by Alternaria spp.

Trichoderma viride

Trichoderma viride is a promising biocontrol agent for various plant pathogens. Use of T. viride as a potential bio control agent reduces the health, social and environmental issues caused by the synthetic pesticides. It is present in the soil and is highly effective for the control of seed and soil borne diseases of majority of economically important crops, especially pulses and oilseeds. This biocontrol agent when applied along with seed, colonizes the seed and multiplies on the surface of the seed and kills not only the pathogens present on the surface of the seed but also gives protection against soil-borne pathogens

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



until life time of crop by action of mycoparasitism and antibiosis.

Mechanism of Biocontrol Agent: It reduces growth, survival or infections caused by pathogens by different mechanisms like competition, antibiosis, mycoparasitism, hyphal interactions, and enzyme secretion. The hyphae of this fungus wrap around the pathogen and produce antibiotics and extracellular enzymes, which lyses the cell wall of these pathogens and damages them. The invading pathogen eventually collapse and disintegrates.

Effective against Diseases: Highly effective in controlling wide range of soil borne crop disease caused by Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Pythium, Sclerotinia, Verticillium, Alternaria and Phytophthora.

Recommended For: Trichoderma is most useful for all types of Plants and Vegetables such as Cereals, Pulses, Oilseeds, Cotton, Capsicum, Chillies, Brinjal, Tomato, Potato, Onion, Peas, Beans, Ginger, Turmeric, Cardamom, Tea, Coffee and also Fruit crops like Apple, Grape, Pomegranate, Banana etc.

Benefits of Trichoderma

1. Disease Control: Trichoderma is a potent biocontrol agent and used extensively for soil borne diseases. It has been used successfully against pathogenic fungi belonging to various genera, viz. Fusarium, Phytophthora, Scelerotia etc.

2. Plant Growth Promoter: Trichoderma strains solubilize phosphates and micronutrients. The application of Trichoderma strains with plants increases the number of deep roots, thereby

increasing the plant's ability to resist drought. 3. Biochemical Elicitors of Disease: Trichoderma

strains are known to induce resistance in plants. Three classes of compounds that are produced by Trichoderma and induce resistance in plants are now known. These compounds induce ethylene production, hypersensitive responses and other defense related reactions in plant cultivars.

4. Transgenic Plants: Introduction of endochitinase gene from Trichoderma into plants such as tobacco and potato plants has increased their resistance to fungal growth. Selected transgenic lines are highly tolerant to foliar pathogens such as Alternaria alternata, A. solani, and Botrytis cinerea as well as to the soil-borne pathogen, Rhizoctonia spp.

5. Bioremediation: Trichoderma strains play an important role in the bioremediation of soil that are contaminated with pesticides and herbicides. They have the ability to degrade a wide range of insecticides: organochlorines, organophosphates and carbonates.

Therefore, of late, these biocontrol agents are identified to act against on array of important soil borne plant pathogens causing serious diseases of crops. By considering the cost of chemical pesticides and hazardous involves, biological control of plant diseases appears to be an effective and ecofriendly approach being practice world over. Further biological control strategy is highly compatible with sustainable agriculture and has a major role to play as a component of integrated pest management (IPM) programme.

9. BIOCHEMISTRY 17391

Role of Enzymes and Toxins in Pathogenesis 1Pankaj Kumar Sharma and 2Rakesh Kumar Meena

1Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana; 2Division of Entomology, Rajasthan Agricultural Research Institute (SKN Agriculture

University Jobner) Durgapura, Jaipur *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

The term pathogenesis means step by step development of a disease and the chain of events, that leading to disease development. Due to a series of changes in the structure and / or function of a cell/tissue/organ being caused by a microbial, chemical or physical agent. There are several chemical weapons secreted by pathogens. Out of which, enzymes and toxins are important chemical weapons which play vital role in disease development.

Enzymes

Cutinases, cellulases, pectinases and ligninas are often secreted by the pathogenic organism. Fungi, nematodes and bacteria are all known to produce one or more of the above enzymes in specific pathogen-host combinations. Viruses and viroids

are generally not considered to secrete enzymes, although some viruses may encapsidate an enzyme in their particle. Pathogenic organisms either continually secrete enzymes or upon contact with the host plant. First of all, pathogen comes into contact with cuticle and the cell wall of the plant. The cuticle is comprised of a complex wax, cutin, which impregnates the cellulose wall. The cell wall is comprised of cellulose, which makes up the structural framework of the wall, along with the matrix molecules hemicellulose, glycoproteins, pectin and lignin. Thus, penetration into living parenchymatous tissues and degradation of middle lamella is due to the action of one or more enzymes which degrade these chemical substances. Cutinases and pectinases degrade the cuticle layer and middle lamella,

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



respectively which pre-softening the tissue for mechanical penetration or as a first step in tissue degradation.

Cellulases: Cellulose is the major framework molecule of the plant cell wall existing as microfibrils with matrix molecules (glycoproteins, hemicelluloses, pectins, lignins) filling the spaces between the microfibrils and cellulose chains. Cellulolytic enzymes play a role in softening and disintegration of cell walls. Cellulolytic enzymes participate indirectly in disease development by releasing soluble sugars that may be used as nutrients by pathogens.

Ligninases: Lignin is a phenylpropanoid which is found in the middle lamella and secondary cell wall of plants. More than anything else, lignin confers the tough, woody nature to woody tissues. Most lignin degradation is by basidiomycetes known as white- rot fungi. These fungi produce ligninases that enable the fungi to utilize lignin.

Toxins

Toxins are implicated in plant disease as far back as deBary who advanced a theory of plant disease often termed the “toxin theory”. The toxin theory is that a toxin elaborated by a pathogen may produce all of the symptoms of the disease.

Non-Host Specific Toxins

Tabtoxin: Tabtoxin secreted by Pseudomonas syringae p.v. tabaci and involved in development of the wildfire disease of tobacco. In this disease, leaves exhibit necrotic spots surrounded by a yellow halo. Identical symptoms of the disease

may be induced by culture filtrates of the organism or purified toxins with symptoms identical to that of wildfire of tobacco.

Phaseolotoxin: Phaseolotoxin secreted by Pseudomonas syringae p.v. phaseolicola and involved in bean blights called "halo blight". Symptoms of the disease incited by the bacterium can be produced by the toxin alone. Within cells the toxin is enzymatically cleaved releasing phospho sulfinyl ornithine which is the toxic moiety. Cellular affects are a result of the inactivation of the enzyme ornithine carbamoyltransferase.

Tentoxin: Tentoxin produced by Alternaria alternate and involved in seedling diseases which results in seedling death. The toxin is a cyclic tripeptide and inhibits the light dependent phosphorylation of ADP to generate ATP.

Host-Specific Toxins

T-Toxin: T-Toxin is produced by a fungus, Cochliobolus heterostrophus (Helminthosporium maidis) which leads in Southern Corn Leaf Blight disease development. This toxin inhibits the process of mitochondrial ATP synthesis.

HV-Toxin: HV- toxin is the first host specific toxin, which is produced by Helminthosporium victoriae causing leaf blight or Victoria blight disease of Oats. It causes changes in the cell wall structure.

AM-Toxin: AM- toxin is produced by fungus Alternaria mali, which leads to development of Alternaria blotch of apple. This toxin causes rapid loss of chlorophyll which induces damage to plasmalemma and chloroplast lamella.

10. BIOCHEMISTRY 17403

Cow Milk Allergy (CMA): A Journey from Problem to Solution

Arti Kumari1* and Navneet Kumar2 1Department of Animal Biochemistry, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001, India

2Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi, 221005, India *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

General composition of cow's milk is 87.7% water, 4.9% lactose (carbohydrate), 3.4% fat, 3.3% protein, and 0.7% minerals (ash). Although milk composition varies depending on other factors like the species (cow, goat, sheep), breed (Holstein, Jersey), the stage of lactation and animal feed. The protein portion of cow's milk contributes majorly in the allergic response. Approximately 100 ml of cow's milk contains 3g of protein and out of this, atleast 25 different proteins are reported which have allergenic property. In cow's 80% of milk protein is casein while the remaining 20% is serum or whey protein. The main allergenic component is α-lactalbumin (also called Bos d 4), β-lactoglobulin (Bos d 5) and casein (Bos d 8) (Restani et al., 2009) which are most frequently recognized by IgE. However the minor

constituents like lactoferrin, BSA and immunoglobulins are also potentially allergenic.

Table 1. Classification of milk protein.

Fraction of cow milk Protein

Whey (20%) (about 5g/l)

α-lactalbumin (α-la)

β-lactoglobulin (β-lg)

Bovine serum albumin

Immunoglobulins lactoferrin

Whole casein (80%) (about 30g/l)

α S1-casein

α S2-casein

β-casein, Κ-Casein

Cow milk allergy (CMA) is the main food

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



allergy affecting mostly to the infants but it may persist through the adulthood causing various consequences. Clinical symptoms of allergic reactions have been classified into two types-

1. The immediate reaction type - the allergic manifestations occur within an hour or within seconds or minutes when a person is coming in contact with allergen giving skin test always positive.

2. The delayed reaction type - the allergic manifestations is not so fast it may take many hours or even 2 to 3 days giving skin test always negative.

The diagnosis of milk allergy is usually achieved by skin or blood tests. Following are the popular tests to detect milk allergy-

Skin prick test (SPT), Radioallergosorbent test (RAST), Enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay

(ELISA), Elimination-challenge test.

Cow's Milk is Potentially Allergenic compared to Other Milk

Human milk is free of β-lg similar to camel milk and due to this reason camel milk is utilized in making infant milk formulations. On the other hand, β-lg is the most common cow milk allergen which is also reported to be present in buffalo, sheep, goat, mare and donkey milk. However, Casein in the major fraction of goat casein is similar to human but different from cow milk. Cow milk casein also causes allergy.

CMA Treatment

Cow milk allergy can be reduced to some degree by reducing the allergenicity of cow milk protein. The most common method used is heat or enzymatic treatment in order to modify protein components. Other strategies such as immunotherapy or the use of food processing like heat treatment, fermentation or high pressure are found promising in reducing milk allergenicity.

(1) Heat Treatment: It was found that α-casein is the most heat stable while β-lg is relatively heating stable, whereas BSA is the most labile. Significant loss in the nutritional quality of the product may be possible.

(2) Enzymatic Treatment: Proteolytic digestion with the enzyme pepsin or trypsin can be followed but sometimes proteolytic digestion itself generates new antigenic substances.

(3) Alternative of Cow Milk: Goat, camel, mare or even soy milk can be used as the alternative in case of cow milk allergy and they are found to be hypoallergenic.

(4) Infant Formula: An alternative to cow milk for infants having CMA is infant milk formula in

which protein portion of milk is either hydrolysed cow milk protein (Terracciano et al., 2002) or hydrolysed goat milk protein (Dean et al., 1993).

Other Formulas are:

Extensively hydrolysed formula (EHF) Amino acid-based formula (AABF) Soy formula Amino acid-based formula (AABF)

(5) Gene Editing Tool for Combating Cow Milk Allergy: Although above mentioned methods can reduce the β-lg allergenicity to a certain extent but not completely eliminated on the contrary the structure and function of other proteins in cow’s milk may damage which can greatly influence the nutritional quality of milk. Whereas knocking out the β-lg gene by gene-editing technology is a more direct approach. The research focused on this field has been performed to completely solve this problem. Cattle with precise zygote mediated deletion by using TALEN (Transcription activator-like effector nucleases) eliminate the major milk allergen β-lg (Wei et al., 2018). ZFN (Zink finger nucleases) are used to knockout β-lg (Yu et al., 2011). RNA interference technology is also utilized for the same purpose (Jabed et al., 2012). These technologies can be proved as the potential tool for producing hypoallergenic milk; however, the application is limited due to their off-target effects.

References Dean, T. P., Adler, B. R., Ruge, F., & Warner, J. O.

(1993). In vitro allergenicity of cows' milk substitutes. Clinical & Experimental Allergy, 23(3), 205-210.

El-Agamy, E. I. (2007). The challenge of cow milk protein allergy. Small Ruminant Research, 68(1-2), 64-72.

Jabed, A., Wagner, S., McCracken, J., Wells, D. N., & Laible, G. (2012). Targeted microRNA expression in dairy cattle directs production of β-lactoglobulin-free, high-casein milk. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 201210057.

P. Restani, et al., Molecular aspects of milk allergens and their role in clinical events. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 395 (1) (2009) 47–56.

Terracciano, L., Isoardi, P., Arrigoni, S., Zoja, A., & Martelli, A. (2002). Use of hydrolysates in the treatment of cow's milk allergy. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology, 89(6), 86-90.

Wei, J., Wagner, S., Maclean, P., Brophy, B., Cole, S., Smolenski, G., & Laible, G. (2018). Cattle with a precise, zygote-mediated deletion safely eliminate the major milk allergen beta-lactoglobulin. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 7661.

Yu, S., Luo, J., Song, Z., Ding, F., Dai, Y., & Li, N. (2011). Highly efficient modification of beta-lactoglobulin (BLG) gene via zinc-finger nucleases in cattle. Cell Research, 21(11), 1638.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



11. CROP PHYSIOLOGY 16971

Iron Uptake Strategies by Plants Debanjana Saha

3rd Year PhD Scholar, Department of agricultural Biotechnology, OUAT, BBSR-3

INTRODUCTION: Iron plays a crucial role in biochemistry and is an essential micronutrient for plants and humans like. Plants are the principal source of dietary iron (Fe) for most of Earth’s population and Fe deficiency can lead to major health problems. Plants, as primary producers, are the gateway for iron to enter the food chain. It functions in various important processes, including photosynthesis, respiration, and chlorophyll biosynthesis, and is a component in heme, the Fe-sulfur cluster, and other Fe-binding

sites. Although iron is abundant in the earth’s crust, it is usually present in an oxidized form that is not easily accessible for life. The concentration of soluble Fe is optimum 10-4M to10-8M, in this concentration Fe is available to plants. Plants have two major problems with iron as a free ion: its insolubility and its toxicity. To ensure iron acquisition from soil and to avoid iron excess in the cells, uptake and homeostasis are tightly controlled.

Fig.1: Effects of different iron concentration on plants

Plants have developed two strategies to secure iron uptake of roots under different soil conditions, as first proposed by Ro¨ mheld and Marschner (1986).

Strategy I (Fe reduction based): Strategy I is carried out by all higher plants, except the Gramineae, which use strategy II. Model plants for the investigation of strategy I include the dicots Arabidopsis thaliana, Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato) and Pisum sativum (pea). Under Fe deficiency, the solubilization of Fe is mainly mediated by H+-ATPase AHA2-mediated proton extrusion, which results in local rhizosphere acidification. Solubilized Fe may freely enter the apoplast (the cell-wall space of the outer root cell layers); however, the next steps in the Fe

acquisition process are greatly facilitated when Fe is in a chelated form. The main role of Fe chelation is to maintain an accessible pool of Fe in the apoplast. Reduction of Fe(III) to Fe(II) is mainly an enzymatic process performed by the FERRIC REDUCTASE-OXIDASE (FRO) family protein FRO2 and it the rate-limiting factor in Fe-acquisition. The import of the resulting Fe(II) ions is performed by the divalent Fe transporter IRT1.

The Strategy I Fe acquisition mechanism is regulated by the availability of Fe in the soil and by the developmentally controlled need of the plant for Fe. When the plants require additional Fe, they are able to increase (“induce”) the activities of the transporters and enzymes performing the Strategy I.

Fig 2: iron uptake in plants by strategy I

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Strategy II (Fe chelation based): Higher plants utilize various mechanisms to maintain iron homeostasis. To acquire sparingly soluble iron from the rhizosphere, graminaceous plants synthesize natural iron (III) chelators known as mugineic acid family phytosiderophores (MAs). Nine types of MAs have been identified still now, all of which are synthesized through a conserved pathway from S-adenosyl-L-methionine. This pathway includes three sequential enzymatic reactions mediated by nicotianamine synthase (NAS), nicotianamine aminotransferase (NAAT), and deoxymugineic acid synthase (DMAS), generating 2-deoxymugineic acid (DMA), and the precursor of all other MAs. Fe deficiency strongly induces the expression of genes encoding these

biosynthetic enzymes. To supply methionine for the successive production of MAs, a set of recycling reactions called the methionine cycle or Yang cycle is employed. The NAS enzyme is localized on the membrane of the vesicles, whereas NAAT is present within the vesicles. Vesicles are the site of MA biosynthesis, the transporter of mugineic acid family phytosiderophores 1 (TOM1) from rice and HvTOM1from barley, revealing the final piece in the mechanism. The MAs secreted into the rhizosphere solubilize Fe(III), and the resulting Fe(III)-MA complexes are taken up into root cells by the YELLOW STRIPE 1 (YS1) and YELLOW STRIPE 1–like (YSL) transporters.

Fig.3: iron uptake in strategy II plant

12. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 17214

Seed Priming as a Valuable Tool for Seed Germination Navneet Kumar1* and Arti Kumari2

1Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi, 221005, India 2Department of Animal Biochemistry, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001, India


INTRODUCTION: Seed priming is a process of partially or controlled hydration of seeds to level where germination related metabolic process start but prevents the actual emergence of the radicle. In process of seed priming, seeds are soaked in different solutions with high osmotic potential which prevents the seeds from absorbing enough water for radicle protrusion in which seeds are suspending in the lag phase.

Why Seed Priming is Necessary

Seed priming used generally because it reduces the time between seed sowing and seedling emergence and to synchronize emergence (Parera and Cantliffe, 1994). The important role of seed priming to increasing the yield of different crops up to 37, 40, 70, 22, 31, 56, 50 and 20.6% in upland rice, wheat, barley, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, and chickpea respectively has been described (Harris et al., 2005). In present time priming technique is the need to get the enhanced germination in maize in order to utilize the soil moisture and solar radiation to a maximum

extent. So plant became able to complete their growth before the stresses arrive (Subedi and Ma, 2005). When seed soaked in water for an overnight before sowing which increases the rate of germination and emergence even in moisture less soil condition (Clark et al., 2001). Effect of priming is associated with repairing and building up of nucleic acid, increased synthesis of protein as well as repairing of membranes (McDonald, 2000). Priming improves the activities of anti-oxidative enzymes in treated seeds (Hsu et al., 2003).

Types of Priming

There are a different type of priming which are the following:

Hydro-priming Osmopriming Halo priming Hormonal priming

Hydro-Priming: Hydro-priming involves seed soaking in water before sowing (Pill and Necker,

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



2001) and it is low-cost approach which is selected on farm and this pre-sowing seed treatment, known as hydro-priming which allow the seed to imbibe water and go through the first phase of germination in which pre-germination metabolic activities are started while the latter two phases of germination are inhibited (Pill and Necker, 2001).

Osmopriming: Osmopriming is a technique in which seeds are soaked for a certain period in solutions of sugar, polyethylene glycol (PEG), glycerol, sorbitol, or mannitol for certain period which is followed by air drying before sowing. This is also known as osmo-conditioning or osmotic conditioning and osmopriming not only improves seed germination but also augments general crop performance under nonsaline or saline conditions.

Halo Priming: This priming refers to soaking of seeds in a solution of inorganic salts i.e. NaCl, KNO3 CaCl2, CaSO4, etc. A number of studies have shown a significant improvement in seed germination, seedling emergence and establishment, and final crop yield in salt-affected soils in response to halo priming. The important role of halo priming is germination, seedling emergence, and plant growth at all developmental stage of the plants. Chang- Zhenget et al., (2002) determined that rice seed treated with mixed salt solution germinated significantly more rapidly than unprimed seed under salt-stress conditions.

Hormonal Priming: Hormonal priming processes in which seed is pretreated with different hormones that salicylic acid, ascorbate, kinetin, etc. which enhances the growth and development of the seedlings.

Advantages of seed priming:

Increases rate of germination and germination percentage

Improves resistance towards water and temperature stress

Increases shelf life of seeds and highly suitable for small seeds

Due to seed priming crops can compete more effectively with weeds

It decreases the emergence time and enhances yield

Imbibition injury prevented Improves uniformity to optimize harvesting

efficiency Salt priming supply seeds with nitrogen and

other nutrients for protein synthesis

Disadvantage of Priming

Limited oxygen supply Toxicity of chemicals

The problem in handling a large number of seeds

How Bio Priming became Alternative of Inorganic Chemicals

Day by day use of the chemical increase in agriculture for seed treatment which controls disease and causes a negative impact on the environment and human health. So bio priming is a best biological process for control plant pathogens. Bio-priming became the popular approach of seed treatment which includes inoculation of seed with beneficial microorganism and seed hydration to protect seed from various seed and soil borne diseases. The beneficial effect of bio priming is changed in plant characteristics, facilitate uniform seed germination and growth associated with microorganism inoculation. So bio priming became a good alternative for inorganic chemicals.

References Chang-Zheng H, Jin H, Zhi-Yu Z, Song-Lin R, Wen-

Jian S. 2002. Effect of seed priming with mixed-salt solution on germination and physiological characteristics of seedling in rice (Oryza sativa L.) under stress conditions. J. Zhejiang Univ. (Agric. Life Sci.)28175-178.

Clarke LJ, Whalley WR, Jones JE, Dent K, Rowse HR, Sawage WEF, Gatsai T, Jesi L, Kaseke NE, Murungu FS, Riches CR, Chiduza C. 2001. On-farm seed priming in maize: A physiological evaluation. Seventh Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Maize Conference. 268- 278.

Harris, D., Rashid, A., Arif, M., & Yunas, M. (2005). Alleviating micronutrient deficiencies in alkaline soils of the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan: on-farm seed priming with zinc in wheat and chickpea. Micronutrients in South and South East Asia, 143-151.

Hsu, C. C., Chen, C. L., Chen, J. J., & Sung, J. M. (2003). Accelerated aging-enhanced lipid peroxidation in bitter gourd seeds and effects of priming and hot water soaking treatments. Scientia Horticulturae, 98(3), 201-212.

Kathmandu: ICIMOD Parera AC, Cantliffe DJ. 1994. Pre-sowing seed priming. Hortic. Rev. 16109-148.

McDonald MB. 2000. Seed priming. In ‘‘Seed Technology and Its Biological Basis’’ (M. Black and J. D. Bewley, Eds.), Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield, UK pp. 287–325.

Pill WG, Necker AD. 2001. The effects of seed treatments on germination and establishment of Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.). Seed Sci. Technol. 29: 65-72.

Subedi KD, Ma BL. 2005. Seed priming does not improve corn yield in a humid temperate environment. Agron. J.97:211-217.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m




Carbon Sequestration Priyanka J. Bonde1, Pravin S. Bisne2 and Nikhilesh M. Kelwatkar3

1Ph.D. Scholar (Plant Physiology) Dr. B.S.K.K.V. Dapoli, Maharashtra-415712; 2Assistant Professor SSWP College of Agriculture Kesalwada; 3Senior Reserch Assistant, Abhinav Agri. Polytechnic,

Hingani Dist.-Wardha, MH *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Human activities specially the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas have caused a substantial increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. This increase in atmospheric CO2

from about 280 to more than 380 parts per million (ppm) over the last 250 years is causing measurable global warming. Rising atmospheric CO2 is also increasing the absorption of CO2 by seawater causing the ocean to become more acidic with potentially disruptive effect on marine plankton and coral reefs. Technically and economically feasible strategies are needed to mitigate the consequence of increased atmospheric CO2. The United States needs scientific information to develop way to reduce human-caused CO2 emissions and to remove CO2

from the atmosphere.

What is Carbon Sequestration

The term carbon sequestration is used to describe both natural and deliberate processes by which CO2 is either removed from the atmosphere or diverted from emission sources and stored in the ocean, terrestrial environments (vegetation, soils and sediments) and geologic formations.

Carbon sequestration is the capture of CO2 from the atmosphere into long-lived pools of carbon.

Carbon sequestration describes long term storage of CO2 or other forms of carbon to either mitigate or defer global warming and avoid dangerous climate change.

Carbon sequestration has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which are release by burning fossil fuels.

Carbon sequestration includes the storage part of carbon capture and storage, which refers to large scale, permanent artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced CO2 using subsurface saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, oil fields or other carbon sinks.

Sequestration Methods

1. Terrestrial sequestration 2. Ocean sequestration 3. Geological sequestration

Terrestrial Sequestration: Terrestrial carbon sequestration is the process through which CO2

from the atmosphere is absorbed by trees, plants and crops through photosynthesis and stored as carbon in biomass (tree trunks, branches, foliage, roots) and soil

The term ‘sinks’ is also used to refer to forests, crop land, grazing land and their ability to sequester carbon. Agriculture and forestry activities can also release CO2 to the atmosphere. Therefore, a carbon sink occurs when carbon sequestration is greater than carbon releases over some time period. Tropical deforestation is responsible for 20% of world’s annual CO2

emissions, though offset by uptake of atmospheric CO2 by forests and agriculture.

Ocean Sequestration: Carbon sequestration by direct injection into the deep ocean involves the capture, separation, transport and injection of CO2

from land and tankers 1/3 of CO2 emitted a year already enters the ocean. Ocean has 50 times more carbon than the atmosphere.

Carbon is naturally stored in the ocean via two pumps, solubility, biological and there are analogous man made methods, direct injection and ocean fertilization respectively. The impact of ocean acidification and deliberate ocean fertilization on coastal and marine food webs and

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



other resources are poorly understood. Scientist are studying the effects of oceanic carbon sequestration on these important environments.

Geological Sequestration: Geologic sequestration begins with capturing CO2 from the exhaust of fossil fuel power plants and other major sources. The captured CO2 is piped 1 to 4 kilometers below the land surface and injected into porous rock formations.

After CO2 is injected underground, it will rise buoyantly until it is trapped beneath an impermeable barrier, or seal. In principle, this physical trapping mechanism, which is identical to

the natural geologic trapping of oil and gas, can retain CO2 for thousand to millions of years.

Some of the injected CO2 will eventually dissolve in ground water, and some may be trapped in the form of carbonate minerals formed by chemical reactions with the surrounding rock. All of these processes are susceptible to change over time following CO2 injection. Scientists are studying the permanence of these trapping mechanism and developing methods to determine the potential for geologically sequestered CO2 to leak back to the atmosphere.


Impact of Climate Change on Carbon Trading Pravin S. Bisne1 Priyanka J. Bonde2, and Nikhilesh M. Kelwatkar3

1Ph.D. Scholar (Plant Physiology) Dr. B.S.K.K.V. Dapoli, Maharashtra-415712; 2Assistant Professor SSWP College of Agriculture Kesalwada; 3Senior Reserch Assistant, Abhinav Agri. Polytechnic,

Hingani Dist.-Wardha, MH *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Climate change is one of the most important global issues of our time, and also one of the most controversial. The first major international effort to develop a climate change strategy was the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an agreement signed by 189 countries in 1992. The Framework eventually led to the formation of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. The Kyoto Protocol, which was ratified by 193 parties, established specific targets for emissions reductions for industrialized countries (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (a), 2011). One of the main features of the Kyoto Protocol was the establishment of market-based mechanisms to stimulate the development and deployment of technologies that could help reduce carbon-based greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and conserve energy. In broad terms, countries can meet their emission reduction targets either by lowering their own emissions, by purchasing carbon credits (which are essentially permits to emit GHGs), or by investing in projects that would reduce emissions in other countries.

Mitigation

Mitigation involves a large-scale effort to reduce human-caused GHG emissions and other climate changing activities.

Scientific modeling has shown that stabilizing levels of GHGs in the atmosphere could reduce or prevent damaging levels of climate change. Atmospheric levels of GHGs are currently around 388 parts per million (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (a), 2011) compared to a pre-industrial level of 280 ppm. Stabilizing this concentration between 430 ppm and 550 ppm will help to reduce the most serious risks of climate change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007).

Ways of reducing GHG emissions are constantly evolving and some of the more well-known methods are examined in further detail in the section that follows.

The Primary Methods for Reducing Atmospheric GHGs include:

1. Application of energy efficient practices and clean technologies

2. Renewable energy generation 3. Alternative fuel sources 4. Emissions capture and storage 5. Carbon sequestration and land use 6. Destruction of industrial pollutants

Carbon Trading

In India, Coal fired power generation is the biggest polluter and the biggest opportunity for emission reduction and hence can be the biggest carbon credits producer. Presently, next to china India is generating the highest number of carbon credits in the world In comparison to the developed nations the carbon emission level in India is much less.

Carbon Credits

A carbon credit is a financial instrument that represents a tonne of CO2 or CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalent gases) removed or reduced from the atmosphere from an emission reduction project. Carbon credits are measured in units of certified emission reductions (CERs). Each CER is equivalent to one ton of carbon dioxide reduction (1 credit= reduction of 1 ton of CO2) Such a credit can be sold in the international market at a prevailing market rate.

Types of Carbon Trading

1. Carbon cap-trade program 2. Carbon offsetting

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Fig.1 A. Carbon Trading Implementation Mechanisms

1. Carbon Cap-Trade Program: CAP- Assignment of an upper threshold limit on the amount of pollutant that can be emitted (measured in Assigned Amount Units or AAUs) by a country. Emission permits or credits are issued to emit a specific amount of carbon dioxide (cap) to the country. TRADE- the transfer or trade of allowances Excess or unused credits can be traded to the countries whose emissions have exceeded their assigned cap

2. Carbon Offsetting: Offset Credits for eco-friendly technologies are purchased by developed nations to avoid or substitute reduction in their own emission. Investments in green technologies and harness alternative forms of energy in the developing nations

Example: A landowner plants an acre of field and can generate credits for how much Carbon Dioxide is reduced as a result of the plantation.

The credits are known as Offset Credits. The landowner can sell the offset credits to the potential investors or industrial facilities. The facility can buy the offset credits and count it in favor of its emission responsibilities. It attests that the same amount of carbon dioxide is reduced in the atmosphere as a result of the plantation process.

Emission Trading (ET): Countries whose emissions are less than their assigned amount can sell the excess amount to countries whose emissions have exceeded their assigned amount. The Assigned amounts can be defined as a tradable allowances, or commodity, and this free market is known as the “CARBON MARKET"

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Developed countries can fund emission reduction projects (e.g. Solar energy, wind energy and other green technologies) in developing nations that did not sign Kyoto Protocol In exchange, the developed countries earn legally recognized emission credits called CERs (Certified Emission Reduction) to offset their emission obligations

Joint Implementation (JI): Developed countries can implement emission reduction projects in another developed or developing country and earn Emission Reduction Units (ERUs) ERUs can be used to meet the carbon allowance or can be sold in the market ‘

Advantages of Carbon Trading

Reduction in greenhouse gas emission Stringency in the cap or the upper threshold limit is contributing to lower emission over the years

Source of revenue for developing nations Developing nations can earn revenue by selling carbon credits to countries with more fossil fuel demand

Supports a free market system The carbon trade market is without any economic intervention and regulation by government except to regulate against force or fraud

Alternative sources of energy or green technology Threshold limits encourages industries to harness alternative sources of energy and invest in green technology globally or in indigenous research

15. AGRONOMY 15706

Characteristics of Crop Ideotype for Rice, Wheat, Maize, Cotton and Red Gram

S. Alagappan

Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Directorate of Crop Management, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641 003. Tamil Nadu, India.

*Corresponding Author Email: Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Conventional crop breeding techniques emphasize selection for yield per seed

or improvement of crop cultivars through incorporation of disease resistance, insect

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



resistance, lodging resistance, etc. These endeavors, coupled with improvement of crop production practices, have dramatically enhanced the yield performance of nearly all domestic crop species (FREY, 1970). Conventional breeding procedures, however, are often expensive and time-consuming. To circumvent these problems, Frey (1970) suggested an alternative approach to yield enhancement. His proposal involved development of optimum plant types through use of yield components and morphological and (or) physiological traits. Many of these traits are easier to evaluate than yield per se and, consequently, result in less laborious and less expensive crop cultivar development.

Donald (1968) coined the term 'ideotypes' to describe optimum plant types. He defined ideotypes as 'plants with model characteristics known to influence photosynthesis, growth, and (in cereals) grain yield'. Basically, ideotype breeding involves defining a crop production environment, designing a plant model from morphological and physiological traits known to influence performance in that environment, and combining the traits into one plant type.

Ideotype: The term ideotype was introduced by Donald (1968). A biological model, which is expected to perform or behave in a predictable manner within a defined environment. This term has the following synonyms:

1. Model plant type 2. Ideal model plant type 3. Ideal plant type 4. Production Environment

The first step in the ideotype breeding approach involves defining the production environment for the crop. For purposes of this paper, the optimum environment is the one that will produce maximum yields of the ideotype. This environment would include a complex of factors, but those we consider of primary importance are:

1. Adequate moisture; 2. Favorable temperatures throughout the

growing season; 3. Adequate fertility; 4. High plant densities; 5. Narrow row spacing; and 6. Early planting.

It is obvious that the first three factors in this environment are necessary for the attainment of optimum plant growth. The plant-density, narrow-row, and early planting factors influence maximum utilization of incoming solar radiation. High plant densities and narrow row spacing permit increased leaf area index (LAI = leaf area per unit land area) and thus allow interception of most of the light energy reaching the earth's surface.

Early planting of maize, followed by normal seedling emergence and plant growth, should result in earlier flowering dates; consequently, grain-filling should commence earlier in the growing season and should proceed during the

period of maximum light energy (mid-June to early July for the US Corn Belt).

This environment should permit maize to intercept efficiently most of incident radiation and to produce photosynthate at near optimum rates. This gives the plant the potential to store increased amounts of photosynthate in the grain. Presently man finds it difficult to control the moisture and temperature factors. He can, however, manipulate soil fertility, plant densities, row spacing and planting dates. Therefore, the ideotype of maize we will develop in this paper will be one that will perform maximally under a production environment of high soil fertility, high plant density, narrow row spacing, and early planting.

Rice Ideotype - Jennings (1964): Features Erect leaves, Short culm length (100 cm or less) and thick leaves, Semi- dwarf stature, High tillering capacity, More panicles/m2, High harvest index,

Examples of semi dwarf varieties of rice are IR 8, IR 20, TN 1 etc.

Rainfed upland Rice Ideotype: Short duration, Effective deep root system, Dwarf plant having erect leaves and thick stem, Early strong fertile tillering, Synchronised flowering, More number of panicles, Highest grain per panicle, Resistance to pest and disease

Super Rice Ideotype: In China, Yuan (2001) proposed the following morphological traits of a super rice hybrid ideotype, which combines heterosis (hybrid vigor) and improved plant morphology.

Super Rice Hybrid Characteristics: Plant height of about 100 cm (39.4 in), with a culm length of 70 cm (27.6 in), Erect leaf canopy before appearance of panicles, Tillering capacity, moderate at 270 to 300 panicles per m2, Panicles, heavy at 5 g per panicle, and drooping at maturity, Panicle height, top of filled panicle is about 60 cm (23.6 in) from the ground, Upper three leaves:

Flag leaf, length of 50 cm (19.7 in) long and located 20 cm (7.9 in) higher than the top of the panicle, 2nd leaf from the top, length is 55 cm (21.6 in) and is located higher than the top of the panicle, 3rd leaf from the top, location reaches the middle of the panicle, Leaf angles, remain erect until maturity. Leaf angles of the flag, 2nd, and 3rd leaves are about 50, 100, and 200, respectively. Leaf shape, looks narrow and V-shape, but is 2 cm wide when flattened, Leaf thickness, thick with specific leaf weight of top three leaves at 55 g/m2,

Leaf area index, 6.0, Ratio of leaf area to grain weight, 100:2.2 to 2.3, (g) Harvest index, 55%.

Features of Wheat Ideotype - Donald (1968): A short strong stem, Erect leaves, few small leaves, Larger and an erect ear, Presence of awns, a single culm.

Rainfed wheat ideotype: Large no. of spikelet's, large peduncle, Strong and deep root system, Flat leaves parallel to soil.

Maize Ideotype: The ideotype that will maximally utilize an optimum production

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



environment. This environment should include: a) adequate moisture; b) favorable temperatures throughout the growing season; c) adequate fertility; d) high plant densities; e) narrow row spacings; and f) early planting dates. The maize ideotype that should produce optimally when grown in such an environment would be characterized by: Stiff, vertically-oriented leaves above the ear (leaves below the ear should be horizontally oriented); Maximum photosynthetic efficiency; Efficient conversion of photosynthates to grain; Short interval between pollen shed and silk emergence; Ear-shoot prolificacy; Small tassel size; Photoperiod insensitivity; Cold-tolerance in germinating seeds and young seedlings (for genotypes grown in areas where early-planting would require planting in cold, wet soils), As long a grain-filling period as practically possible; and Slow leaf senescence.

Cotton ideotype - Singh (1974): Short stature (90-120cm), Short duration (150-165days), Responsive to high fertilizer dose, High degree of

resistance to pest, and diseases, Boll size (3.5 to 4g)

Ideotype of cotton for rainfed conditions: Short stature, Medium to big boll size (3.5 to 4 g), High degree of resistance to insects and diseases, few smaller and thick leaves with sparse hairiness

Red gram ideotype - Pande and Suxena: The faster growth of plant’s canopy at least in the beginning, The reproductive starts after the closure of vegetative growth, Long floral axis having 2-3 flowers in each trifoliate axis, Synchronised flowering, Avoid root nodules for the long time and Resistant to insect and diseases.

Conclusion: Crop Ideotype helps to understand the specific physiological and morphological characteristics of the plant which helps in achieving optimum production at site-specific and / regional specific situations worldwide and it also helps to identify the developed new varieties or hybrids from already existing ones.

16. AGRONOMY 16836

Strategies to Improve Productivity and Production of Pulse Crop

Sudhanshu Verma*

Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 005 *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Pulses are major sources of proteins among the vegetarians in India, and complement the staple cereals in the diets with proteins, essential amino acids, vitamins and minerals. They contain 22-24% protein, which is almost twice the protein in wheat and thrice that of rice. Pulses provide significant nutritional and health benefits, and are known to reduce several non-communicable diseases such as colon cancer and cardiovascular diseases (Jukanti et al, 2012).

Strategies

There are a few available technologies that can increase the productivity and production of pulses.

1. Short-Duration, High-Yielding Varieties: Development of short-duration and wilt resistant pulses varieties has led to the adoption of pulses new niches of southern India, and in rainfed rice-fallow lands. The key factors for this significant increase in pulses area and production in central and southern India are: (i) Introduction of high yielding, short duration, Fusarium wilt resistant varieties adopted to short season, warmer environments of southern India; (ii) High adoption of improved cultivars and production technologies; (iii) Successful Introduction of commercial cultivation through mechanized field operations and effective management of pod-borer; and (iv) Availability of grain storage facilities to farmers at local level at affordable cost.

2. Improved Varieties with Drought Tolerance: A wider dissemination of drought-tolerant material would provide sustenance to the livelihoods of farmers who are more vulnerable to shocks of crop failure. On the other hand even though the potential economic benefits of drought-tolerance breeding research are attractive, farmers may not benefit from it if appropriate institutional arrangements are not in place for multiplication and distribution of seeds of improved varieties.

3. New Niches: Chickpea in rice fallows The Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) spread over South Asia’s four countries-Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan- is agriculturally one of the most important regions of the world. About 14.3 million ha of the rice area in IGP remains fallow during the winter season. These rice-fallows offer a huge potential for expansion of the area of rabi pulses such as chickpea, lentil and grass pea.

4. Pigeonpea at High Altitudes: Extra-short duration pigeonpea was successfully cultivated up to the elevation of 2000 m above sea level in Uttarakhand. A study indicated that pigeonpea variety ‘VL Arhar-1’ (ICPL 88039) can be grown successfully in low and medium hill regions (Saxena et al., 2011). VL Arhar-1 showed high adaptability to high elevation regions and produced as high as 1,800 kg ha-1 of grains.

5. Seed Systems: The accessibility of smallholder farmers to quality seed of improved

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



pulses varieties is constrained by both inadequate demand creation and limited supply. This situation is also compounded by unfavorable and inadequate policy support and regulatory frameworks, inadequate institutional and organizational arrangements, and deficiencies in production and supply infrastructure and farmers’ socio-economic situation.

6. Input Supply: Legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen. A common difficulty in recovering P from the soil is that it is not readily available to plants because P reacts with aluminum, iron and calcium in the soil to form complexes. These nutrients are essentially insoluble resulting in very little movement of P in the soil solution, and none of the complexes can be taken up directly by roots. The use of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (strains from the genera of Pseudomonas, Bacillus and Rhizobium are among the most powerful P solubilizers) as inoculants simultaneously increases P uptake by the plant and thus crop yields (Khan et al., 2009).

7. Response to Irrigation: Yields are necessarily limited by the amount of water available to support growth. Supplemental irrigation with a limited amount of water, if applied to rainfed crops during critical stages can result in substantial improvement in yield and water productivity. A study by Sinclair and Vadez (2012) has quantified this relationship. Results have shown that by doubling the available soil water from 150mm to 300mm will double yield to 3.52 t ha–1 (Sinclair and Vadez, 2012).

8. Mechanization: Availability of cultivars suited to mechanical harvesting will reduce production cost and attract farmers towards

increased pulses cultivation. The other production practice where cost of cultivation can be reduced substantially is by promoting use of post-emergence herbicides in controlling weeds by developing herbicide tolerant cultivars. In general, pulses are sensitive to herbicides and manual weeding is currently the only option for weed control.

Conclusion: India needs to produce the required quantity, but also remain competitive to protect indigenous pulses production. Improved technologies such as improved high yielding varieties and appropriate crop management practices are available. However, a concerted effort by farmers, researchers, development agencies, and government are needed to ensure that India becomes self-sufficient in pulses.

References Jukanti AK, Gaur PM, Gowda CLL and Chibbar RN.

2012. Nutritional quality and health benefits of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.): a review. British Journal of Nutrition, 108, S11-S26.

Khan AA, Jilani G, Akhtar MS, Naqvi SMS, Rasheed M. 2009. Phosphorous solubilizing bacteria: Occurrence, Mechanisms and their role in crop production. Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, 1, 48-58.

Saxena KB, Singh G, Gupta HS, Mahajan V, Kumar RV, Singh B, Vales MI, Sultana R. 2011. Enhancing the livelihoods of Uttarakhand farmers by introducing pigeonpea cultivation in hilly areas. Journal of Food Legumes, 24, 128-132.

Sinclair TR and Vadez V 2012. The future of grain legumes in cropping systems. Crop & Pasture Science. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ CP12128.

17. AGRONOMY 17157

Vermicompost in Crop Production C. Agila*

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy Agricultural College and Research Institute, TNAU, Madurai-625104, India.


Prolonged use of chemical fertilizers in intensive agriculture leads to the degradation of soil microorganisms which ultimately affects the fertility status of the soil. Therefore, to overcome these problem the addition of organic manures like farm yard manures, poultry manures, vermicompost and addition of bio fertilizers enhance the crop production and productivity. In that vermicompost pays important role in maintaining soil health. INTRODUCTION: Soil is the important component for the crop production but now a days it gets polluted due to dumping of heavy fertilizers to get higher yield. As the result the soil environment gets polluted. To face these problem the alternate way is inclusion of organic fertilizers in crop production. Organic fertilizers includes green manures, green leaf manures, crop residue,

bio fertilizers and vermicompost. Vermicompost is the process of making the compost using earthworms.

Nutrient Content of Vermicompost

pH - 6.8 OC % - 11.88 OM % - 20.46 C/N ratio - 11.64 Available N (%) - 0.50 Available P (%) - 0.30 Available K (%) - 0.24 Ca (%) - 0.17 Mg (%) - 0.06

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Fig: Manure with earthworms

FIG: Vermicompost

Vermicompost in Crop Production

Vermicompost plays a major role in improving growth and yield of different field crops, vegetables, flower and fruit crops. The application of vermicompost gave higher germination (93%) of mung bean (Vigna radiata). It also improves the physical and chemical properties of the soil. The application of vermicompost to the wheat field improved the yield of the crop. The effect of vermicompost have greatly influenced the yield and quality of sugarcane. Earthworms convert the waste material into small particles by breaking in the gut and obtain the nutrients from the microbes that harbour upon them. This process increases the rate of degradation of the organic waste matter, modifies the physico-chemical properties of the matter and leads to formation of humus in which unstable waste matter is completely oxidized.

Application of vermicompost to tuberose increases the flower yield and bulb characteristics like length, diameter and average weight with integrated use of chemical fertilizer and vermicompost (Padaganur et al., 2005) The higher concentration of mineral nitrogen with application of vermicompost under polyethylene mulch maintaining the soil moisture content around 70-80% of field water capacity. This is due to relatively lower mineralization rate due to black polythene mulch in tuberose. The minimum days required for flowering in tuberose after initiation of the spike to harvest of flower on plant was recorded with the application of vermicompost along with inorganic fertilizer. This is due to the application of vermicompost resulting in easy

mineralization. The vermicompost releases humic acid which heads the soil towards impartiality.

Fig: Effect of vermicompost on black gram

Fig: Effect of vermicompost on Tuberose

Herbage yield of coriander was higher in vermicompost compared to that of chemical fertilizer. The soil enriched with vermicompost provides additional substances that are not found in chemical fertilizers (Kale, 1988). Vermicompost produced commercially from cattle manure, food waste or recycled paper, were applied to field plots compared with those receiving equivalent amounts of inorganic fertilizer. (Alam et al., 2007) reported that the effect of vermicompost and N, P, K and S fertilizers on the growth and yield of red amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus), showed that chemical fertilizers were more efficient in the first four weeks of application.

Conclusion: Application of single nutrient source like chemical fertilizer, organic manure, bio fertilizer is able to meet the total nutrient needs, but, vermicompost increases the quality and quantity of nutrient resulting in quick absorption of nutrients to increase the growth and yield parameters of crop plants.

References Alam MN Jahan MS Islam MS and Khandaker MA.

2007. Effect of Vermicompost and NPKS Fertilizers on Growth, Yield Components of Red Amaranth. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences. 1(4): 706- 716.

Kale RD and Bano K 1988. Earthworm cultivation and culturing techniques for production of vermicompost. Mysore Jour Agri, Sci., 5:22-26.

Padaganur VG Mokashi AN and Patil VS. 2005. Flowering, flower quality and yield of tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.) as influenced by vermicompost, farmyard manure and fertilizers. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Science 18(3): 729-734

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



18. AGRONOMY 17260

Sorghum Crop Gift in Changing Climate Pritam O. Bhutada

Assistant Professor, Sorghum Research Station, VNMK, Parbhani *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Production of rain-fed grain crops is projected to be negatively affected through projected higher and more variable temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns and increased occurrences of extreme events such as droughts and floods (Cooper, P.J.M. et al., 2008). Attaining objectives of increasing and sustaining future grain yield requires a good understanding of the response of crops and a reliable crop yield prediction under different projected climate scenarios. Kaiyu Guan, 2016 said that Climate change will impact both natural and agricultural ecosystems on the planet. The difference is that farmers can do things to adapt to the changing climate, and hopefully alleviate the impacts on their crops.

Sorghum is one of the grain crops grown under predominantly rain-fed conditions but it is the main staple for the food insecure people in Eastern and Central Africa (ECA), and accounts for 41% of the region’s grain production (Rohrbach, D.D. 2004). Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is the fifth most important cereal in the class of the top five cereal grain in the world. This comes after wheat, maize, rice, and barley. The Sorghum grain belongs to the genus of flowering plants which are native to tropical and subtropical regions of all continents. Its origin can be traced down to Northeastern Africa where it was first cultivated 8000 years ago. It is one of Africa’s pride as it belongs to the list of indigenous fruits and crops.

This grain is drought resistant and has a number of characteristics which aids its survival in almost any environment with less water. Weather and climate remain key factors in sorghum productivity. Indeed, there is compelling evidence that climate variability and change will affect crop yields, though significant uncertainty surrounds the prediction of cereal yields under projected changes in climate especially for dry-land/rain-fed regions (Berg, A. et al., 2013). Although grain sorghum is a desirable crop, highly resistant to drought and can withstand water logging better than other cereal crops. In addition, sorghum varieties have been known to thrive better on marginal lands than other cereal crops (J.S. Bergtold et al., 2017).

Because sorghum crop having some morphology i.e. It has an extensive root system that helps to gather and store water. Its leaves have a waxy coating that aids water retention. The development of its seeds over a longer period of time makes it less affected by short periods of rainfall. Sorghum is a high input commercial crop, known for its usefulness to human and livestock.

Following five management practices in case of sorghum crop will help to increase yield of crop

Late sowing, or choosing a safer time to plant, did not show much benefit.

Increasing seed density and using more fertilizer results in higher crop yield, with or without climate change.

Changing the length of thermal time required for sorghum to grow results in a reduction in crop yield.

Collecting rainfall to use during a dry spell will only marginally benefit crop yield with or without climate change.

Using sorghum varieties that are more resilient to heat stress during the flowering period proves to have the most potential for greater crop yield with higher temperatures in the future.

References Berg, A., de Noblet-Ducoudre, N., Sultan, B.,

Lengaigne, M. and Guimberteau, M. (2013), Projections of Climate Change Impacts on Potential C4 Crop Productivity over Tropical Regions. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 170, 89-102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2011.12.003 [Citation Time(s)]

Cooper, P.J.M., Dimes, J., Rao, K.P.C., Shapiro, B., Shiferawa, B. and Twomlow, S. (2008) Coping Better with Current Climatic Variability in the Rain-Fed Farming Systems of Sub-Saharan Africa: An Essential First Step in Adapting to Future Climate Change? Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 126, 24-35.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2008.01.007. [Citation Time(s):1]

J.S.Bergtold1A.C. Sant'Anna1N. Miller1S. Ramsey1J.E. Fewell2 (2017) Water Scarcity and Conservation Along the Biofuel Supply Chain in the United States: From Farm to Refinery Competition for Water Resources Experiences and Management Approaches in the US and Europe, 2017, Pages 124-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803237-4.00007-0

Kaiyu Guan et al., Assessing climate adaptation options and uncertainties for cereal systems in West Africa. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, September 2016 DOI: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2016.07.021

Monyo, E.S., Ngereza, J., Mgonja, M.A., Rohrbach, D.D., Saadan, H.M. and Ngowi, P. (2004) Adoption of Improved Sorghum and Pearl Millet Technologies in Tanzania. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics, Bulawayo, 28 p. [Citation Time(s):1]

Ramirez-Villegas, J., Challinor, A.J., Thornton. K.P.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



and Jarvis, A. (2013) Implications of Regional Improvement in Global Climate Models for Agricultural Impact Research. Environmental Research Letters, 8, Article ID: 024018.http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024018. [Citation Time(s):1]

Rohrbach, D.D. (2004) Improving the Commercial

Viability of Sorghum and Pearl Millet in Africa. Series Report.

White, J.W., Hoogenboom, G., Kimball, B.A. and Wall, G.W. (2011) Methodologies for Simulating Impacts of Climate Change on Crop Production. Field Crop Research, 124, 357-368.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2011.07.001.

19. AGRONOMY 17277

Role of Crop Simulation Models in Agriculture Dr. Pooja Goswami and Dr. Shikha Sharma

College of Agriculture, Balaghat, JNKVV, Jabalpur (M.P.)

Crop simulation models are needed to help consultants, researchers and other farm advisers determine the pattern of field management optimize production or profit however, the effective use of these tools requires their evaluation in fields to be optimized, their integration with others information tools such as GIS, geo-statics, remote sensing and optimization analysis. While mini experiments on each homogenous region with a range of application levels of input will provide this information, its approach is time consuming, labour intensive and result are likely to be specific to that field only.

Crop Modelling

Crop modeling is simple representation of a crop which is used to study the crop growth and assess growth responses to the environment.

Simulation

Simulation is study of behavior of system by using crop models.

DEFINITION:” Crop simulation models are tools of systems research which help in solving problem related to crop production (Bannayan et al., 2003)

Why we Need Simulation Models?

To incorporate knowledge gain from field experimentation

To provide structure that promotes inter disciplinary cooperation.

To promote the use of system investigation for solving troubles.

To offer dynamic, quantitative tools for analyzing the difficulty of cropping system.

For using crop models it requires certain input data which is used by the model to further

generate required output.

Input Data Requirement

A. Weather data includes: Maximum and minimum temp., Rainfall, RH, Solar radiation & Wind speed.

B. Crop data includes: Crop name, Variety name, crop phenology (days to anthesis, day to maturity etc.), Leaf area index, grain yield above ground level biomass.

C. Soil data includes: Thickness of soil layer, pH, EC, NPK, Soil organic carbon, soil texture, sand and clay %, soil moisture, saturation field capacity and wilting point of soil, bulk density.

D. Pest data include: Name and type of pest, their mode of attack, pest population, at different crop growth stage. Data on Insects or pests are included only in those models which contains the pest models.

E. Crop management data include: Date of sowing of crop is required to initiate the simulation process. generally sowing date is taken as the start time for the simulation.

Possible Application of Crop Models

Evaluation of potential yields. Assessment of yield gaps- principle causes

and their contribution.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Yield forecasting Impact assessment of climate variability and

climate change Optimization management; date of planting

variety, irrigation and nitrogen fertilizer. Environmental impact –percolation, N- loss

GHG emission SOC dynamic. Plant type design and evaluation

Steps of Modeling

1. Define goals: 2. Define system and its boundaries:- 3. Define key variables in system:- 4. Quantify relationship:- 5. Calibration and validation:- 6. Sensitivity analysis:- 7. Simplification:- 8. Use of models in decision support:-

Examples of CSM

SOFTWARE CROPS

CERES Maize Wheat Rice Sorghum

SOFTWARE CROPS

CROPGRO Soybean, Peanut, Tomato

SUBSTOR Potato,

CROPSIM Cassava

CANEGRO sugarcane

SIMCOY Corn

SIMPOTATO Potato

COTTAM Cotton

ORYZA1 Rice

REALSOY Soybean

Limitaions

Which may not be available with the user along with it

Required skilled man power, good knowledge, of computers and computer language.

It needs multidisciplinary knowledge Model Developed for a specific region cannot

be used as such in another region.

20. AGRONOMY 17298

Azolla Cultivation: An Alternative Green Fodder for Livestock

Pattam Keerthi* and Kautilya Chaudhary

Department of Agronomy, CCSHAU, Hisar *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: India has the largest livestock population and also in terms of milk production in the world. But average milk production still needs to be improved; this may be due to low nutrition, insufficient availability of good quality feeds and fodder. Now a day’s greatest problems of the Indian livestock farmers are facing, is the shortage of green fodder due to cultivation of high yielding varieties. The rapid shrinkage of common grazing lands of the villages and expansion of urban areas also led to disappearance of grazing lands and pastures. A number of synthetic antibiotics, steroids and vitamins are used to increase the production of milk, meat, egg etc. These chemicals may accumulate in the human body, through the consumption of animal products could cause various degenerative diseases. If we can substitute the cattle feeds with natural feeds that are rich in useful nutrients, it will be of great importance for human and animal health. Hence the Azolla can be used as unconventional high potential feed resource for diary animals, goats and poultry birds.

About Azolla

Azolla is a very small floating fern that spreads quickly on water bodies. It is also known as mosquito fern or duck weed. Azolla has been used as bio fertilizer and animal feed supplement. The special feature of this aquatic fern is that it grows with the anabaena blue green algae in symbiosis.

How to Grow Azolla

Azolla can be grown with a simple technology by the use of silpaulin sheet method. All we need to do is to make an earthen pit having 2mt x 1mt, spacing with 15 cm depth. It is desirable to make a pit under the shade of a tree that can retain a temperature within 250c. After making the pit, with maximum of 10 cm height, 5 kgs of cow dung, collected within 2-3 days to be mixed with the water and soil with an addition of 20 gms of Azofert powder of rock phosphate (optional). By this time when these preparatory works are done, at least 200 gms of Azolla culture should be sprayed in the pit.

Cultural Practices: On average, 200 gms of Azolla culture initially applied will be multiplied and spread over within 6-8 days. Harvesting need to be done every day with removal of atleast 25 % available stock from the pit. The plant should not be allowed to enter maturity stage or sporulation stage. Every day the biomass should be removed from the pit in order to avoid overcrowding. Overcrowding will adversely affect the growth of Azolla.

Azolla Production for Feed Purpose: Azolla is found to be very nutritive and less expensive organic feed supplement for dairy animals, goats and poultry birds. Azolla, after harvest, can be washed and kept in a bucket half filled with water, fresh azolla is fed as such to cows and goats. For

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



poultry birds Azolla is fed with commercial feed 1:12 ratio. The animals are fed in restricted quantities (250 gms/goat/daily and 1 kg / animal-cow/daily) with a mixture of commercial feed and local fodder. By doing so, there will be substantial increase in meat weight and SMP value in milk yield.

Azolla as Dual Culture in Rice Farming: Azolla is best in fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The plant multiplies vegetatively. This will ensure soil fertility improvement prospectus by helping the farmers to cut off higher external input (HEI). Once Azolla grows across rice field with rapid multiplication, weeding is best depressed. Azolla if used for more than 3 seasons, the natural vegetation turning rice cultivation an organic.

Benefits of Azolla

Azolla’s function as biological herbicide reduces light penetration to soil surface. Therefore, occurrence of aquatic weeds in rice fields is depressed. Azolla’s nutrient accumulation is amazing. The plant accumulates nutrients from flood water and transfers these after decomposition. Under the mat of Azolla, flood water flood water does not turn alkaline. Prevention of alkaline generally reduces ammonia losses. Azolla has been extensively used as feed

for pig, duck, fish, poultry birds and cows. In India, the species varieties such as Azolla microphylla, Azolla Rubra, Azolla Pinnata are widely used. Azolla pinnata has been strongly recommended to be of use as dual culture in rice fields because of its biomass yields. The plant has high content of protein (20-30% on dry weight basis). Azolla cultivation as an agricultural technology alternative proves to be efficient in reducing the use of prohibitively expensive chemical inputs, increasing high income crop during Azolla growth period, arresting agricultural pollution and helping to revive farmer’s organization who could provide inoculums for rice cultivation.

Fig 1: Azolla (Azolla pinnata) Cultivation

21. AGRONOMY 17300

Iron Biofortification in Rice Debarchana Jena1, Vineeta Singh2, Manish Kumar3, Dahiphale A V4, Sandeep Kumar5,

Abhinandan Singh6 and Yogendra Kumar Budania7 1Young Professional II, Crop Improvement Division, ICAR-NRRI, Cuttack; 2Research Scholar,

Department of PMBGE, NDUAT, Kumarganj, Faizabad; 3Research Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, I. Ag.Sc., BHU, Varanasi; 4Agronomist (ECF), AICRP-IFS, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Karjat, Dist Raigad (MS); 5Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, I. Ag.Sc., BHU, Varanasi; 6Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, RPCAU, Pusa, Samastipur; 7Research

Scholar, Department of Agricultural Meteorology, CSHAU, Hissar

(Fe)-Deficiency anaemia is one of the most prevalent human micronutrient deficiencies in the world, affecting an estimate done-third of the world’s population and causing 0.8 million deaths annually worldwide. To address this problem, biofortification (i.e., the breeding of micronutrient-fortified crops) is advantageous for people who experience difficulty in changing their dietary habits because of financial, cultural, regional, or religious restrictions. Biofortification is also advantageous for governments because it is inexpensive and sustainable compared to nutritional supplement programs. Rice is a particularly suitable target for biofortification because Fe-deficiency anemia is a serious problem in developing countries where rice is a major staple crop. Based on knowledge of Fe transportation and Fe homeostasis in rice, three approaches have been reported to produce Fe-biofortified rice. The first approach is enhancement of Fe accumulation in rice seeds by

ferritin gene expression under the control of endosperm-specific promoters. Endosperm is the rice-seed tissue that accumulates a high concentration of starch and becomes the edible part of the seed after milling, at which point the se seeds are known as polished or white seeds. Ferritin is a ubiquitous protein for Fe storage and stores about 4,000 Fe atoms in a complex5. Goto et al., generated transgenic rice plants that expressed the soybean ferritin gene, Soyfer H1, in the endosperm using the endosperm-specific1.3-kb GluB1rice promoter; the transformants showed higher Fe accumulation in brown rice seeds. A few reports have described the production of Fe biofortification rice by endosperm-specific expression of ferritin. Qu et al., expressed SoyferH1 under the control of both the OsGlb1 promoter and1.3-kb GluB1 promoter to further increase seed Fe concentration. However, enhancement of ferritin expression did not produce further increases in seed Fe content.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Therefore, in addition to increased Fe storage in seeds, enhanced Fe uptake from the soil and enhanced translocation within the plant body are thought to be required to further improve Fe biofortification in seeds.

Figure 1 The gene cassette introduced into rice to produce the Fer-NAS-YSL2 lines. Arrows show the direction of transcription. RB, right border; LB, left border; NP, Agrobacterium tumefaciens nopaline synthase gene (AF485783) promoter region; NPTII, neomycin phosphotransferase II gene (AF485783); Tnos, A. tumefaciens nopaline synthase gene terminator (AF485783); OsSUT1P, promoter region of the rice sucrose transporter gene

The second approach involves increasing Fe transportation within the plant body by enhancing the expression of NAS genes. Nicotinamine (NA) is a chelator of metal cations such as Fe(II) and Zn (II), and it is biosynthesized from S-adenosylmethionine via NA synthase (NAS). All higher plants synthesize and utilize NA for the internal transport of Fe and other metals. In addition, overexpression of the barley NAS gene, HvNAS1, led to increased Fe and Zn concentrations in the leaves, flowers, and seeds of tobacco plants. Likewise, overexpression of the NA synthase gene increased the Fe concentration in polished rice seeds threefold with greenhouse cultivation1. The third approach is enhancement of Fe flux into the endosperm by expression of the Fe(II)-NA transporter gene OsYSL2. Koike et al., identified the rice NA-Fe(II) transporter gene OsYSL2, which is preferentially expressed in leaf phloem cells, the vascular bundles of flowers, and developing seeds, suggesting a role in internal Fe transport. OsYSL2 knockdown mutant plants exhibit a 30% decrease in Fe concentration in the endosperm. Simple overexpression of OsYSL2 by the 35S promoter did not increase Fe

concentration in seeds. In contrast, enhancement of OsYSL2 expression under the control of the rice sucrose transporter promoter OsSUT1, which drives high expression in the panicle and immature seeds during the seed maturation stage, increased Fe concentration in polished rice seeds by up to threefold. Additionally, introduction of mugineic acid synthase gene was reported as another approach to increase Fe concentration in seeds. In graminaceous plants, NA is the precursor of mugineic acid family phytosiderophores (MAs), which are natural Fe(III) chelators used in Fe acquisition from the rhizosphere. Graminaceous plants synthesize and secrete MAs into the rhizosphere by TOM1 transporter20. They form Fe(III)–MAs complexes and are taken up into the root via YS1 and YSL transporters. Rice biosynthesizes 29 deoxy mugineic acid (DMA), which facilitates Fe uptake and internal transport. However, rice lacks IDS3 gene and does not produce MA. We previously reported that Fe concentration in polished rice seed increased up to 1.25 and 1.4 times in calcareous and normal soil cultivation in field, respectively. The target Fe concentration in polished rice seeds is over 15 ppm in field cultivation, but research has not yet achieved this yield. Gene insertion, ferritin accumulation in seeds, and higher expression of OsYSL2 and HvNAS1 were confirmed. The Fe concentration in polishedT2 seeds increased by upto six fold in plants grown in soil in a greenhouse. In field cultivation, the Fe concentration in T3 polished seeds increased upto 4.4-fold. This is the first report of the combination of three approaches to increase Fe accumulation in seeds.

References Goto, F., Yoshihara, T., Shigemoto, N., Toki, S. &

Takaiwa, F (1999). Iron fortification of rice seed by the soybean ferritin gene. Nat. Biotechnol. 17, 282–286.

Koike, S. etal. OsYSL2 is a rice metal-nicotianamine transporter that is regulated by iron and expressed in the phloem. Plant J. 39, 415–424 (2004).

22. AGRONOMY 17305

An Evaluative Study on Soil Health Abhinandan Singh1, Manish Kumar2, Dahiphale A V.3, Sandeep Kumar4, Vineeta Singh5,

Debarchana Jena6 and Yogendra Kumar Budania7 1Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, RPCAU, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar

2Research Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, I. Ag.Sc., BHU, Varanasi. 3Agronomist (ECF), AICRP-IFS, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Karjat, Dist –Raigad (MS)

4Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, I. Ag.Sc., BHU, Varanasi. 5Research Scholar, Department of PMBGE, NDUAT, Kumarganj, Faizabad.

6Young Professional II, Crop Improvement Division, ICAR-NRRI, Cuttack 7Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Meteorology, CSHAU, Hissar

Soil - a nature's marvel - is one among the vital natural resources, on whose health; the survival of all mortals depends. "Essentially, all life depends

upon the soil. There can be no life without soil and no soil without life; they have evolved together. Hindu philosophy describes soil 'as the origin and

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



destination of life'. They revere it as 'mother' and regard, if taken care of nurtures mankind with food to eat and raiment to cover and protect body. Roosevelt said "The nation that destroys its soil destroys itself". Healthy soils are the basis for a sustainable food production, yet the role of soils is often neglected and public awareness of soil health and management is generally low. Early scientists, farmers and gardener were well aware of the importance of soil quality and organic matter to productivity of soil. The significance of soil organic matter including living organism was understood back as 17th century. Around the turn of 20th century, there was again an appreciation of importance of soil health; scientist raised that worn-out soil, whose productivity has drastically declined mainly from depletion of organic matter. The term ‘soil quality’ and ‘soil health’ are often use interchangeably in the scientific literature; scientists, in general, prefer soil quality and producer prefer soil health. Soil health is defined as being a state of dynamic equilibrium between flora and fauna and their surrounding soil environment in which all the metabolic activities of the former proceed optimally without any hindrance, stress or impedance from latter. ‘Sustainable agriculture’ is a form of agriculture aimed at meeting the need of present generation without endangering the resource base of the future generations. Sustainable mainly depends on soil organic matter for nutrient supply through farmyard manure.

Properties of Healthy Soils

Soil health integrates all components of the soil system and is assessed by indicators that describe or quantify biological, chemical and physical properties.

Soil characteristics that contribute to a healthy soil include

Protected soil surface and low erosion rates, high soil organic matter, high biological activity and biological diversity.

High available moisture storage capacity, favourable soil pH, Deep root zone.

Balanced stores of available nutrients, resilient and stable soil structure, adequate internal drainage, favourable soil strength and aeration, favourable soil temperature, low levels of soil borne pathogens and low levels of toxic substances.

Healthy Soils Function to

Sustain biological productivity Store and cycle water and nutrients Decompose organic matter Inactivate toxic compounds Suppress pathogens Protect water quality and enhance catchment

health.

Soil Health Scorecard

In scorecard soil health indicator is

operationalized to conform the following subject rating scale

1. Healthy: performance of function is optimal and structure is normal.

2. Impaired: an abnormality in function and/or structure.

3. Unhealthy: severe restriction and inability to perform normal function, severe deformity and loss structure etc.,

Major factors Affecting Quality/Soil Health

The major causes of soil health are

1. Wide gap between nutrient demand and supply.

2. High nutrient turnover in soil plant system coupled with low and imbalanced fertilizer use

3. Emerging deficiency of secondary and micronutrients due to improper use of inputs such as water, fertilizer, pesticide etc.,

4. Insufficient use of organic input, 5. Acidification and Al+ toxicity. 6. Development of salinity and alkalinity in soils, 7. Development of adverse soil conditions such

as heavy metal toxicity, 8. Disproportionate growth of microbial

population responsible for soil sickness 9. Natural and manmade calamities such as

erosion, deforestation occurring due to rapid industrialization and urbanization etc.,

Conclusion: Good management of soils ensures that mineral elements do not become deficient or toxic to plants, and that appropriate mineral elements enter the food chain. Soil management is important, both directly and indirectly, to crop productivity, environmental sustainability, and human health. Because of the projected increase in world population and the consequent necessity for the intensification of food production, the management of soils will become increasingly important in the coming years. To achieve future food security, the management of soils in a sustainable manner will be the challenge, through proper nutrient management and appropriate soil conservation practices. Research will be required to avoid further degradation of soils, through erosion or contamination, and to produce sufficient safe and nutritious food for healthy diets.

References Patil, V.D. 2012 Soil quality indications for

sustainable soil health management and crop productivity. Summer School on ‘‘Resource Conservation Practices for Soil Health Security”, 3-23 Sept.

Rattan, R. K. 2012. Fundamental of Soil Science. Indian Society of Soil Science.

National workshop on soil health and sustainable agriculture, organized by School of Agriculture, ITM, University, Gwalior. April 22, 2014.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



23. AGRONOMY 17322

Phytoremediation Malavathu Mallikarjun

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kalikiri

Phytoremediation (from the Ancient Greek (phyto, plant), and Latin remedium (restoring balance or remediation). Phytoremediation refers to the natural ability of certain plants called hyperaccumulators to bioaccumulate, degrade, or render harmless contaminants in soils, water, or air. Contaminants such as metals, pesticides, solvents, explosives, and crude oil and its derivatives, have been mitigated in phytoremediation projects worldwide. Many plants such as mustard plants, alpine pennycress, and pigweed have proven to be successful at hyper accumulating contaminants at toxic-waste sites.

Advantages

The cost of the phytoremediation is lower than that of traditional processes both in situ and ex situ

The plants can be easily monitored The possibility of the recovery and re-use of

valuable metals (by companies specializing in “phyto mining”)

It is potentially the least harmful method because it uses naturally occurring organisms and preserves the environment in a more natural state.

Limitations

Phytoremediation is limited to the surface area and depth occupied by the roots.

Slow growth and low biomass require a long-term commitment

With plant-based systems of remediation, it is not possible to completely prevent the leaching of contaminants into the groundwater (without the complete removal of the contaminated ground, which in itself does not resolve the problem of contamination)

The survival of the plants is affected by the toxicity of the contaminated land and the general condition of the soil.

Bio-accumulation of contaminants, especially metals, into the plants which then pass into the food chain, from primary level consumers upwards and/or requires the safe disposal of the affected plant material.

Various Phytoremediation Processes

Phytoextraction — Uptake and concentration of substances from the environment into the plant biomass. Arsenic, using the Sunflower (Helianthus annuus), or the Chinese Brake fern (Pteris vittata), a hyperaccumulator. Chinese Brake fern stores

arsenic in its leaves. Lead, using Indian Mustard (Brassica juncea), Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), Hemp Dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum), or Poplar trees, which sequester lead in its biomass. Salt-tolerant (moderately halophytic) barley and/or sugar beets are commonly used for the extraction of Sodium chloride (common salt) to reclaim fields that were previously flooded by sea water.

Phytostabilization: Reducing the mobility of substances in the environment by limiting the leaching of substances from the soil. For example, the plants can immobilize the pollutants by adsorption or accumulation, and provide a zone around the roots where the pollutant can precipitate and stabilize. Unlike phytoextraction, phytostabilization focuses mainly on sequestering pollutants in soil near the roots but not in plant tissues. Pollutants become less bioavailable, and livestock, wildlife, and human exposure is reduced.

Phytotransformation: Chemical modification of environmental substances as a direct result of plant metabolism, often resulting in their inactivation, degradation (phytodegradation) or immobilization (phytostabilization). In the case of organic pollutants, such as pesticides, explosives, solvents, industrial chemicals, and other xenobiotic substances, certain plants, such as Cannas, render these substances non-toxic by their metabolism. In other cases, microorganisms living in association with plant roots may metabolize these substances in soil or water. These complex and recalcitrant compounds cannot be broken down to basic molecules (water, carbon-dioxide, etc.) by plant molecules, and, hence, the term phytotransformation represents a change in chemical structure without complete breakdown of the compound.

Phytostimulation: Enhancement of soil microbial activity for the degradation of contaminants, typically by organisms that associate with roots. This process is also known as rhizosphere degradation. Phytostimulation can also involve aquatic plants supporting active populations of microbial degraders, as in the stimulation of atrazine degradation by hornwort.

Phytovolatilization: Removal of substances from soil or water with release into the air, sometimes as a result of phytotransformation to more volatile and/or less polluting substances.

Rhizofiltration: Filtering water through a mass of roots to remove toxic substances or excess nutrients. The pollutants remain absorbed in or adsorbed to the roots.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



24. AGRONOMY 17334

Conservation Agriculture as Key to Climate Smart Agriculture

*Mohammad Hasanain

PhD. Scholar, Division of Agronomy, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110012 *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Agriculture is the main livelihood activity which is activated by climate change itself, but also is a major driver of climate change itself, due to its contribution to GHGs (28%). For which conservation agriculture (CA) is emerging tool to cope climate change as a way of climate smart agriculture. CA as described by the food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) – is a concept for resource saving agricultural crop production which is based on enhancing natural and biological processes above and below the ground.

Conservation Agriculture is based on Three Principles Namely

Minimum soil disturbance, Permanent soil cover and Diversified crop rotation

Causes for Climate Change

Residue burning Use of fossil fuel Intensive tillage Land use change Soil Erosion

Impact of Climate Change on

Crop growth and yield, Soil Water Livestock Fisheries Insect and pest

Climate smart agriculture (CSA) -“Climate smart agriculture is an approach that helps to guide actions needed to transform and reorient agricultural system to effectively support development and ensure food security in a changing climate” (FAO, 2013).

The CSA Aims to tackle three Main Objectives

Sustainably enhances agricultural productivity and remuneration,

Adopting and building resilience for climate change; and

Reducing and /or removing GHGs.

Conservation Agriculture prove as Climate Smart Agriculture in the following ways

Sequestration implies enhancing the concentration/pool of soil organic carbon and soil inorganic carbon as secondary carbonates through land –use conversion, adaptation of recommended management practices, pastoral and forestry eco-system, restoration of degraded and drastically disturbed soil.

Enhances soil organic carbon storage requires increased carbon (C) input via plant biomass production and decreased C loss as CO2 from less intensive tillage practices (No till) to suppress the decomposition of soil organic matter.

The Bio-char application in soil as a novel approach to long term sinks of atmospheric CO2 in terrestrial ecosystem.

Agro forestry system is also practice that potential to stored C in soil (Nair et al., 2010).

Crop residue retention is more beneficial than residue incorporation it reduces weeds, conserve soil moisture, regulate soil temperature and supplies essential plant nutrient which significantly decline irrigation need, improve crop yield, remuneration and improving soil physical, chemical and biological properties.

Better crop residue management practices avoiding straw burning, improving soil organic carbons and enhances input use efficiency and have the potential to reduce GHGs emission.

References Nair, P.K.R., Saha, S.K., Nair, V.D. and Haile, S.G.

2010. Potential for greenhouse gas emission from soil carbon stock following biofuel cultivation on degraded lands. Land degradation and development 22(4):395-409.

Schultz, J.E. 1988 Maintenance of soil fertility in continuous cropping system. (In) Proceedings of International Conference on Dryland Farming: Changes in Dryland Agriculture-a Global Perspective, Amarillo, TX. pp 811-813.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



25. AGRONOMY 17344

Ragi: A Nutritionally Promising Crop Jinu Jacob, Swarna Ronanki and Deepika C

Scientist, ICAR- Indian Institute of Millets Research, Hyderabad- 500 030 *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

India has reaped the benefits of green revolution in the form of enhanced crop productivity, grain filled ware houses and food security to a majority of population. In an urge to fill the empty stomachs of the masses we failed to ensure nutritional security which is an important component of food security. As per Food and Agricultural Organisation, food security is ensured only when people have access to safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for an active and healthy life. In this scenario, food grains that were lying forgotten and ignored, such as millets, that are in fact treasure trove of nutrients are gaining attention. Recognizing the importance of millets in providing food security and preventing malnutrition, Government of India declared the year 2018 as ‘National Year of Millets’. Millets are a group of small seeded crops belonging to the family Poaceae which were grown throughout the world for grains and fodder. They are one of the oldest crops grown in human history.

Finger millet: One of the important millets grown in India is finger millet (Eleusine coracana) commonly known as ragi or mandua or naachni. The crop is versatile in its adaptability to different types of soils and climatic conditions. It has tolerance to drought and is generally grown as a rain fed crop. The name of the crop comes from its finger shaped panicles that bear round shaped grains that are nutritionally rich and has a very long storage life. They can be stored for over 50 years without damage. In India it is ranked 6th in food grain production. Ragi is generally consumed along with seed coat. The grain is mainly used as flour for making roti, ragi balls (muddae) and ragi jawa. Seeds are germinated, dried and powdered to prepare ragi malt and also made into a fermented drink in north eastern parts of India and also in Africa. In Southern part of India, it is used as an infant food by mixing together with jaggery mainly owing to its high calcium and iron content.

Nutritional composition: Ragi grains are nutritionally similar to the major cereals rice and wheat, but with a higher dietary fibre, minerals and polyphenol content. Carbohydrates are the major nutrient components in ragi which occupies as much as 65 to 75% of the grains. It is one of the grains with the lowest fat content, as low as 1.5%. The protein content is comparable to that of rice and lower than that in wheat and it ranges from 5 to 9%. One of the important factors deciding the quality of a protein is the content and relative proportion of amino acids present in the proteins.

Finger millet protein is a good source of all essential amino acids and it even has a good amount of lysine, an amino acid that is lacking in major cereals.

Finger millet flour is a good source of minerals and certain vitamins such as thiamine and riboflavin. It has exceptionally high contents of calcium which is the highest among all the cereals. One hundred gram of the flour contributes to around 300-350 mg of calcium which is more than a quarter of the recommended dietary allowance of calcium for an adult man. Phosphorus and iron contents are also appreciable in ragi. It has the highest potassium (408 mg/100 gm) and manganese (5.49 mg/ 100g) contents among all cereals and millets. Though phytic acid and oxalates, components that hinder mineral absorption by the body, are present in finger millet, germination and fermentation have been found to cause reduction in phytate and improve bioavailability of minerals. Ragi is a rich source of phenolic compounds which were earlier considered to be anti-nutritional factors. Phenolics are a large group of compounds found in a range of plants. Now it is established that they play essential roles in maintaining body functions and many of them possess anti-oxidant, anti-cancerous and anti-inflammatory properties and help the body in fighting against diseases.

Health benefits: Several studies have shown the anti-oxidant and anti-microbial properties of finger millet. A high value of the phenolic contents in ragi is the major contributor for these attributes. Anti-oxidant property imparts a title of anti-cancerous food to ragi. Finger millet is regarded as an excellent food for diabetic patients due to its blood glucose lowering effect. Consumption of ragi based food releases glucose slowly into the blood making it perfect for diabetic patients and obese people trying to lose their body weight.

One of the striking specialties of finger millet is its high calcium content. Calcium is an important mineral needed for bone health and is essential for preventing osteoporosis in old age people. Having high calcium levels makes finger millet an ideal grain for lactating mothers and infants. The iron content in ragi was found to help in improving blood haemoglobin status in children fed with finger millet-based food supplements.

Finger millet is reported to have wound healing properties achieved by significantly increased accumulation of proteins and collagen in the wound site and reduced lipid peroxide accumulation. Ragi food is also found to offer

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



protection against ulceration of mucosal membranes in rats. Some studies pointed out a delay in the onset of cataract in people who were fed with ragi. Finger millet polyphenols are effective in inhibiting pathogenic bacterial strains such as E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria.

Like other millet grains, finger millet does not contain gluten which is an allergen found in grains like wheat, barley etc. that causes celiac disease which is a severe allergic reaction exhibited by a number of people. Similarly, high dietary fibre content of ragi offers several health benefits such as delayed nutrient absorption, lowering of blood lipids and increased bulk in faecal matter thereby reducing constipation.

Conclusion: Changes in the lifestyle and food habits in the modern world has forced us to succumb to various lifestyle diseases leading to years long trauma and sufferings. Its high time we started to re-think adopting the healthy food

patterns and routines that existed in our localities a few decades ago and bringing the lost grains back to our cuisine. Regular consumption of finger millet as a major staple or in the form of snacks helps, to a considerable extent, in keeping lifestyle diseases including diabetes, constipation and hypercholesterolemia in control and widening our effective life span.

References Shobana S., Krishnaswamy K., Sudha V., Malleshi N.

G., Anjana R. M., Palaniappan L., et al. (2013). Finger millet (Ragi, Eleusine coracana L.): a review of its nutritional properties, processing, and plausible health benefits. Adv. Food Nutr. Res. 69 1–39. 10.1016/B978-0-12-410540-9.00001-6

Devi P. B., Vijayabharathi R., Sathyabama S., Malleshi N. G., Priyadarisini V. B. (2014). Health benefits of finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) polyphenols and dietary fiber: a review. J. Food Sci. Technol. 51 1021–1040. 10.1007/s13197-011-0584-9

26. AGRONOMY 17348

Natueco Farming: Beyond Organic Farming Siddagangamma, K. R.

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, UAS, Raichur (584104) Karnataka. *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

The Natueco farming system follows the principles of eco-system networking of nature. It is beyond the broader concepts of organic or natural farming in both philosophy and practice. It offers an alternative to the commercial and heavily chemical techniques of modern farming. Instead, the emphasis is on the simple harvest of sunlight through the critical application of scientific examination, experiments, and methods that are rooted in the neighborhood resources. It depends on developing a thorough understanding of plant physiology, geometry of growth, fertility and biochemistry.

Natueco Culture

Dabholkar (1998) coined the word “Natueco” combines two words together “Natural” and “Ecological”. “Natueco culture is a way of farming which is based on imitating Nature through critical scientific methods to strengthen the ecology of a farm”. Natueco has been conceived of as a holistic way to meet our farming and food requirements. It addresses serious issues of a farm like: 1. How to stay in synergy with nature without burdening it; 2. How to reduce dependency on external inputs to a farm; and 3. How to work scientifically within the available resources in the surroundings of a farm, without harming its ecology and at the same time gaining the highest benefits from it.

Beyond Organic

The features of Natueco culture distinguish it from the “Natural Farming” and/or “Organic Farming”.

Natueco Farming can be termed as “Beyond Organic Farming”. “In Natural or Organic farming, farming is done trusting Nature through the empirical wisdom of the ages. In Natueco Farming, on the other hand, farming is done by knowing Nature more and more and better and better through critical scientific inquiries and experiments. It is an ever growing, novel, unique, participatory tryst between man and Nature.

Natueco culture and Critical Scientific Agriculture became synonymous words. The major features of scientific farming were also the basic features of Natueco Culture”.

Why Natueco Farming is better than Organic Farming?

1. No loss in production from very first year of crop establishment

2. No disease throughout the season, 3. No need of any market input except Jaggery,

but for this also alternate is there - we can use rotten Banana, Juice of sugarcane, rotten mango juice, jack fruit, Mahuva flowers

4. Whatever things needed were available to everyone within their resources. It is inbuilt and in-situ process

5. It required less water than present system which is major problem with farmers

6. It enrich and enhance the quality of soil on every harvesting the crop

7. This system gives benefit to both producer and consumer

8. This is only system which provides all the nutrition to the plants from within and continuously

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



9. There is no tilling, no digging so increase the Organic Carbon in the soil

10. In this system soil is converted as humus, and maintains throughout the crops harvested and after that also is maintain which develop special types of microbes from within and enrich the soil year after years.

Philosophy

Philosophy of Natueco system is to live and let live with joy, ease and grace. Natueco is a science of life in and around Farms. Fundamentally Natueco believes that “Where there is Life, there is a flow of Energy”. Therefore Natueco also indirectly deals with the flow of energy around a farm.

It's objective is to create an occupation where learning, living, livelihood, love and laughter (5Ls) is generated along with the work. Working in a Natueco farm is not only about working in a farm to produce an output but it is about living in symbiotic relationship with the farm and its surrounding.

Natueco Farming Step by Step

The four relevant aspects of Natueco Farming are as below:

1. Soil - Focus on enrichment of soil by recycling the biomass and by establishing a proper energy chain.

2. Roots - Focus on development and maintenance of white root zones of the plant

for efficient absorption of nutrients. 3. Canopy - Focus on harvesting the sun through

proper plant canopy management for efficient photosynthesis.

4. External Resources - Focus on minimizing the use of external resources including water.

Basic Principles of Natueco

1. The first principle of Natueco culture is the establishment of canopy index of a plant at the earliest so that the plant will be capable of taking full advantage of the Sunlight it has to harvest.

2. The second important principle is that only matured leaves of a plant are capable of optimum harvesting of Sunlight.

3. The third important principle for having optimum photosynthesis in Nature is that there should be matching storage organ growth in plants at the time when optimum photosynthesis is taking place in the matured leaves.

Conclusion: It address the issues of food security, nutrition and poverty, there is a need to increase food production without causing harm to health of consumers and that of the environment.

Amrut Mitti and Natueco farming have an untapped potential to elevate the present economic and social status of our farmers, particularly of the small-holder farmers.

27. AGRONOMY 17366

Winged Bean: A Vegetable of 20th Century G. KranthiRekha1 and D. Srikanth2

1Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture, College of Horticulture, Dr. Y. S. R. H. U., Venkataramannagudem, West Godavari, A. P., 534101

2M.Sc Scholar, Department of Horticulture with Specialization in Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, Dr. Y. S. R. H. U., Venkataramannagudem, West Godavari, A. P., 534101


INTRODUCTION: The legume vegetable Psophocarpus tetragonolobus belongs to the family leguminosae / Fabaceae with chromosome number 2n=18. It is also known as Goa bean, Manila bean, Princess pea, Asparagus pea, Four angled bean and becoming popular as tropical legume vegetable. It is a multivitamin and multi-mineral packed legume. It is also known as ‘Soya’s rival’ or ‘God sent vegetable’. All parts of the plant are edible namely leaves, flowers, immature seeds, mature seeds and tubers. It is also named as ‘a supermarket on a stalk’ because the plant combines the desirable characteristics of common bean, pea, spinach, mushroom, soya bean and potato.

Nutritive Status and Medicinal Uses Immature pods are used as vegetable in all countries where it is grown. In highlands of Papua New Guinea and Burma, tubers are used as a delicious vegetable. Ripe seeds are used after

roasting is a substitute for soya bean and groundnut. In addition, seeds are a source of edible oil, used for cooking, illumination and in soap industry. Seed cake is used as animal feed. It is also used as green manure or cover crop. It can be as a good restorative crop, which might meet the requirements of small scale farmers in the tropics. Many medicinal uses were also attributed to various parts of this wonder plant. The leaves forms a component of an herbal preparation for treatment of small pox, eye and ear infection and boils. In Sri Lanka, pods are reported to be in use as a diabetic diet and as a slimming agent. Tubers were also used in the treatment of vertigo by ancient people in Burma.

S.No Composition (per 100gm)

Seed Fresh pod

Root

1. Water (ml) 9.0 73.8 75.0

2. Calories 420.0 85.0 91.0

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



S.No Composition (per 100gm)

Seed Fresh pod

Root

3. Protein (gm) 31.8 8.3 2.3

4. Calcium (mg) 210.0 40.0 -

5. Phosphorous (mg) 410.0 140.0 -

Origin and Distribution

Majority of them believed that this crop is originated in Madagascar in Africa. Burma is the only country where it is cultivated as a field crop. This is grown on a limited scale in India, China, Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.

Botany

It is perennial twining, glabrous herb, which grows to 3meters when supported. Root system produces lateral roots which run horizontally close to soil surface and become thickened and tuberous. Tuberous roots are edible, tubers have 11 to 15 % protein. It is a rich source of protein and oil. The oil is rich in unsaturated fatty acids. Stem is ridged varying from green to purple depending on cultivar and reach upto length of 2-3 m. Leaves are trifoliate, alternatively borne suspended by a stipule. The inflorescence is axillary raceme with 15 cm bearing 3-12 flowers. Flowers are Light blue colored and Hermaphrodite. Pods are having frilly borders, 6 and 9 inches in length and have 4 rows of wing type features. Seeds are burst out from ripe pods, become brownish at the time of ripening and emits an aroma which is similar to asparagus.

Cultivation

Climate and Soil: It is a short day plant. It require ideal growing temperature of 25-300 C. Planting during short days results in flowering within 8-10 weeks. Relatively higher temperature and short day length hastened flowering resulting in high yield. Short day was necessary not only for flower induction, but also for tuber initiation. It require an optimum rainfall of 1500-2000mm. It require well-drained sandy loam soils, for tuber production with optimum soil pH 5.2-5.5.

Varieties: In India a few selections have been reported such as IIHR- 21, IIHR-60, IIHR -71. WBC-2 in Meghalaya and JC-44 and Revathy in West Bengal.

Propagation: It is propagated through seeds. Presoaking of seeds for 2 days before sowing would give 84% germination. The presoaked seeds germinate in 5-6 days at 25 C.

Land Preparation and Sowing: The soil is ploughed to a depth of 30-40 cm and worked to a very fine tilth. The purpose of land preparation is to provide the necessary soil conditions which enhance the plant and root growth. Seed rate varies from 10 to 35 kg/ha. It is sown at a spacing of 150cm X 100 cm.

Sowing Season: Sowing time is governed by rainfall distribution, photoperiodicity, temperature and the purpose for which, it is grown. It is sown in June-July at Northern plains and in end of July-October at Southern plains.

Manuring and Interculture: Apply 10-15 tonnes of FYM /ha and Fertilizers of 50:100:50 kg NPK/ha. Pinch out the top portion of the main vine when it has produced 10-12 leaves to encourage side shoots. Winged bean is supported on the trellis for higher seed production and less incidence of pest and diseases which is called trellising. A trellis height of 2 m is optimal. Grow them on a trellis oriented north-south for best sun exposure. Weed control is necessary for the first 3-5 weeks. It require an irrigation of once in 7-10 days because it is a drought tolerant crop.

Nodulation: Winged bean is being utilized as a soil improving crop due to its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen by means of its exceptionally large and numerous nodules. It commences two weeks after the emergence of seedlings. Individual plant produces up to 440 nodules.

Harvesting: The tender green pods are harvested after 70-90 days after sowing and extended upto march depending on day length and temperature. The seeds mature in about 5 months and tubers are harvested after 8 months of sowing.

Yield: The green pod yield is 10-15 t/ha and the dry seed yield is 1.0 -1.5 t/ha. The yield of tuber is 5-10 t/ha.

Post-Harvest Handling: To keep them fresh, store them in a plastic bag with its neck tightly tied. Place it in the refrigerator for best results at a temperature of 10°C, Relative humidity of 90% and shelf life is extended up to 4 weeks.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



28. AGRONOMY 17367

Diversification in Agriculture: Issues and Actions V. S. Hooda1, Meenakshi Sangwan1 and Astha Duhan2

1CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125 004, India 2Bioinformatics and Agrigenomics Research Professional, USA

Agricultural Challenges to India

Three agriculture sector challenges will be important to India’s overall development and the improved welfare of its rural poor:

Raising agricultural productivity per unit of land:

Reducing rural poverty through a socially inclusive strategy that comprises both agriculture as well as non-farm employment

Ensuring that agricultural growth responds to food security needs

Indian agriculture is characterized by a dominance of small and marginal farmers (almost 68 per cent) who suffer as a result of difficult socio-economic conditions. Income from these farms cannot be raised up to the desired level to sufficiently alleviate poverty unless existing crop production systems are diversified through inclusion of high value horticultural and arable crops. Furthermore, increased dependence on one or two major cereal crops (wheat, rice, etc.) witnessed after the green revolution makes the farming economy vulnerable to price fluctuation arising due to demand-supply or export-import equations especially after the WTO began influencing markets.

Concepts of Crop Diversification

Crop diversification is regarded as one sub-set of a large matrix of production options in the cropping sector. It is a strategy to maximize the use of land, water and other resources and for the overall agricultural development in the country. It provides the farmers with viable options to grow different crops on their land. The diversification in agriculture is also practised with a view to avoid risk and uncertainty due to climatic and biological vagaries. It minimizes the adverse effects of the current system of crop specialization and monoculture for better resource use, nutrient recycling, reduction of risks and uncertainty and better soil conditions. It also takes into account the economic returns from different value-added crops and improvement in ecology. It implies a shifting of resources from low value crops to high value crops, usually intended for human consumption such as fresh market fruits and vegetables. With globalization of the market, crop diversification in agriculture means to increase the total crop productivity in terms of quality, quantity and monetary value under specific, diverse agro-climatic situations world-wide.

Two Approaches of Crop Diversification in Agriculture

First is horizontal diversification, which is the primary approach to crop diversification in production agriculture. Here, diversification takes place through crop intensification by adding new high-value crops to existing cropping systems as a way to improve the overall productivity of a farm or region's farming economy.

The second is the vertical diversification approach in which farmers and others add value to products through processing, regional branding, packaging, merchandising, or other efforts to enhance the product.

Furthermore Crop Diversification may be

Crop-wise diversification is related to crops outside the normal cycle of paddy and wheat and also to the shift from one variety of rice and/or wheat to some other variety that can be more useful and relevant, for example a shift from paddy rice to superior quality basmati rice and between two crops, or to a shift from paddy rice cycle to pulses, oil seeds, floriculture, sugarcane and horticulture.

Area-wise diversification is that certain areas may be identified for one set of crops while other areas for another. An added advantage of this type of diversification may be in the form of marketing management.

Driving Forces for Crop Diversification

Increasing income on small farm holdings. Withstanding price fluctuation. Mitigating ill-effects of aberrant weather. Employment generation through creation of

off-farm and non-farm investment opportunities within the capabilities of the resource-poor farmers.

Changes in crop patterns and farming systems

Balancing food demand and improving fodder for livestock.

Conservation of natural resources (soil, water, etc.).

Minimizing environmental pollution. Reducing dependence on off-farm inputs. Decreasing insect pests, diseases and weed

problems. Increasing community food security

Immediate Need

The "Technology Mission on Oilseeds", "Spices Development Board" and "Coconut Development

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Board" etc. are examples where the Indian Government created policies to thrust change upon farmers and the food supply chain at large as a way to promote crop diversity. Where there are concerns regarding land and water use and quality, there is immediate need to consider:

Processing of farm produce into value added products offers scope for employment in non-farm works such as distillation of active ingredients from medicinal and aromatic plants (herbal products)

The research on crop diversification is best done in a farmer-participatory mode in which a multi-disciplinary team of scientists involves farmers from project planning through arriving at conclusions.

Major thrust should be given on horticulture (vegetables, fruits, flowers, spices, etc.) and animal husbandry (dairying, poultry, goatery, piggery, duckery etc.) to support a vigorous and expanding export market, balanced with supplying local markets with affordable, healthy food.

Strengthening food processing and other value-added industries in rural areas is a means to provide employment to rural youth.

There is need to develop rural infrastructure such as roads, markets, medical and educational facilities in the villages with efficient utilization of local resources for farming community in a more pragmatic way.

Alternate cropping systems and farm enterprise diversification are most important for generating higher income, employment and protecting the environment.

There are numerous opportunities to adopt subsidiary occupations to the rice-wheat cropping systems common in India. These include vegetable farming, fruit cultivation, floriculture, medicinal and aromatic plants cultivation, mushroom farming, dairying, piggery, goatery, poultry and duckery, aquaculture, bee-keeping, agroforestry, biodiesel farming with Jatropha Curcas (veranda), palm, neem, Karanja, etc. to provide ample scope for diversification of rice-wheat cropping system in north-western and south India and north-eastern states. Thus, diversification should not be aimed only at change of crop rather it should also include other occupations.

29. AGRONOMY 17388

C4 Rice for Climate Resilience Minakshi R. Neware

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Botany, Dr. PDKV, Akola (MS) *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years). Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather within the context of longer-term average conditions. The term "climate change" is often used to refer specifically to anthropogenic climate change (also known as global warming). Anthropogenic climate change is caused by human activity, as opposed to changes in climate that may have resulted as part of Earth's natural processes (NASA, 2011). In this sense, especially in the context of environmental policy the term climate change has become synonymous with anthropogenic global warming. A related term, "climatic change", was proposed by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1966 to encompass all forms of climatic variability on time-scales longer than 10 years, but regardless of cause. During the 1970s, the term climate change replaced climatic change to focus on anthropogenic causes, as it became clear that human activities had a potential to drastically alter the climate.

Climate Resilience

Climate res Dilience can be generally defined as the capacity for a socio-ecological system to: (1) absorb stresses and maintain function in the face of external stresses imposed upon it by climate change and (2) adapt, reorganize, and evolve into more desirable configurations that improve the sustainability of the system, leaving it better prepared for future climate change impacts. (Folke, 2006 & Nelson, et al., 2007). Originally an idea defined for strictly ecological systems, resilience was initially outlined by C.S. Holling as the capacity for ecological systems and relationships within those systems to persist and absorb changes to “state variables, driving variables, and parameters.” (Holling, 1973).

The development and identification of climate resilient crop varieties, with enhanced tolerance to heat, drought, flooding, chilling and salinity stresses are essential in order to sustain and improve crop yields to cope with the challenges of climate change. It is essential to bridge the yield gaps, enhance the productivity and profitability, minimize risk and improve the livelihoods of millions of people dependent on agriculture (Maheshwari et al., 2012).

The climate has always been in a state of flux,

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



but the current rate of change is much faster, and the range of weather variables much broader than ever seen before in modern agriculture. Today, the primary approaches for adapting crops to these conditions exist: improving existing crop cultivars and developing new crops and managing crops in the field for food security.

C4 Rice

Innovative research at IRRI suggested that the solution to the challenges ahead for rice would require solar energy to be used more efficiently in photosynthesis. Fortunately, there is one example from evolution of a supercharged photosynthetic mechanism; the C4 system. Converting the photosynthetic system in rice to the more efficient, supercharged C4 one used by maize would increase rice yields while using scarce resources (land, water, fertilizer) more effectively. However a technological innovation of this magnitude requires the skills and technologies of a global alliance of multidisciplinary partners from advanced institutions. In 2008, IRRI formed the International C4 Rice Consortium.

Science of C4 rice

C4 Photosynthesis plants fix carbon dioxide (CO2) into sugar using sunlight as the source of energy. This fixed carbon makes up the bulk of the plant itself – roots, stems, leaves, flowers and the sugars or starches that are stored in the seeds or fruits that we harvest for food. In the majority of plants, including rice, CO2 is first fixed into a compound with three carbons (C3) by the photosynthetic enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (Rubisco)—this is known as C3 photosynthesis. Rubisco is inherently inefficient because it can also catalyze a reaction with oxygen from the air, in a wasteful process known as photorespiration (rather than photosynthesis). At temperatures above 20°C, there is increasing competition by oxygen (O2), with a dramatic reduction in CO2 fixation and photosynthetic efficiency. While all this is happening, water is escaping from the leaves while the CO2 is diffusing in. Thus, in the hot tropics where most rice is grown, photosynthesis becomes very inefficient.

C4 plants are more efficient in carbon dioxide concentration that results in increased efficiency in water and nitrogen use and improved adaptation to hotter and dryer environments. In nature, this has occurred more than 50 times in a wide range of flowering plants, indicating that, despite being complex, it is a relatively easy pathway to evolve. Kranz (C4) anatomy arose before the C4 biochemistry within the bundle sheath cell, in response to photorespiration. Therefore, strategies to engineer C4 photosynthesis should first address the introduction of Kranz anatomy into C3 plants.

Improvement on Existing Crops

IRRI calculations show that the cost-benefit ratio of C4 rice is likely to be of the same order as the “dwarf cultivars” produced in the first Green Revolution bringing benefits to hundreds of millions of people in the poorer parts of the world. Inserting the C4 photosynthetic pathway into rice should increase rice yield by 50%, double water-use efficiency, and use less fertilizer to achieve those improvements. No other evolutionary mechanism exists that could be added to C3 rice that could deliver that superior combination of benefits. Poverty alleviation would be further magnified if the C4 syndrome were added to other C3 crops, such as wheat, growing in the hot countries of the developing world. Value proposition: Increased water use efficiency. C4 rice would need less water because water loss will be reduced and the water used more efficiently. C4 plants would have the pores in the leaves (stomata) partially closed during the hottest part of the day. Also C4 plants absorb more CO2 per unit of water lost. C4 plants are able to do this because of the compartmentalization and concentration of CO2 that occurs in the bundle sheath cells. Increased nitrogen use efficiency. C4 rice would increase nitrogen-use efficiency by 30% because the plant will need lower amounts of Rubisco, an abundant enzyme that fixes CO2 into sugars. By requiring less Rubisco for the same amount of CO2 fixed, C4 rice can achieve the same productivity with fewer enzymes, which means less nitrogen. (enzymes and proteins contain 15%

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



nitrogen). Yield benefits. Models show that increased water and nitrogen use efficiencies and other characteristics would support yield

increases of 30% to 50% based on comparative studies between rice and maize.

30. AGRONOMY 17396

Role of Hydrogel in Dry Land Agriculture *Kartikeya Choudhary, Sandeep Kumar and Anoop Kumar Devedee

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P.


21st century has witnessed a steady decline of irrigation water potential conjugated with the ever growing global population & enhanced economic activities among countries specially located in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. As these regions are ever facing water crisis due to uncertain and inadequate natural precipitation, the problem with water scarcity may possibly aggravate further.

It is estimated by 2025 water scarcity will be a major issue in India requiring immediate redressal. As per the Central Water Commission, the demand for water is growing at a steady rate but the availability of clean water in future is declining even faster. In the Indian scenario, Agricultural irrigation practices seem to be responsible for consumption of 80% of the available potable water. There is an increasing trend to this with the further intensification of agro based industries. Due to the large geographical dimensions of the sub-continent and varied soil and farming practices, modern irrigation practices can still only cater to 40% of the grown crops. The remaining areas are far more susceptible to improper practices thus greatly lowering the effective and judicious use of available water for crops.

Hydrogels

Hydrogel agriculture technology involves gel forming polymers that are insoluble water absorbing polymers designed exclusively for agricultural use by the late 1980’s. They were developed to improve physical properties of soil to:

1. Increase water holding capacity 2. Increase water use efficiency 3. Enhance soil permeability and infiltration rate 4. Reduce irrigation frequency 5. Reduce compaction tendency 6. Stop soil erosion, farm run-off & surface

leaching 7. Increase plant performance, particularly in

structure-less soils stressed with drought condition

Hydrogels as they are commonly called are cross-linked three-dimensional networked water absorbent polymers. Three main types of Hydrogels have so far been found appropriate for agricultural use:

1. Starch-graft copolymers 2. Cross-linked Polyacrylates 3. Cross-linked Polyacrylamides & Acrylamide-

acrylate copolymers

Potassium Polyacrylate is the principle material used in SAP industry and marketed as hydrogel for agricultural use because of its longer retention and high efficiency in soil with nil toxicity issues. They are prepared by polymerizing Acrylic acid with a cross linker. Cross-linked polymers can hold water 400 times their own weight and release 95% of that to growing plants. Use of Hydrogel leads to increased water use efficiency by preventing leaching and increasing frequency for irrigation. During summer months particularly in semi-arid regions, lack of soil moisture can cause plant stress. Moisture released by hydrogel close to root area helps reduce stress and increase growth and plant performance.

Water Absorption with Hydrogel

Hydrogel works as water reservoirs round the root mass zones of the plant. In presence of water, it expands to around 200-800 times the original volume. There is ample possibility to trap irrigation and rainwater that can then be collected, stored and gradually released for crop requirements over prolonged durations. Hydrogel mixed with soil increase soil permeability and improve germination rates.

Agriculture Specific Applications of Hydrogel

Hydrogel application in agriculture in terms of proposed practices and their advantages are summarized herein.

1. Conservation in Agricultural Lands 2. Drought Stress Reduction 3. Enhanced Fertilizer Efficiency 4. Biodegradability of Hydrogel Polymer

Application Rates Considering the efficiency of hydrogel in soil conditioning and moisture retention, it can be understood that an optimum mixing ratio is needed to get maximum efficacy of the method. Since the moisture holding capacity is a function of soil characteristics, dosage of hydrogel is also varied and designed based on the type of soil it is used with. A simple dosage chart has been illustrated herein but the ultimate quantity and application can only be determined after testing

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



specific soils to be conditioned.

Type of Soil Suggested dosage of Hydrogel

Arid & Semi-arid Regions 4-6g/kg soil

For all level of water stress treatment and improved irrigation period

2.25-3g/kg soil

To delay permanent wilting point in sandy soils

0.2-0.4g/kg OR 0.8% of soil whichever is more

To reduce irrigation water by 50% in loamy soil

2-4g/ plant pit

Type of Soil Suggested dosage of Hydrogel

To improve relative water content and leaf water use efficiency

0.5-2.0g/pot

To reduce drought stress 0.2-0.4% of soil

To prohibit drought stress totally 225-300kg/ha of cultivated area

To decrease water stress 3% by weight

31. AGRONOMY 17430

Pearl Millet: A Miracle Grain Manav

Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana- 125004

*Corresponding Author Email: E mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Pearl millet is an important coarse grain cereal of Africa and semi-arid tropics of Indian subcontinent. It is commonly known as bajra. It is one of the most extensively cultivated cereal in the world, ranking sixth after rice, wheat, maize, barley and sorghum in terms of area planted to these crops. It is consider as the staple food of the poor’s because it is packed with nutrients that are good for the human body. In India, it is one of the most important millet crop which flourishes well even under adverse conditions. It is the most drought tolerant crop among cereals and millets. Pearl millet grain is the richest and cheapest source of many minerals, amino acids and vitamins. Bajra grains are eaten cooked like rice or chapattis. It is also used as feed for poultry and as green fodder or dry kadbi for cattle. This grain has a ton of health benefits as well.

Nutritional Value of Pearl Millet

Pearl millet is a principal source of energy, protein, vitamins and minerals for millions of poorest people in the regions where it is cultivated. Bajra grain contains about 11.6% protein, 5%, fat, 67% carbohydrates and 2.7% minerals. It contains more calories than wheat because of its higher oil content of 5%, of which 50% are polyunsaturated fatty acids. It is rich in calcium, potassium, magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese, riboflavin, thiamine, niacin, lysine and tryptophan (Table 1).

Table 1: Nutritional composition of pearl millet grain per 100g

Constituent Content Constituent Content

Calories (Kcal) 360 Amino acids (g/100g protein)

Minerals (mg/100g grain) Tryptophan 1.74

Calcium 38 Lysine 3.01

Potassium 370 Methionine 1.82

Iron 8.8 Vitamins (mg/100g

Constituent Content Constituent Content

grain)

Zinc 5 Thiamine 0.33

Magnesium 106 Riboflavin 0.25

Pearl Millet Feeding Value

Pearl millet grain compares favorably with maize and sorghum as high-energy and high-protein ingredient in feed for poultry, pigs, cattle and sheep. Several studies indicated that, compared to maize, pearl millet is 8–60% higher in crude protein and 40% richer in amino acids such as lysine and methionine. Pearl millet forage has also been found to have higher levels of crude protein content than sorghum and maize (Table 2).

Table 2: Utility of pearl millet as green forage and dry fodder

crop Green forage yield (t ha-1)

Dry forage yield (t ha-1)

Crude protein (%)

Sorghum 32.7 7.7 6.0

Pearl millet 37.6 8.5 8.7

Maize 30.9 6.5 5.5

Health Benefits of Pearl Millet

1. Controls cholesterol level: Bajra is also known for controlling the cholesterol levels. This is because it contains a lot of fiber. It protects our heart from cardiovascular diseases by eliminating dangerous bad cholesterol (LDC) from the system and promoting the effects of good cholesterol (HDC).

2. Prevents diabetes: Diabetes is a disease that one should keep his/her eyes on. Bajra has high amounts of magnesium, which increases the efficiency of insulin and glucose receptors in the body, thereby, reducing the chance of Type 2 diabetes by at least 30%.

3. Improves digestion: Being fibre rich, millets can help to keep up the health of the gastrointestinal system and eliminate

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



problems like gas, stomach pain, cramping, ulcers, acidity and inflammation.

4. Prevents cancer: Recent studies revealed that food that is rich in fiber helps prevent breast cancer in women. In fact, by just consuming 30 grams of bajra in a day, women can reduce their chances of getting breast cancer by 50%.

5. Gluten free: Gluten free foods are generally very good to prevent celiac disease. Celiac disease is a disease that occurs in the small intestine and is very dangerous as it interferes

with the body’s ability to absorb the nutrients from the food we eat. Bajra is very good for preventing this disease as it is gluten free.

References https://www.lybrate.com/topic/bajra-millet-benefits-

and-side-effects Khairwal, I.S., Rai, K.N., Diwakar, B., Sharma, Y.K.,

Rajpurohit, B.S., Nirwan, B. and Bhattacharjee, R. (2007). Pearl Millet: Crop Management and Seed Production Manual. ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India, 4-5 pp.

32. WEED SCIENCE 17332

Sustainable Weed Management Approaches through Conservation Agriculture

Rajbir Singh Khedwal1* and Ankur Chaudhary2 1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, Punjab; 2Assistant Scientist, Regional Research Station, Karnal, CCS Haryana

Agricultural University, Hisar-125004, Haryana *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

The world population will reach 9.9 billion in 2050 and will impose tremendous pressure on availability and utility of natural resources. Hence, there is a need to accelerate crop production growth rate accordingly to meet the burgeoning population for global food security. Crop production being the core component of agriculture, can be achieved by raising crops along with best soil management practices. In modern era, agriculture is strongly associated with monotonous crop rotation, intensive tillage along with poor soil and water management strategies. Tillage as multipurpose practice is used for the manipulation of soil to develop a well pulverized suitable seedbed prior to sowing that aids in the proper emergence of crop seeds while, poor for weeds, ensure availability of nutrients, provide soil aeration, help in incorporation of soil amendments and herbicides. Besides above mentioned tillage associated benefits, conventional tillage (CT) is now recognized as ill practice and playing havoc to the natural landscape and soil health. Escalating costs of energy sources and inputs such as seed, fertilizers, labor and diesel are making this system unsuitable and unfeasible. An alternative approach is Conservation agriculture (CA) which is suitable for today's limited natural resources with higher population pressure and changing the climate. Conservation agriculture defined by FAO as minimal soil disturbance (no-till, NT) and permanent soil cover (mulch) combined with ecological diverse crop rotations. However, weed infestations in CA is a major concern and key reason for the reluctant approach towards its adoption by farmers.

Dynamics of Weeds in CA

Conservation agriculture promotes certain types of weeds including annuals, biennials but more of perennials due to less soil disturbance. However,

build-up or reduction in seed bank of certain weeds largely depends upon nature of weed species, ecological diversity associated with diverse crop rotation, presence and amount of mulch on the surface. There is a need to study the interaction of CA principles with important weed species so to manage them the ecological way.

Weed Control Measures under CA

i) No till and nature of weed flora: In CA system due to low or negligible soil disturbance more weed seeds tends to accumulate on the surface, whereas in CT, most of the weed seeds buried due to intensive soil disturbance system. However, typically small-seeded weed species thrive in CA more compared to CT because the seed is not buried. Zero-till conditions reduce the grassy weed Phalaris minor, but the broadleaf weed Rumex dentatus is increased.

ii) Improved cultural practices: Cultural practices are aimed to ensure better soil and crop management practices to reduce weed pressure. Weed-preventive measures include the use of clean crop seeds, clean agricultural implements, and managing weeds on bunds and roads, etc., can be adopted. Inclusion of ecologically diverse crop rotation in CA is a successful approach to reducing weed pressure. Stale seedbed significantly reduce initial weed pressure and give more competitive advantages to crop against late emerging weed. Presence of mulch on the surface, suppress weed seedling emergence due to shading effect, by releasing allelochemicals besides supporting habitat for weed seed predators (ants, beetles, etc.). Application of water in the root zone of crop plants by drip irrigation without providing moisture to weed seeds present on or near the

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



surface. Planting geometry and intercropping with allelopathic crops can reduce the weed infestation by limiting the vacant space for weed growth and development. Cover crops as potentially vital natural filters compete with weeds for nutrients, water, light and space with higher suppressing ability reduces the abundance of weeds besides, providing various ecological benefits such as improving soil organic matter, aggregate stability and soil biological activity.

iii) Allelopathic crops: Allelopathy is a natural and ecological phenomenon in which different organisms affect the functioning of other organisms in their vicinity, negatively or positively by releasing secondary metabolite. It can be employed with the limited use of synthetic herbicides to control weeds without damaging the natural functioning of any ecosystem due to negligible residual nature. Allelopathy can be used by introducing crops with allelopathic potential in the rotation or cover crops such as sorghum, sunflower, brassica, rice and rye, and spraying plant water extracts alone, mixed and in combination with herbicides to control weeds.

iv) Crop nutrition: Proper management of crop nutrients assures sustainable weed management through provision of suitable inputs for crop functioning. In CA due to improved fertilizer use efficiency provides a different environment for weed germination, emergence, growth and competition by altering physical and chemical properties of soil. So, variation in fertilizer doses, application methods and types are needed in accordance with weed responses in such systems.

v) Biological weed control: Biological weed control is a successful option for integration with other techniques in CA. It may be defined as “the use of an agent, a complex of agents or biological processes to bring about weed suppression”. Large numbers of predators, pathogens and other plant competitors of weeds are exploited to kill or suppress the weeds. There are several potential bio-agents serving as a source for bio-herbicides and thus facilitating eco-friendly weed control.

vi) Chemical weed control: It is the most adopted and effective approach to control weeds all over the world. A variety of herbicides are available depending upon their mode of action, chemical composition, formulation, selectiveness and efficacy. Conservation agriculture widens the use of herbicides due to an absence of tillage practices and intensive weed pressure in initial years. Continuous and frequent use of same herbicides over the years induces resistance in weeds against those herbicides, persistence in soil that causes contamination of underground water as well as stimulates micro-organisms death in the rhizosphere. Hence, the use of alternative and new herbicides chemistry with different formulations and modes of action are pragmatic options for sustainable weed management under CA. Tolerant crops to glyphosate (Roundup Ready), glufosinate, bromoxynil, imidazolinone and dicamba have been developed. No doubt, Herbicide-tolerant crops are playing a remarkable role in CA as weed management becoming easier but a serious problem is the leakage of resistance genetic traits from crops to associated weeds and build-up of herbicide resistance.

vii) Integrated weed management (IWM): Integrated weed management involves integration of numerous practices such as sowing method, using crop residues as mulch, adjusting crop sowing time, stale seedbed technique, weed competitive cultivars, high seeding rates, narrow row spacing, and diverse crop rotation, proper and judicious use of herbicides along with use of preventive measures. Further, due to the extensive development of resistance problem in weeds coupled with non-availability of innovative new herbicidal chemistry, management of weeds by using IWM techniques is highly desirable to enhance sustainability of CA. Keeping in the view of dynamics of weed infestation, distribution, diversity, growing patterns and resistance levels under CA, weed management should be oriented towards integration of cultural, mechanical, biological, ecological and chemical weed control methods.

33. WEED SCIENCE 17336

Sorghum Allelopathy for Weed Management Swarna Ronanki, Jinu Jacob and Deepika C

ICAR- Indian Institute of Millets Research, Hyderabad- 500 030 *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Weeds cause a considerable decline in crop production. They compete for resources and interfere with crop growth by releasing toxic substances in the rhizosphere.

They also serve as an alternate host for insect pests (Cheema and Khaliq, 2000). Efficient weed control through herbicides offer a substantial boost in crop productivity. Development of herbicidal resistance among weeds, and many

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



other environmental and health issues due to continuous and non-judicious use of synthetic herbicides, compelled us to search for alternative weed control strategies (Farooq et al., 2011). One of the possible strategies for reducing or minimizing the use of herbicides may be the use of natural products and allelopathy.

Allelopathy is a natural and environment-friendly technique which may prove to be a unique tool for weed control and thereby increase crop yields. It is defined as any direct or indirect growth suppressing influence of one plant species on nearby growing plants of another species through release of certain compounds known as allelochemicals (Tesio and Ferrero, 2010). Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is a well-known al-lelopathic crop, which contains a number of allelochemicals like alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, sorgoleone, phenolics and glycosides which are toxic to weeds. (Kamal, 2011). Sorghum allelopathy has been utilized as an economical and natural technique for controlling weeds in some field crops like wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), maize (Zea mays L.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) and brassica (Brassica juncea L.). It can be used as sorgaab (water extract of mature sorghum plants), sorghum mulch, sorghum soil incorporation or included in crop rotation.

Allelochemicals in Sorghum

Sorghum produces many phenolic acids like p-hydroxybenzoic, gallic, syringic, and protocatechuic acids, vanillic, benzoic, p-coumaric, and benzoic acids, etc that have phytotoxic activity. The nature and level of these acids vary with cultivars. However, phenolic acid levels change during plant development and tend to decrease as plants age. These dynamic changes in phenolics account for some of the variation in overall phytotoxicity of sorghum extracts (Won et al., 2013). Another important allelochemicals produced from sorghum is ‘Sorgoleone”. Sorgoleone is a secondary metabolite synthesized specifically in root hair cells. It has the ability to suppress and inhibit the growth of weeds without affecting the crop species

Application of Sorghum Allelopathy in Agriculture

1. Foliar application of Sorgaab: Sorgaab is made from green parts of mature sorghum plants. Allelopathic potential of sorgaab, varies between developmental stages of both sorghum and weed plants and also with sorghum cultivars. Typically, sorgaab has the greatest impact on early plant growth stages. Several studies reported that spraying of sorgaab on wheat, maize, mung bean, soybean and mustard at different time of sowing drastically reduced total weed density and dry biomass of weeds in these crops.

2. Sorghum in crop rotation systems: Allelopathic plants can be used directly in various cropping systems, including intercropping, cover cropping, crop rotation,

and minimum to no tillage systems. Accumulation of sorghum allelochemicals in soil following sorghum production provides residual activity that suppressed weed development (Geneve and Weston, 1988).

3. Intercropping with sorghum: Sorghum is commonly used in intercropping systems due to allelopathic characteristics. It had better weed control performance for purple nutsedge, field bindweed, and desert horse purslane.

4. Sorghum as a cover crop: The incorporation of cover crops and green manures to field crop cultivation has an overall positive effect in the agroecosystem by reducing soil erosion, enriching soils with organic matter, improving soil moisture retention, and smothering weeds. The allelopathic potential of sorghum makes it an effective cover crop. The incorporation of allelopathic crop mulches or residues into soil enhances agricultural sustainability by suppressing weed growth and thereby reducing herbicide use.

5. Sorghum crop residues: Sorghum residue provides selective weed management through physical presence on the soil surface as well as phytotoxin release

6. Sorgoleone as allelo-herbicide: The phytotoxic activity of sorgoleone combined with its multiple target sites and relatively long soil half-life are characteristics that could lead to the development of a natural herbicide. Sorgoleone could be developed as a preemergence herbicide, inhibiting photosynthesis in very young weed seedlings

Table 1. Common weeds inhibited by Sorgoleone from Sorghum bicolor

Allelopathin Sensitive weeds

Sorgoleone Phalaris minor

Coronopus didymus

Cyperus rotundus

Amaranthus retroflexus

Ambrosia artemisiifolia

Cassia obtusifolia

Source: Jesudas et al., 2014

Conclusion: Appropriate use of sorghum allelopathy in agriculture could reduce the herbicide application which can decrease costs in agriculture, reduce the environmental and food pollution, and improve soil productivity as well as biodiversity and sustainability in the agro ecosystem. Numerous researchers reported that continuous growing of a certain crop in the same field cause yield reduction. Crop rotation or intercropping with selected allelopathic potential crops is an effective way to control weeds. Sorghum has the ability to suppress weed by producing different allelochemicals into rhizosphere.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



References Cheema, Z. A. and Khaliq, A. 2000. Use of sorghum

allelopathic properties to control weeds in irrigated wheat in a semi-arid region of Punjab. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 79: 105–112.

Farooq, M., Jabran, K., Cheema, Z.A., Wahidb, A. and Siddiquec, K., 2011. The role of allelopathy in agricultural pest management. Pest Management Science. 67 (5): 493–506.

Tesio, F. and Ferrero, A. 2010. Allelopathy, a chance for sustainable weed management. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World

Ecology, 17(5): 377-389. Kamal, J. 2011. Impact of allelopathy of sunflower

(Helianthus annuus L.) roots extract on physiology of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). African Journal of Biotechnology, 10(65): 14465-14477.

Won, O.J., Uddin, M.R., Park, K.W., Pyon, J.Y. and Park, S.U., 2013. Phenolic compounds in sorghum leaf extracts and their effects on weed control. Allelopathy Journal 31 (1): 147–155

Jesudas, A.P., Kingsley, J.S. and Ignacimuthu, S. 2014. Sorgoleone from Sorghum bicolor as a Potent Bioherbicide. Research Journal of Recent Sciences. 3: 32-36

34. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 17233

Organic State Sikkim Shubhi Patel

PhD Scholar, Department of Agricultural Economics Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi 221005 (U.P.)

It cheers up the countrymen when an agrarian country wins Future Policy Award 2018 at global level and its state is recognized to be first 100% organic state in the world. With 43 percent of the geographical area under net sown area (Agricoop, 2018) we engage 54.6% of the population in agriculture (Agricoop, 2018). This agriculture is organic, inorganic, commercial, sustainable depending upon the state and farmers’ need. India with an area of 328.7 million hectares its small state of around 0.723 million hectares under organic farming has raised the name of the country at the top across the globe. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) conferred Sikkim as the first 100 percent organic state of the world winning the Future Policy Award 2018. The award is co-organized by Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), World Future Council (WFC) and IFOAM Organics International. Future Policy Award celebrates policies that create better living conditions for future and current generations. Each year they identify one policy topic on which policy progress is urgent. The 2018 Future Policy Award had the theme of policies that scales up agro ecology. Under this gold award was given to Sikkim for Sikkim’s State Policy on Organic Farming (2004) and Sikkim Organic Mission (2010) (“Future Policy Award - World Future Council,” n.d.).

Sikkim is the Himalayan state in the northeast India bordering Tibet in the north and northeast, Bhutan in the east, Nepal in the west and West Bengal in the south. Sikkim became the first fully organic state in India in 2016 owing to its Sikkim’s State Policy on Organic Farming 2004 and Sikkim Organic Mission 2010. Around 0.723 million hectare area in under organic production producing 80000 million tonne organic food (“Sikkim becomes India’s first organic state - Livemint,” n.d.). This is 64 percent of the total organic food produced in the country.

This has benefitted more than 66,000 farm

families. This organic state tag has uplifted other sectors of the state too like Sikkim tourism sector profited from this new organic state image and its tourism increased over 50 percent from 2014 to 2017 (“Sikkim to Get ‘100% Organic State’ UN Award in Rome | The Weather Channel,” n.d.).

Tracing out the steps taken by Sikkim Government to bag the gold award shows that it was the consistency and perseverance that lead to this achievement. The sources from website of Sikkim organic mission reveals the following steps taken-

The use of chemical fertilizer and pesticide was only 8- 12 kg per hectare and thus a limited application of inorganic inputs was practised without hampering the productivity. And in 2003 the government decided to make Sikkim an organic farming state.

In 2003 the government of Sikkim stopped the import of chemical inputs. The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides was completely banned which compelled the farmers to adopt organic inputs.

Adoption of bio-villages using EM technology in 2003.

Between 2003- 2010 important soil enrichment technology and plant protection formulations demonstrated under the strategy covering EM compost, EM Bokashi, EM-FPE, EM-5.

Table 1 EM technology based inputs

EM inputs Details

Effective Microorganisms (EM) compost

Compost prepared by using farm waste, cow dung, animal bedding biomass within 35-40 days

EM – Bokashi A Japanese fermented compost prepared from crop waste in 7-10 days

EM – Fermented Plant Extract (EM-FPE)

Chemical free bio-pesticide, growth promoter and insect pest repellant

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



EM inputs Details

EM-5 An effective microbially fermented bio-pesticide to prevent leaf diseases

Source - (“Sikkim Organic Mission,” n.d.)

Since 2005, infrastructure development to ensure organic manures availability. Through on-farm generation of vermicompost, enriched compost and liquid manure.

Till 2008-08, 24536 Rural compost cum Urine pit and 14487 vermicompost units were established. Eight vermiculture hatcheries also established to ensure earthworm supply.

Seed Village Scheme to ensure availability of high quality seeds

Introduction of seed testing units, processing units and soil testing laboratory between 2004-2006.

Intervention programme in 2007-08 for farmers training, certification and market linkage

Organic farming added as a subject in school and trainings provided to farmers.

Sikkim State Cooperative Supply and Marketing Federation Ltd (SIMFED) which is promoted by Sikkim Government provided marketing linkage to the certified farmers. SIMFED started to procure the produce from farmers and supply to authorized marketing agencies.

Campaign in 2009 to convince farmers to adopt organic farming.

Organic research in the state was started with the consultancy services of International Competence Centre for Organic Agriculture (ICCOA) Bangalore, and FiBL, Switzerland, from the year 2010.

Sikkim Organic Mission 2010, to implement and spread awareness about becoming fully

organic state. All these efforts made Sikkim achieve Organic

State in India status in 2016. And later wining gold award of Future Policy Award.

Sikkim has set an example of aiming towards sustainable development and also achieving it. Apart from fully organic state Sikkim is cleanest state of India. Polythene use is banned and State Green Mission is working towards plantation of fruit trees and plantation drives. The selling of organic products ensures higher returns to the farmers thus improving their living standard.

This landlocked Himalayan state has enlightened a path towards taking step forward for a better and safe future and has also showed the path to achieve it. it has shown a ways towards agro ecology. Other states are also working on Sikkim’s organic model and moving towards a better tomorrow.

The need of the hour is to learn and implement such policy with great zeal and enthusiasm in order to be a sustainably developing country. This will lead to a flush of purity in the environment, upliftment of other socio-economic sectors and achieve many more recognition for good work at the global level.

References Agricoop. (2018). Department of Agriculture,

Cooperation & Farmers Welfare - Annual Reaport 2017-18. https://doi.org/10.15713/ins.mmj.3

https://www.worldfuturecouncil.org/future-policy-award/october 17, 2018

https://www.livemint.com/Politics/DitDLJSF3ilmXNZgSW8bcM/Sikkim-becomes-Indias-first-organic-state.html/ october 18, 2018

https://www.sikkimorganicmission.gov.in/october 18, 2018

https://weather.com/en-IN/india/news/news/2018-10-15-sikkim-organic-state-un-award-rome october 17, 2018.


Green Manuring: Concept and its Role in Agriculture Meenakshi Sangwan, Astha Duhan and Sudesh Devi

CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125 004, India *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Green manuring is the practice of ploughing under or soil incorporation of any green plant tissues grown in the field or adding green plants with tender twigs or leaves from outside and incorporating them into the soil for improving the physical structure as well as fertility of the soil. It can be defined as a practice of ploughing or turning into the soil, un-decomposed green plant tissues for the purpose of improving the soil fertility. Green manures are a method of replacing that basket of compost with a handful of seed. In this method, the plants that grow from the handful of seed are ploughed back into the soil. After a while in the soil, the plants rot down to become

compost. Plants used in this way are called Green Manures. It's a very good way of increasing the fertility of the soil, and can give huge benefits for farmers. Green manure crops are primarily used in environmentally friendly agricultural practices to reduce the application of chemical fertilizer and herbicide.’

Why Green Manuring?

To provide soil cover to check evaporation losses, soil temperature, increase water infiltration and reduce weed infestation.

To add an organic matter into the soil, increase microbial activities and helps in

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



nitrogen fixation Protect soil from erosion. Add biomass to soil (in order to accumulate

soil organic matter, add and recycle nutrients, feed soil life).

Improve soil physical, chemical and biological activities.

Reduce pest and disease infestation

Dhaincha

Cluster bean

Types of green manuring: There are two types of green manuring:

Green manures

Green manuring (in-situ) Green leaf manuring (ex-situ)

Legume Non-legume

Legume Non-legume

Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeate and S. rostrata)

Sunflower Gliricidia (Gliricidia maculata)

Calotropis gigantea

Sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea)

Buck wheat

Cassia (Cassia auriculata)

Adhatoda

Cow pea Subabul (Leucaena leucocephala)

1. In-situ green manuring: When green manure crops are grown in the field itself either as a pure crop or as intercrop with the main crop or on bare fallow, depending upon the soil and climatic conditions of the region and incorporate in the same field. The plant species used for green manuring includes sun hemp (Crotalaria juncea) and dhaincha (Sesbania aculeate and S. rostrata)

Biomass Production and N Accumulation of Green Manure Crops

Crop Age

(Days) Dry matter

(t/ha) N

accumulated

Sesbania aculeata 60 23.2 133

Sesbania rostrata 50 5.0 96

Sunnhemp 60 30.6 134

Cluster bean 50 3.2 91

Cow pea 60 23.2 74

Stage of Incorporation of Green Manure Crop

Ploughing of crop must be done at peak vegetative stage or before flowering when the degeneration of nodule starts. The majority of the green manure crops require 6 to 8 weeks after sowing at which there is maximum green matter production and most succulent. For large-scale production, incorporation of sesbania with the help of rotavator is the most efficient method.

2. Ex-situ or Leaf green manuring: It refers to application of green leaves and twigs of trees, shrubs and herbs collected from elsewhere and turning into the soil. Forest tree leaves are the main sources for green leaf manure. Plants growing in wastelands, field bunds etc., are another source of green leaf manure. The important plant species useful for green leaf manure are neem, mahua, wild indigo, Glyricidia, karanji, calotropis, subabul and other shrubs.

Characteristics/Desirable Qualities of a Good Manuring

Short duration, fast growing and photoperiod insensitive.

Preferably it should be legume, so that it will be helpful in nitrogen fixation.

Wide ecological adaptability, thus able to grow on problematic soils, tolerant to flood, drought and adverse temperatures.

Crop should be more succulent and have more vegetative/leafy growth to enhance the decomposition process.

Crop should have deep and fibrous root system to absorb nutrients from deeper layer.

Resistant to pest and diseases.

Role of Green Manuring in Agriculture

It adds organic matter to the soil and simulates activity of soil micro-organisms.

Green manuring improves soil structure, increases water holding capacity and decreases soil loss by erosion.

Leguminous green manure crop fixes ‘N’ from the atmosphere and adds to the soil for being used by succeeding crop. Generally, about 2/3 of the N is derived from the atmosphere and the rest from the soil.

Growing of green manure crops in the off season reduces weed proliferation and weed growth

Green manuring helps in reclamation of alkaline soils. Cultivation of Sesbania aculeata (Dhaincha) in sodic soils improves the

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



permeability of soil. Root knot nematodes can be controlled by

green manuring. Prevent leaching of nutrients to lower layers According to various studies, Green manuring

can increases the yield of crops up to 15 to 20%.

Application of phosphatic fertilizers to Green manure crops (leguminous) helps to increase the yield, for rapid growth of Rhizobia and increase the ‘P’ availability to succeeding crop.

Thus, inclusion of Green manure crop in crop rotation increases total crop productivity of the system. Green manures mobilize soil nutrient reserves, creates conducive environment for soil microbes, saves on mineral nitrogen by fixing atmospheric nitrogen and reduce the use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture. Therefore, it is an eco-friendly low cost technology to conserve the natural resources besides maintaining environmental quality in a sustainable manner. Beneficial effect of green manuring can be observed in next succeeding crop.


Role of Phyto Remediation in Sustainable Agriculture Rathnam Kadamanda

Research Scholar, Department of Environmental Science, University college of Sciences, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana, India – 500007.


INTRODUCTION: Phytoremediation is a part of bioremediation. It is the process that uses plants to remove, transfer, stabilize, and destroy contaminants from soil or water. It Clean up soil and or groundwater. It can remove organics, metals, leftover pesticides, explosives and radioactive waste.

Types of Phytoremediation

1. Enhanced Rhizosphere Biodegradation: Occurs immediately surrounding plant roots. Plant roots naturally release nutrients to microorganisms in the soil - enhancing their biological activity. The roots also loosen the soil and then die, leaving water & aeration flow paths.

2. Phyto-Accumulation or Phyto-Extraction: Contaminant drawn in by plant roots by phyto-extraction, resulting in the translocation/accumulation of contaminants into plant shoots and leaves.

3. Phyto-Degradation (Phyto Stimulation): Plants produce enzymes such as dehalogenase and oxygenase, which help catalyse degradation. This process metabolizes the contaminants within plant tissues due to the enzymes.

4. Phyto-Stabilisation: Chemical compounds produced by plants immobilize contaminants at the interface of roots and soil.

5. Phyto-Volatilisation or Evapotranspiration: Volatile metals (such as mercury and selenium) are taken up, changed in species then transpired through the leaves.

Mechanism:

Mechanism Process Contaminants Media

Phyto-stabilisation Containment Pb, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Zn,

Soil, Sediment, Sludges

Rhizo-degradation Remediation Organic Soil,

Mechanism Process Contaminants Media

by destruction

compounds, Pesticides, Chlorinated solvents

Sediment, Sludges, Ground water

phytoaccumulation Remediation by extraction and capture

Ag, Au, Cd, Cr, Cu, Co, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Zn, Radio nuclides

Soil, Sediment, Sludges

Phytodegradation Remediation by destruction

Organic compounds, Pesticides, Chlorinated solvents, Phenols, Pesticides

Soil, Sediment, Surface water, Groundwater

Phytovolatilisation Remediation by extraction from media and released to air

Chlorinated solvents, Some inorganic (Se, Hg, As)

Soil, Sediment, Surface water, Groundwater

Best Phytoremedial Plants

Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.) 2. Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans L.)3. Willow (Salix species). 4. Poplar tree (Populus deltoides W.)5. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.).

Uses

Metals, pesticides, solvents, explosives, crude oil and landfill leached outs. Plants can store all wastes, then would be harvested for the final removal.

It is environmentally friendly and cost effective. Suited to remediation of large areas of soil.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Limitations

Limited to shallow soils - limited by depth of roots. And slower method

Some locations are offer only seasonal treatment - when plant 'in season'.

The food chain could be adversely affected by the degradation of chemicals.

Conclusion: Water and soil sustainability is important for continuum of living organism. Through this newsletter, you will find a useful guidance on plants with proven qualities to naturally reduce, degrade or remove contaminants

from soil and water.

References Limmer, Matt; Burken, Joel (2016)

"Phytovolatilization of Organic Contaminants". Environmental Science & Technology. 50 (13): 6632–6643.

Meagher, RB (2000) "Phytoremediation of toxic elemental and organic pollutants", Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 3 (2): 153–162.

Pilon-Smits, Elizabeth (2005) "Phytoremediation". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 56 (1): 15–39.


Sustainable Agriculture: Parameters and Indicators Astha Duhan1, V. S. Hooda2 and Meenakshi Sangwan2

1Bioinformatics and Agrigenomics Research Professional, USA 2CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125 004, India

Sustainable Agriculture is Agriculture that is: Productive and profitable, Conserves resources, Enhances health and safety

Through low input and skilled management (means of sustainability) by-

Reduced use of synthetic chemicals Biological pest control Use of organic wastes Soil and water conservation Crop rotations Crop/livestock diversification Use of animal and green manure Biotechnology

The ultimate goal or the ends of sustainable agriculture is to develop farming systems that are productive and profitable, conserve the natural resource base, protect the environment, and enhance health and safety, and to do so over the long-term. The means of achieving this is low input methods and skilled management, which seek to optimize the management and use of internal production inputs (i.e., on-farm resources) in ways that provide acceptable levels of sustainable crop yields and livestock production and result in economically profitable returns. This approach emphasizes such cultural and management practices as crop rotations, recycling of animal manures, and conservation tillage to control soil erosion and nutrient losses and to maintain or enhance soil productivity.

Low-input farming systems seek to minimize the use of external production inputs (i.e., off-farm resources), such as purchased fertilizers and pesticides, wherever and whenever feasible and practicable: to lower production costs: to avoid pollution of surface and groundwater: to reduce pesticide residues in food: to reduce a farmer’s overall risk: and to increase both short-term and long-term farm profitability. Another reason for the focus on low- input farming systems is that most high input systems, sooner or later, would

probably fail because they are not either economically or environmentally sustainable over the long-term.

Goals/Indicators of Sustainable AGRICULTURE

A sustainable Agriculture, therefore, is any system of food or fibre production that systematically pursues the following goals:

A more thorough incorporation of natural processes such as nutrient cycling nitrogen fixation and pest-predator relationships into agricultural production processes:

A reduction in the use of those off-farm, external and non-renewable inputs with the greatest potential to damage the environment or harm the health of farmers and consumers, and more targeted use of the remaining inputs used with a view to minimizing variable costs:

The full participation of farmers and rural people in all processes of problem analysis and technology development, adoption and extension.

A more equitable access to predictive resources and opportunities, and progress towards more socially just forms of Agriculture:

A greater productive use of the biological and genetic potential of plant and animal species:

A greater productive use of local knowledge and practices, including innovation in approaches not yet fully understood by scientists or widely adopted by farmers:

An increase in self-reliance among farmers and rural people

An improvement in the match between cropping patterns and the productive potential and environmental constraints of climate and landscape to ensure long-term sustainability of current production levels: and

Profitable and efficient production with an emphasis on integrated form management:

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



and the conservation of soil, water, energy and biological resources

Elements/Parameters of Sustainability

There are many ways to improve the sustainability of a given farming system, and these vary from region to region, However, there are some common sets of practices among farmers trying to take a more sustainable approach, in part through greater use of on-farm or local resources each contributing in some way to long- term profitability, environmental stewardship and rural quality of life.

1. Soil conservation: Many soil conservation methods, including contour cultivates contour bunding, graded bunding, vegetative barriers, strip cropping cover cropping, reduced tillage etc help prevent loss of soil due to wind and water erosion

2. Crop diversity: Growing a greater variety of crops on a farm can help reduce risks from extremes in weather, market conditions or crop pests. Increased diversity crops and other plants, such as trees and shrubs, also can contribute to soil conservation, wildlife habitat and increased populations of beneficial insects

3. Nutrient management: Proper management of nitrogen and other plant nutrients con improve the soil and protect environment. Increased use of farm nutrient sources such as manure and leguminous cover crops, also reduces purchased fertilizer costs.

4. Integrated pest management (IPM): IPM is a

sustainable approach to managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools in way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks.

5. Cover crops: Growing plant such as sun hemp, horse gram, pillipesara in the off season after harvesting a grain or vegetable crop can provide several benefits, including weed suppression, erosion control, and improved soil nutrients and soil quality.

6. Rotational grazing: New management- intensive grazing systems take animals out barn into the pasture to provide high-quality forage and reduced feed cost.

7. Water quality & water conservation: Water conservation and protection have important part of Agricultural stewardship. Many practices have been develop conserve Viz., deep ploughing, mulching, micro irrigation techniques etc., protect quality of drinking and surface water.

8. Agro forestry: Trees and other woody perennials are often underutilized and covers a range of practices viz., agri-silviculture, silvi-pastoral, agri-silvi-horticulture, horti/silvipastoral, alley cropping, tree farming, lay farm that help conserve, soil and water.

9. Marketing: Farmers across the country are finding that improved marketing -way to enhance profitability, direct marketing of agricultural product from farmers to consumers is becoming much more common.


Panchgavya: Importance and Uses in Agriculture Sunny Sharma*and P K Mishra

Assistant Professor, Department of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara (PB) 144 411 *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Panchagavya is an organic formulation, which in Sanskrit means the blend of five products obtained from cow i.e. milk, ghee, curd, dung and urine. The components like cowdung and cow urine enhances the insecticidal activity of panchgavya which can reduce the number of application hazardous chemicals on crops. It is a mixed culture of naturally occurring, beneficial microbes’ mostly lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus), yeast (Saccharomyces), actinomyces (Streptomyces), photosynthetic bacteria (Rhodopseudomonas) and certain fungi (Aspergillus) which promotes the growth and yield in different crops and provides high B:C ratio. So, panchagavya can be an effective organic growth-promoter for small and marginal farmers.

All the above items can be added to a wide mouthed mud pot or concrete tank or plastic bucket as per the above order. The container should be kept open under shade. The content is

to be stirred twice a day both in morning and evening. Sugarcane juice and coconut water are reported to accelerate fermentation. Toddy also accelerate fermentation and helps in minimizing the bad odour. To prepare toddy two litres of tender coconut water has to be kept in a sealed airtight plastic bottle for a week. However, 100 g of yeast powder can be made use of in case of non-availability of toddy.

Advantages of Panchgavya in Agriculture Chemical composition

pH ................................................................................. 5.45 EC dSm2 ..................................................................... 10.22 Total N (ppm) ................................................................. 229 Total P (ppm) ................................................................. 209 Total K (ppm) ................................................................. 232 Sodium ............................................................................ 90 Calcium ........................................................................... 25 IAA (ppm) ....................................................................... 8.5 GA (ppm) ........................................................................ 3.5

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Microbial Load

Fungi ..................................................................... 38800/ml Bacteria ............................................................. 1880000/ml Lactobacillus ..................................................... 2260000/ml Total anaerobes ..................................................... 10000/ml Acid formers ............................................................. 360/ml Methanogen .............................................................. 250/ml

Physico-chemical properties of Panchagavya revealed that they possess almost all the major nutrients, micro nutrients and growth hormones (IAA & GA) required for crop growth. Predominance of fermentative microorganisms like yeast and lactobacillus might be due to the combined effect of low pH, milk products and addition of jaggery/sugarcane juice as substrate for their growth.

The low pH of the medium was due to the production of organic acids by the fermentative microbes as evidenced by the population dynamics and organic detection in GC analysis. Lactobacillus produces various beneficial metabolites such as organic acids, hydrogen peroxide and antibiotics, which are effective against other pathogenic microorganisms besides its growth. GC-MS analysis resulted in following compounds of fatty acids, alkanes, alconol and alcohols.

Fatty acids Alkanes Alconol and Alcohols

Oleic acids Decane Heptanol

Palmitic acid Octane Tetracosanol

Myristic Heptane Hexadecanol

Deconore Hexadecane Octadeconol

Deconomic Oridecane Methanol, Propanol, Butanol and Ethanol Octanoic

Hexanoic

Octadeconoic

Tetradeconoic

Acetic, propionic, butyric, caproic and valeric acids

Beneficial effects of Panchagavya on Commercial Crops

Mango

Induces dense flowering with more female

flowers Irregular or alternate bearing habit is not

experienced and continues to fruit regularly Enhances keeping quality by 12 days in room

temperature Flavour and aroma are extraordinary

Acid Lime

Continuous flowering is ensured round the year

Fruits are plumpy with strong aroma Shelf life is extended by 10 days

Guava

Higher TSS Shelf life is extended by 5 days

Banana

In addition to adding with irrigation water and spraying, 3% solution (100 ml) was tied up at the naval end of the bunch after the male bud is removed. The bunch size becomes uniform. One month earlier harvest was witnessed. The size of the top and bottom hands was uniformly big.

Recommended Dosage Spray System

3% solution was found to be most effective compared to the higher and lower concentrations investigated. Three litres of Panchagavya to every 100 litres of water is ideal for all crops. The power sprayers of 10 litres capacity may need 300 ml/tank. When sprayed with power sprayer, sediments are to be filtered and when sprayed with hand operated sprayers, the nozzle with higher pore size has to be used.

Flow system: The solution of Panchagavya can be mixed with irrigation water at 50 litres per hectare either through drip irrigation or flow irrigation Seed/seedling treatment: 3% solution of Panchagavya can be used to soak the seeds or dip the seedlings before planting. Soaking for 20 minutes is sufficient. Rhizomes of Turmeric, Ginger and sets of Sugarcane can be soaked for 30 minutes before planting.

Seed storage: 3% of Panchagavya solution can be used to dip the seeds before drying and storing them.

39. AGRICULTURE WASTE MANAGEMENT 17204

Agro-Industrial Waste and its Management Abhishek Aneja*, Aman Deep Ranga, Sourav Kumar and Mayur S. Darvhankar

School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab – 144411

INTRODUCTION: Agro based industry refers to an industry that adds values to agricultural raw materials through processing in order to produce marketable and usable products that bring forth profits and additional income to the producer. The agro-based industry includes industries related to

textiles, sugar, paper and vegetable oil. These industries facilitate effective and efficient utilisation of agricultural raw materials. These industries have huge base in our country as agricultural activities contribute about 17% to our GDP (Hemant Singh, Feb 2018). It leads to

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



diversification and commercialization of agriculture; it will thus enhance the incomes of farmers and create food surpluses. On the other hand, we cannot deny the fact that in India, about 960 million tonnes of solid waste is being generated annually as by-products during industrial, mining, municipal, agricultural and other processes. But “waste” term is not appropriate because undoubtedly these leftover part have high nutritional content and can be used as raw material for manufacturing other products such as fertilizer, animal feed, soil improvements, manufacturing and various other products. These raw material mainly consist of husks, molasses, seeds, bagasse, straw, stem, leaves, stubble, peel, roots etc Agricultural residues are rich in bioactive compounds and are also free from phytotoxic compounds as evident from the phytotoxicity test. The organic substrates in solid waste can be biodegraded and stabilized by composting and the final compost products could be applied to land as the fertilizer or soil conditioner.

Importance of Agro-Industry

Employment and income generation: Agro-industry plays an important role in pro-poor growth strategies, specially in developing countries like India where 75% of poor live countryside regions.

1. Contribution to GDP and manufacturing: 54.6% of the population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities (census 2011). It contributes 17.4% to the country’s Gross Value Added (current price 2014-15, 2011-12 series). Total production of agriculture sector is US$366.92 billion

Table.1: Over View of Agro-Based Industry (India Brand Equity Foundation, 2014-2015)

Category Food &

Processing Textile Tobacco Leather Paper

Market Size (US$ billions)

190 108 9.18 12 8

Share in GDP of Manufacturing (%)

14 5 Less Than 1%

Less Than 1%

Less Than 1%

Exports (US$ billions)

37.7 41.4 9.18 5.91 0.5

Employment (Persons)

48 million 40 million

36 million

2.5 million

2 million

2. Promotion of socio-economic development: Agro-industry gives capital and services to crop growers (e.g. training, market information, seeds and equipment), promotes entrepreneurship, connect farmers with market.

3. Stabilization and regeneration: Agro-industries gives employment and supporting finance and monetary growth in areas that have been affected by internal conflicts and out migration.

4. Integration into global markets: Agro-based

SMEs not only provide access to new domestic market, but also act as launching pad of developing countries into international market.

Figure 1: Different wastes produced by Agro-Industry

Utilization of Agro-Industrial waste

1. Composting: Composting is a managed process which utilizes natural microorganisms available in organic matter and soil to decompose organic wastes. These microorganisms require sufficient basic nutrients, oxygen, and for decomposition.

2. Anaerobic Digestion: Methane gas can be produced from agricultural wastes particularly manures. This gas is best suited for heating purposes as in broiler operation, water heating, grain drying, etc.

3. Pyrolysis: In pyrolysis systems, agricultural waste is heated up to a temperature of 400-600°C in anaerobic condition to vaporize a portion of the material, leaving a char. This is considered to be a modern procedure for the utilization of agricultural wastes.

4. Animal feed: Crop residues have high fibre content and are low in protein, starch and fat. Therefore, the traditional method of increasing livestock production by supplementing forage and pasture with grains and protein concentrate may not meet future meat protein needs.

5. Direct combustion: The simple act of burning agricultural waste as fuel is one of the oldest biomass conversion processes. Complete combustion of agro waste “consists of the rapid chemical reaction (oxidation) of biomass and oxygen, the release of energy, and the simultaneous formation of the ultimate oxidation products of organic matter – CO2 and water”.

Health Problems Caused by Agro-Industrial Waste

1. Agro-industrial waste is the main source of pollution in water and lakes.

2. Chemicals from fertilizers and pesticides make their way into the groundwater that end up in drinking water.

3. Health related problems may occur as it contribute to blue baby syndrome which causes death in infants.

4. Fertilizers, manure, waste and ammonia turns into nitrate that reduces the amount of oxygen present in water which results in the death of

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



many aquatic animals. 5. Bacteria and parasites from animal waste can

get into drinking water which can pose serious health hazards for various aquatic life and animals.

Management of Agro-Industrial Waste

1. Waste management helps to maintain a healthy environment for farm animals and can reduce the need for commercial fertilizers

while providing other nutrients needed for crop production.

2. The waste which is reduce, recycle and make it usable for different purpose is a waste management.

3. Good waste management reduces the instances of well water contamination and minimizes surface water pollution.

40. AGRICULTURE WASTE MANAGEMENT 17264

Earthworm: A Potential Player in Waste Management Sikha Snehal1 and Rajeswari Das2

1PhD Scholar, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Basic Sciences and Humanities, Dr. RPCAU, PUSA, Samastipur, Bihar, India-848125

2PhD Scholar, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Dr. RPCAU, PUSA, Samastipur, Bihar, India-848125


With the advent of industrialization and energy based intensive agriculture, chemical pathways for raw materials conversion became predominant with extensive use of petrochemical based feedstock. The damaging long-term environmental impacts and resource depletion indicate un-sustainability of the current methods. Now the attention is once again on biochemical pathways with the intervention of appropriate biological organisms. There are numerous sources of waste where degradable organic matter is either partially or fully generated. The degradable organic matter from the wastes when dumped in open undergoes either aerobic or anaerobic degradation. These un-engineered dumpsites permit fine organic matter to become mixed with percolating water to form leachate. The potential for this leachate to pollute adjoining water and soil is high. India where a lot of solid organic waste is available in different sectors with no dearth of manpower, the environmentally acceptable vermicomposting technology using earthworms can very well be adopted for converting waste into wealth. Considerable work has been carried out on vermicomposting of various organic materials and it has been established that epigeic forms of earth-worms can hasten the composting process to a significant extent, with production of a better quality of composts as compared with those prepared through traditional methods. The plant protection practices and recommendations for applications of heavy doses of pesticides to control some soil insects and weeds have made the soil barren. A growing awareness of some of the adverse economic and environmental impacts of agrochemicals in crop production has stimulated greater interest in the utilization of organic amendments such as compost or vermicompost for crop production. Of the 6000 earthworm species, most can be subdivided into litter (compost)-dwelling species or soil-dwelling species. Earthworms voraciously feed on organic

wastes and while utilizing only a small portion for their body synthesis they excrete a large part of these consumed waste materials in a half digested form. Since the intestines of earthworms harbour wide ranges of microorganisms, enzymes, hormones, etc., these half-digested material decompose rapidly and is transformed into a form of vermicompost within a short time Litter-dwelling species are small, easily cultivated, and of enormous use in processing organic materials; they simultaneously produce a potential horticultural product (worm-worked material, or vermicompost) and also produce biomass as more earthworms. The latter are themselves a potential product for protein production (animal or human feed). Soil-dwelling earthworms require more careful culture, but their use in soil improvement schemes, enhancing selected agricultural systems, and eco-toxicological monitoring is now recognized and is becoming more widely established. Laboratory-based culture has been up-scaled, and future practice will undoubtedly have a direct role in key areas of world food production and soil rehabilitation. Collectively, these seemingly insignificant animals can make a significant contribution to achieving sustainable human development.

Scientific investigations have established the viability of using earthworms as a treatment technique for numerous waste streams besides producing organic fertilizers. Vermicomposting results in the bioconversion of the waste stream into two useful products, earthworm biomass and vermicompost. The former can be used as a protein source whereas vermicompost is considered as an excellent product since it is homogenous, has desirable aesthetics, has reduced level of contaminates, has plant growth hormones, higher level of soil enzymes, greater microbial population and tends to hold more nutrients over a longer period without adversely impacting the environment. This process takes

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



place in the mesophilic temperature range (35-40˚ C). Earthworm prepares organic manures, through their characteristic functions of breaking up organic matter and combines it with soil particles. The final product is a stabilized, well humidified, organic fertilizer, with adhesive effects for the soil and stimulator for plant growth and most suitable for agricultural application and favorable environmentally. The action of earthworms in this process is both physical/mechanical and biochemical. Physical participation in degrading organic substrates results in fragmentation, thereby increasing the surface area of action, turnover and aeration. Biochemical changes in the degradation of organic matter are carried out through enzymatic digestion, enrichment by nitrogen excrement and transport of organic and inorganic materials. About 5- 10% of ingested material is absorbed into the tissue for their growth and metabolic activity and rest is excreted as vermicast. The vermicast is mixed with mucus secretion of the gut wall, and of the microbes and transformed into vermicompost. The decomposition process continues even after the release of the cast by the establishment of

microorganisms. The studies on the effects of vermicomposting on some components of organic waste showed that vermicompost enhances degree of polymerization of humic substances along with a decrease of ammonium N and an increase of nitric N.

Thus we can say that vermicomposting technology involves harnessing earthworms as versatile natural bioreactors playing a vital role in the decomposition of organic matter, maintaining soil fertility and in bringing out efficient nutrient recycling and enhanced plants' growth. A variety of organic solid wastes, domestic, animal, agro-industrial, human wastes etc. can be vermicomposted. The value of vermicompost is further enhanced as it has simultaneously other benefits: excess worms can be used in medicines and as protein rich animal feed provided they are not growing on polluted wastes and can be used as an anti-soil pollutant. Hence, mass rearing and maintaining worm cultures and tapping of organic wastes for their maintenance has a good scope for developing it as a cottage industry in developing countries like India where there is no girth of organic wastes.

41. AGROMETEOROLOGY, REMOTE SENSING & GIS 17284

Weather Effects on Crop Production Gurupreet Singh Gandhi

M.Sc. (Ag) Department of Agrometeorology Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya Raipur, Chhattisgarh, 492012, India.


Crop production depends directly and indirectly on weather condition. The Effects of Weather on Crop Production depends on Solar Radiation, Air Temperature, Precipitation/Rainfall, Wind, Atmospheric Pressure and Clouds.

The effects of weather on crop production is described as following:

1. Solar Radiation

Direct Solar radiation. It is the amount of radiation received directly from the Sun. The radiation scattered by the suspended particles is called diffused in diffused radiation, about 65 percent is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) compared to 45 percent in direct radiation. As clouds are very effective reflectors, little solar radiation reaches the earth surface on a cloudy day. Snow is also a very effective reflector (especially when it is fresh). Water surfaces and sea are poor reflectors and thus serve as a good sink for solar energy.

Influence of Sunlight. Photoperiodism Photo/day neutral plants (No relationship bet flower formation and day length): maize, soybean, eggplant, tomato, sunflower, banana, papaya Short day plants (critical 11-12 hrs. plants that flower below the critical

period. E.g. Jute 11.5hrs): Jute, tobacco, sweet potato long day plants (critical period 12-14hrs– Long day i.e. short night is required for flowering): Cabbage, potato, lettuce, radish (e.g. Spinach flowers above 13 hrs. day length or more but not less).

2. Air Temperature

Temperature is defined by the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance, determined by the extent of its molecular activity

Germination: Proper temperature is essential for seed germination. Too high and too low temperature prohibits seed germination. Different crops have different term requirement for germination and complete life cycle.

Photosynthesis: Occurs within -6 to 370 Growth, development and yield: Production of dry matter occurs when soil temperature ranges bet 20-30 0C.

Flower initiation: Certain crops require low temperature for flower initiation and Flowering. E.g. Cabbage, cauliflower, carrot turnip etc.

Insects, pests /diseases / weeds: Transpiration / evaporation: kharif-1> kharif-2> rabi due comparatively higher temperature.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Product quality: better quality in relatively low temperature (depending on crops)

Yield: rabi> kharif-2> kharif-1 due to comparatively reduced respiration rate and higher net photosynthetic rate.

3. Precipitation/Rainfall

The falling off any type of condensed moisture to the ground is called precipitation. Rainfall is precipitation in the form of liquid drops larger than 0.5mm in diameter is falling on the earth. When water droplets in a cloud grow in size and become heavy enough, they fall in the form of rains. Ordinarily, rain drop size varies from 0.5 to 4 mm in diameter.

Germination: Proper moisture is essential for seed germination. Different crops have different moisture requirement for germination and complete life cycle. Wheat seed requires 55% water absorption compared to its weight for germination. Mustard requires less water absorption.

Tillage and intercultural operations: Better performed under field capacity and wet condition depending on crops. Upland farming needs special practices.

Insects, pests/diseases/weeds: kharif-1> kharif-2> rabi due comparatively higher rainfall and excess moisture.

Photosynthesis: Less Net photosynthesis in more cloudy days.

Growth, development and yield: rabi> kharif-2> kharif-1 due to comparatively controlled moisture contents.

Soil erosion: higher in excessive rainfall and open field.

Product quality: rabi> kharif-2> kharif-1 due comparatively controlled.

Moisture contents: Grapes ate sour in rainy seasons.

4. Winds

The wind is air in the horizontal motion which travels from a high-pressure area to a low-pressure area. Variations in incident solar radiation due to earth’s position and angle of

incidence cause low and high-temperature regimes in different areas. Air from high-pressure areas rushes to the low-pressure areas causing horizontal movement of wind. Wind direction and velocity is important for agricultural crop production. Wind velocity is measured by the anemometer.

5. Atmospheric Pressure

The Pressure exerted by the atmosphere of the earth’s surface is called atmospheric pressure. Generally, in areas of higher temperature, atmospheric pressure is low and in areas of low-temperature pressure is high. Atmospheric pressure has no direct influence on crop growth. It is, however an important parameter in weather forecasting. Instruments for measuring atmospheric pressure are aneroid barometer and barograph.

6. Clouds

Solar radiation provides energy for evaporation. Evaporation supplies water vapor to the air. Air rises upwards on account of increasing temperature. As the mass of air goes up, it expands due to low pressure and cools. If the cooling proceeds up to saturation, water vapor condenses and cloud formation takes place. Clouds are also formed when a current of warm air strikes a parcel of cool air, or when a moist air from sea blows over cold land. Thus, the cloud is an aggregate on minute drops of water suspended in the air at higher altitude. Clouds are at a basic height of 1950 m. If it is formed above that height, the word, ‘alto’ is associated. If the cloud is associated with rains, word, “nimbus” is associated. Thunderstorms: Cumulo-nimbus. These clouds develop from cumulus that has developed into tremendous towering clouds with a vertical range from base to 3 to 8 kilometers. When grown to this height, such clouds form the well-known thunderstorms. Thunderstorms help in fixing atmospheric N into the soils in the form fertilizer. We cannot control All the Effects of Weather on Crop Production.

42. WATER MANAGEMENT 17289

Alternate Wetting and Drying: A Smart Water Technique for Rice

G. Rajitha

Research Scholar, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Guntur

Rice is the most important human food crop in the world, directly feeding more people than any other crop. Rice is grown in continuously flooded fields but water for agriculture is becoming increasingly scarce. Unproductive water losses in the form of runoff, seepage and percolation from flooded rice fields are very high accounting for 50

to 60% of the total water input to the field. Scientists have estimated that by 2025, 15-20 million hectares of irrigated rice will suffer some degree of water scarcity. At the same time, each hectare of land used to grow rice will have to provide for at least 43 people by 2050, compared to 27 currently. Irrigated rice with continuous

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



flooding not only results in low water use efficiency but also causes environmental degradation and reduces fertilizer use efficiency. Therefore a drop of water received at the farmers field by way of rainfall or canal irrigation is valuable and needs to be used effectively. Aware of the precarious state of water resources, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) developed a technique known as ‘Alternate Wetting and Drying’ (AWD).

Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) is a water-saving technology that farmers can apply to reduce their irrigation water consumption in rice fields without decreasing its yield. In AWD, irrigation water is applied a few days after the disappearance of the ponded water. Hence, the field gets alternately flooded and non-flooded. The number of days of non-flooded soil between irrigations can vary from 1 to more than 10 days depending on the number of factors such as soil type, weather, and crop growth stage.

Field water tube made up of PVC- Note the holes on all sides.

The field water tube: The field water tube can be made of 30 cm long plastic pipe or bamboo, and should have a diameter of 10−15 cm so that the water table is easily visible, and it is easy to remove soil inside. Perforate the tube with many holes on all sides, so that water can flow readily in and out of the tube. Hammer the tube into the soil so that 15 cm protrudes above the soil surface. Take care not to penetrate through the bottom of the plow pan. Remove the soil from inside the tube so that the bottom of the tube is visible. When the field is flooded, check that the water level inside the tube is the same as outside the tube. If it is not the same after a few hours, the holes a probably blocked with compacted soil and the tube needs to be carefully re-installed. The tube should be placed in a readily accessible part of the field close to a bund, so it is easy to monitor the ponded water depth. The location should be representative of the average water depth in the field (i.e. it should not be in a high spot or a low spot).

Measurement of water level inside the field water tube inserted in rice field

The practice of AWD on the farm: AWD can be started a few weeks (1−2 weeks) after transplanting. When many weeds are present, AWD should be postponed for 2−3 weeks to assist suppression of the weeds by the ponded water and improve the efficacy of herbicide. Local fertilizer recommendations as for flooded rice can be used. Apply fertilizer N preferably on the dry soil just before irrigation. At about two weeks after transplanting, the field is left to dry out until the water level is at 15 cm below the soil surface. Then, the field is flooded again to a water depth of approximately 3–5 cm before draining again. This irrigation scheme is repeated except during flowering time, when the field is maintained at a flooded water depth of 3–5 cm. The number of drainages and the number of days that the field is non-flooded will vary. A drainage level of 15 cm is called “safe AWD” because this level will not cause a yield decline.

Benefits of AWD

Reduced water use: By reducing the number of irrigation events required, AWD can reduce water use by up to 30%. It can help farmers cope with water scarcity and increase reliability of downstream irrigation water supply.

Greenhouse gas mitigation potential: AWD is assumed to reduce methane (CH4) emissions by an average of 48% compared to continuous flooding. Combining AWD with nitrogen-use efficiency and management of organic inputs can further reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Increased net returns for farmers: “Safe” AWD does not reduce yields. Field water tube used for observation of water levels by farmers. The ability to observe the level of the water table below the soil helps build confidence in AWD. Compared to continuous flooding, AWD in fact increase yields by promoting more effective tillering and stronger root growth of rice plants. Farmers who use pump irrigation can save money on

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



irrigation costs and see a higher net return from using AWD. AWD may reduce labor costs by improving field conditions (soil stability) at harvest, allowing for mechanical harvesting.

References Bouman, B.A.M and Tuong, T.P. 2001. Field water

management to save water and increase its productivity in irrigated lowland rice. Agricultural Water Management. 49: 11-30.

IRRI. 2013. Nutrient Manager for Rice. Los Banos, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). (Available from: http://webapps.irri.org/ph/rcm)

IRRI. 2009. Saving water: alternate wetting and drying (AWD). IRRI Rice Fact Sheet. Los Banos, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). (Available from: http://www. knowledgebank.irri.org/ factsheets PDFs/ water management_FSAWD3.pdf)


Importance of Watershed Management S. Vanitha1 and N. Sridhar2

1Teaching Assistant, Department of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering and Agricultural Structures; 2Research Scholar, Department of Farm Power Machinery, Agricultural Engineering

College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Kumulur, Trichy, India-621712.

INTRODUCTION: Watershed management is getting much importance in recent times all over the world because of scarcity of water and vast area of dryland. In India 94 million hectare of dryland from total area of 329 million hectare of land. In addition, in these areas severe ecological degradation with denuded forest with poor protection also causes soil erosion and declining productivity of land. This necessitates watershed approach for the villages to achieve higher production and better standard of living.

Watershed

Watershed is a geo-hydrological unit, draining at a common point by a system of streams. "Hydrologically, a watershed could be defined as area, the run off from which drains through a particular point or the drainage systems. A land area captures rainfall and conveys the overland flow and run-off to an outlet in the main flow channel. The land area from where water flows to a given point is a watershed as shown in Figure1.

………………….

Fig 1. Watershed

Classification of Watershed

Watersheds are also classified into different categories based on area which is Mention in Table 1

Table 1. Classification of watershed

Size (ha) Classification

50,000-2,00,000 Watershed

Size (ha) Classification

10,000-50,000 Sub-watershed

1,000-10,000 Mili-watershed

100-1,000 Micro-watershed

10-100 Mini-watershed

Ethics of Watershed Management

1. Utilizing the land according to its capability 2. Protecting productive top soil 3. Reducing siltation hazards in storage tanks

and reservoirs and lower fertile lands 4. Maintaining adequate vegetation cover on soil

surface throughout the year 5. In-situ conservation of rain water 6. Safe diversion of excess water to storage

points through vegetative waterways 7. Stabilization of gullies by providing checks at

specified intervals and thereby increasing ground water recharge

8. Increasing cropping intensity and land equivalent ratio through intercropping and sequence cropping

9. Safe utilization of marginal lands through alternative land use systems with agriculture- horticulture-forestry-pasture systems with varied options and combinations

10. Water harvesting for supplemental and off-season irrigation

11. Maximizing agricultural productivity per unit area per unit time and per unit of water

12. Ensuring sustainability of the eco-system benefiting the main-animal-plant-water complex

13. Maximizing the combined income from the interrelated and dynamic crop-livestock-tree-labour complex over years

14. Stabilizing total income and to cut down risks during aberrant weather situation

15. Improving infrastructural facilities with regard to storage, transportation and marketing of the agricultural produce

16. Setting up of small scale agro-industries

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



17. Improving the socio-economic status of the farmer

Conclusion: In India, the rainfed lands constitute major portion of the cultivated area which contribute 40 percent of food grain production from total production. In order to increase the overall agricultural production and to improve the living conditions of the farmers depending on the rainfed lands, there is a need to increase the productivity in rainfed lands by

implementing watershed project in rainfed area.

References Rajora and Rajesh. (1998). Integrated watershed

management field manual for suitable productive and sustainable development. Rawat publication.

Singh, V. P. (1994). Elementary hydrology. prentice hall of India private limited, 377-406.

Sharma, Shriniwas and Mishra. Watershed management in dryland Area- Principles and Practice, op. dt. pp 498-499.


Advancement of Pulse Irrigation (Drip) in Sandy Soil *Dnyaneshwar A. Madane and Nitin M. Changade

Assistant Professor, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University Punjab-144411 *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: India has the total geographical area of 328.70 M.ha, out of this cultivable land area is about 182 M.ha, comprising of net sown area of about 141.40 M.ha. Total gross cropped area is 200.90 M.ha with cropping intensity of 142 per cent. The net sown area works out to be 43 per cent of the total geographical area (Anonymous, 2016 a). In India, gross irrigated area during the year 2012-13, 2013-14 and 2015-16 are 91.78, 92.25 and 95.77 M.ha and total cropped area was 195.69, 194.14 and 200.86 M.ha, respectively

(Anonymous, 2016 b). Globally drip irrigation land area covers 14.41 M.ha (Anonymous, 2016 c) out of which India is having 3.77 M.ha. The highest drip irrigation coverage is in the state of Maharashtra (0.89 M.ha) followed by Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu (Anonymous, 2015). Pulse irrigation (drip) is the concept where the small part of the per day water requirement is given in fraction with a predetermined time of fraction (Dole, 1994).

Table 1. Scheduling of pulse irrigation (drip) cycles

Pulse irrigation (Drip) cycles

Pulse irrigation

One time (P1). Day-1 = CDI P2. day-1 P3. day-1 P4. day-1

A.W., m3 O.T., min. A.W., m3 O.T., min. A.W., m3 O.T., min. A.W., m3 O.T., min.

A.W. / 1 O.T. / 1 (A.W. / 2) +

(A.W. / 2)

(O.T. / 2) +

(O.T. / 2)

(A.W./ 3)+ (A.W./ 3)+

(A.W. /

3)

(O.T. / 3) +

(O.T. / 3)

+ (O.T. / 3)

(A.W. /4)+ (A.W. /4)+ (A.W. /4)+

(A.W. / 4)

(O.T. /4) +

(O.T. /4)

+ (O.T. / 4)

+ (O.T. / 4)

Time interval between pulses

0 30 30 30

The surge irrigation and pulse irrigation both are synonymously, but in case of pulse irrigation water can applied through modified drip irrigation as well as sprinkler irrigation. Pulse irrigation refers to the practice of irrigating for a short period, then waiting for another short period, and repeating this on-off cycle until the entire irrigation water is applied (Eric et al., 2004). Under pulse irrigation system amount of irrigation water and operation time play a key role in reducing excess flooding, decreasing percolation of water beneath the root zone and reducing water evaporation after irrigation. In case of sandy soil under pulse irrigation (drip), horizontal spread of soil moisture is increased than the vertical spread.

High irrigation frequency provides desirable

conditions for water movement in the soil and uptake by roots (Segal et al., 2000). Increased vertical spreading may be undesirable because water moving below the active root zone can result in wastage of water, loss of nutrients and ground water pollution. Application of high amount of irrigation water in single irrigation event may result in deep percolation losses in the root zone of growing plants. Splitting of irrigation depth into six pulses with an interval of fifty minutes increased the yield by 5.78 % with 25 % of water saving in lettuce crop under sandy soils (Willian et al., 2015). Under pulse irrigation (drip) productivity of potato increased from 10.44 t.ha-1 in continuous drip irrigation to 15.60 t.ha-1 in four pulse irrigation (drip) recording an increase of 49

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



% yield (Abdelraouf et al., 2012). Average maximum green bean yield was obtained under four pulse irrigation (drip) 4.78 t.ha-1, while minimum yield was obtained in the treatment of continuous irrigation (drip) 3.92 t.ha-1 (Mohamed et al., 2012). The sandy soil is having high infiltration rates resulting in increased vertical movement of water (Mane et al., 2011). Pulse irrigation (drip) can be used effectively for increasing the horizontal spread in heavy infiltrating soils (Abdelraouf et al., 2012). Pulse irrigation through (drip) enhances the yield and productivity of vegetable crops by increasing horizontal spread in the sandy soil.

References Abdeleaouf R. E., Aboou-Hussein S. D., Abd-Alla A.

M., and Abdallah, 2012. Effect of short irrigation cycles on soil moisture distribution in root zone, fertilizer use efficiency and productivity of potato in new reclaimed lands. Journal of Applied Science Research 8 (7); 3823-3833.

Anonymous, 2016 a. Agricultural Statistics at a Glance, Government of India. Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare Directorate of Economics and Statistics.

Anonymous, 2016 b. Annual report 2016-17, Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agricultural and Farmers Welfare, Government of India.

Anonymous, 2016 c. Micro and sprinkler irrigated area. Data provided by National committees. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage. (Site:// www.icid.org/Spri-micro-11.pdf Accessed in May 2016.

Anonymous, 2015. Sinchan Irrigation report, Government of India.

Dole J.M., 1994 Comparing poinsettia irrigation

methods. The Poinsettia. 10: 4-9. Eric S., David S. and Robert H., 2004. To pulse or not

to pulse drip irrigation that is the question UF/IFAS – Horticultural Sciences Department. Florida, USA NFREC-SV-Vegetarian (04-05).

Mane M. S., U. V. Mahadkar, D. J. Dabake and T. N. Thorat 2011 Study efficiency of different sealant material for lateritic soils of Konkan region. Journal of Indian Society agric, Res. 29(2): 82-83.

Mohamed M. E., Mohamed E. A. and Amal L. A. 2012 Response of Green bean to pulse surface drip irrigation. Journal of Horticultural Science and Ornamental plants 4(3): 329-334.

Segal E., A. Ben-Gal and U. Shani, 2000 Water availability and yield response to high frequency micro irrigation in sunflowers. 6th International Micro-irrigation Congress. ‘Micro-irrigation Technology for Developing Agriculture’. South Africa, 22-27 October. E-mail [email protected].

Willian F. DE., Almeida, Luiza A. Lima and Geraldo M.P., 2015. Drip pulses and soil mulching effect on American cripshead lettuce yield. Journal of the Brazilian Association of Agricultural Engineering. (35): 6; 1009-1018.

Plate no. 1 Crop under pulse (drip) irrigation systems

45. SOIL SCIENCE 17179

Improvement of Soil Properties through Organic Matter Management

1Asha Serawat and Minakshi Serawat2

1Department of Soil Science, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner-334006 2Department of Soil Science, GB Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand

– 263145 *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Organic matter in the soil comes from the remains of plants and animals. As new organic matter is formed in the soil, a part of the old becomes mineralized (mineral form such as sulphur, phosphorus etc.)

The original source of the soil organic matter is plant tissue. Under natural conditions, the tops and roots of trees, grasses and other plants annually supply large quantities of organic residues. Thus higher plant tissue is the primary source of organic matter. Animals are usually considered secondary sources of organic matter. Various organic manures, e.g., farmyard manure, compost, green manure etc. that are added to the

soil time to time further add to the store of soil organic matter.

Composition of Organic Matter

Soil organic matter plays important role in the maintenance and improvement of soil properties. It is a dynamic material and is one of the major sources of nutrient elements for plants. Soil organic matter is derived to a large extent from residues and remains of the plants together with the small quantities of animal remains, excreta, and microbial tissues. Soil organic matter is composed of three major components i.e. plants residues, animal remain and dead remains of

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



microorganisms. Various organic compounds are made up of complex carbohydrates, (Cellulose, hemicellulose, starch) simple sugars, lignins, pectins, gums, mucilages, proteins, fats, oils, waxes, resins, alcohols, organic acids, phenols etc. and other products. All these compounds constituting the soil organic matter can be categorized in the following way.

Organic Matter (Undecomposed) A. Organic

Nitrogenous

Water Soluble eg. Nitrates, ammonical compounds, amides, amino acids etc.

Insoluble eg. Proteins nucleoproteins, peptides, alkaloids purines, pyridines chitin etc.

Non Nitrogenous

Carbohydrates eg. Sugars, starch, hemicellulose, gums, mucilage, pectins, etc.

Miscellaneous: eg. Lignin, tannins, organic acid, etc.

Ether Soluble: eg. Fats, oils, wax etc.

B. Inorganic

The organic complex / matter in the soil is, therefore made up of a large number of substances of widely different chemical composition and the amount of each substance varies with the type, nature and age of plants. For example cellulose in a young plant is only half of the mature plants; water-soluble organic substances in young plants are nearly double to that of older plants. Among the plant residues, leguminous plants are rich in proteins than the non-leguminous plants. Grasses and cereal straws contain greater amount of cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses than the legumes and as the plant gets older the proportion of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin gets increased. Plant residues contain 15-60% cellulose, 10-30 % hemicellulose, 5-30% lignin, 2-15 % protein and 10% sugars, amino acids and organic acids. These differences in composition of various plant and animal residues have great significance on the rate of organic matter decomposition in general and of nitrification and humification (humus formation) in particular. The end products of decomposition are CO2, H2O, NO3, SO4, CH4, NH4, and H2S depending on the availability of air.

Impact on Soil Physical Properties

Soil Color: Organic matter influences the soil color. Due to presence of adequate amount of organic matter, the color becomes brown to dark brown or black.

Bulk density and Porosity: organic matter affects the densities of soils especially bulk density of soils, which in turn influences the soil porosity favorably.

Infiltration: in the presence of organic matter, the rate of infiltration and percolation of water is enhanced. Organic matter improved the drainage condition of soil.

Air diffusion capacity: The increase in number of pores allows more exchange of air within the soil.

Aggregation: Organic matter play a role in soil aggregation, thereby soil maintains favorable condition of aeration and permeability. Organic matter supplies polysaccharides, which are vital for improvement of soil structure. A better aggregation of soil is an improved characteristic shows good physical condition.

Soil strength: Few conventional agricultural practices that are cause for compaction lead to increase soil strength. It restricts the root penetration. Organic matter in these soils helps to reduce compaction and soil strength and make soil more permeable.

Soil Structure: Organic matter helps to improve soil structure through concurrent effects on soil strength, porosity, hydraulic properties, air diffusion capacity etc.

Impact on Soil Biological Properties

Organic matter serves as a source of energy for both macro- and micro faunal organisms. Numbers of bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi in the soil are related in a general way to humus content. Earthworms and other faunal organisms are strongly affected by the quantity of plant residue material returned to the soil.

Organic substances in soil can have a direct physiological effect on plant growth. Some Compounds, such as certain phenolic acids, have phytotoxic properties; others, such as the auxins, enhance plant growth.

It is widely known that many of the factors influencing the incidence of pathogenic organisms in soil are directly or indirectly influenced by organic matter. For example, a plentiful supply of organic matter may favor the growth of saprophytic organisms relative to parasitic ones and thereby reduce populations of the latter. Biologically active compounds in soil, such as antibiotics and certain phenolic acids, may enhance the ability of certain plants to resist attack by pathogens.

Impact on Soil Chemical Properties

Impact of organic matter on chemical properties of soil can’t be hidden. Organic matter has improved effect on soil chemical properties like:

Regulation of pH through release of organic substances

Addition of soil carbon Organic matter acts as a buffering agent. Organic matter contributes to the cation

exchange capacity (30-70% of the total) of soil.

Increase in nutrient concentration Enhancement of nutrient availability Improved chelation Increase in nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur

nutrients availability

Other Benefits

Better soil structure helps to better

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



germination and establishment of seed Surface cover helps to suppress weed growth

resulting in lower weed flora It helps to maintain and Improving soil health Reduction in burning of residue that helps to

reduce environmental pollution Through enhanced nutrients supply and

improvement in soil physical conditions organic matter can increase the productivity.

Through summarizing overall impact of organic matter we drawn a general statement that organic matter is a better strategy that can be used as alternatives to conventional one.


Management of Herbicide Residues in Soil Smt. S. Rama Devi1*, Dr. Sahaja Deva2 and K. Balaji Naik3

1Scientist (GPBR), Agricultural Research Station, Darsi; 2Subject Matter Specialist, Crop Production, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Darsi; 3Subject Matter Specialist, Agril. Extension, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Darsi


Herbicides have become obligatory for increasing the agricultural production and to maintain the non-cropped area free from weeds and pests. In general, herbicides are formulated in such a way that they degrade from the environment after completion of their intended work, but a few of them persist in the environment and pose a serious hazard to the succeeding crop and also to the surroundings. Mostly the triaizines, isoxazolidinones, imidazolinones and a few of sulfonylureas are persistent herbicides. Herbicide usage becomes inevitable in the present day intensive agricultural system to obtain large harvests and minimize the yield loss due to weeds. The herbicide demand in India is rising sharply and could double in the next three years as an acute labour shortage makes them a cheaper option and a rally in farm goods prices prompts farmers to grow crops with extra care. Usage of herbicides occupy 44% of the total agrochemicals globally and 30% in India. Herbicides are a group of organic compounds that possess far-reaching environmental consequences when persistent in the soil. A persistence problem arises when the herbicides are applied scrupulously or continuously; the crop failure necessitates replanting; a susceptible crop follows a short term crop which received a persistent herbicide; and the decomposition of the applied herbicide proceeds very slowly. The longer persistence of an herbicide poses a hazard to subsequent land use and is undesirable. Recent concerns of ground and surface water contamination by some of the herbicides has led to renewed interest on persistence and dissipation behavior of herbicides in the environment. An ideal soil applied herbicide should persist long enough to give an acceptable period of weed control but not so long that soil residues after crop harvest limit the nature of subsequent crops which can be grown. Various management techniques have been developed which can help to minimize the residue hazards in soil.

Use of Optimum Dose of Herbicide

Hazards from residues of herbicides can be minimized by the application of chemicals at the

lowest dosage by which the desired weed control is achieved. Besides, applying herbicides in bands rather as broadcast will reduce the total amount of herbicide to be applied. This will be practicable in line sown crops or crops raised along ridges, such as cotton, sugarcane, sorghum, maize etc.

Application of Farm Yard Manure

Farm yard Manure is prepared basically using cow dung, cow urine, waste straw and other dairy wastes. It is highly useful and some of its properties are given below: FYM is rich in nutrients. A small portion of N is directly available to the plants while a larger portion is made available as and when the FYM decomposes. Complete decomposition of Farmyard manure will result humus. Humus will adsorb most of the amount of herbicide thus acts as safener. Pre emergence herbicides mostly absorbed by the radicle, root hairs and roots. If FYM will be there then herbicide will be absorbed by the humus/FYM thereby less quantity will enter in the vicinity of seed and lesser the amount lesser will be the toxicity. FYM can be applied as seed application, seed coating. It can be applied by seed coating by various matters like charcoal (activated charcoal) as its surface area and adsorption capacity is very high. Thus when herbicide come in contact with coated seed then adsorbed by the activated charcoal, thus germination won’t be affected. Safeners can also be applied as foliar application. This safener will works by inhibiting the adsorption or either by restricting/avoiding the direct contact or reaching the place of adsorption. Farmyard manure application is an effective method to mitigate the residual toxicity of herbicides. The herbicide molecules get adsorbed in their colloidal fraction and make them unavailable for crops and weeds. Besides, FYM enhances the microbial activity, which in turn degrades the herbicide at a faster rate.

Ploughing / Cultivating the Land

Herbicide toxicity can be reduced by ploughing with disc plough or inter-cultivators as the applied herbicide is mixed to a large volume of soil and gets diluted. Herbicide layer is inverted and buried

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



in deeper layers with deep ploughing and thereby the residual toxicity got reduced.

Use of Activated Carbon

Activated carbon has a high adsorptive capacity because of its tremendous surface area which vary from 600–1200 m2/g. Incorporation of 50 kg/ha of activated charcoal inactivated completely chlorsulfuron applied at 1.25 and 2.50 kg/ha and did not affect the yield of maize compared to untreated control. Application of charcoal at 5.0 kg/ha along the seed line reduced the residual toxicity of atrazine in soybean crop.

Use of Safeness and Antidotes

Herbicide safeners, formerly referred to as herbicide antidotes, are chemical agents that increase the tolerance or monocotyledonous cereal plants to herbicides without affecting the weed control effectiveness. The use of safeners offer several benefits like the selective chemical control of weeds in botanically related crops, the use of non-selective herbicides for selective weed control, the counteraction of residual activity of soil applied persistent herbicides such as triazines

in crop rotation, offer greater insurance against crop damage particularly under situations like susceptible crop varieties, soil conditions or adverse weather condition, where crops are likely to receive phytotoxicity, can be used for demonstration of sites and mechanisms of herbicides action in plants. Otto L. Hoffman is regarded as the father of Safeners. In 1948, he first observed the antagonistic effect of 2,4,6-T, an inactive chemical analogue of 2,4-D on tomato plants, which were treated with sub lethal doses of 2,4-D. Some safeners are Na (1,8-naphthalic anhydride), Dichlormid as safeners for EPTC and butylate in Maize, R-29148, ready-made mix formulation with EPTC and butylate at 0.15-0.30kg/ha to protect Maize. Oxabetrinil against chloroacetamides.

Leaching the Soil

Leaching the herbicide by frequent irrigation is possible especially in case of water soluble herbicides. In this case, the herbicides are leached down to lower layers i.e., beyond the reach of the crop roots.


Technological Intervention for Enhancing the Productivity of Problematic Soil

Roohi and Usha Kaushik

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Soil Science & Agriculture Chemistry, GKVK, UAS, Bengaluru

The soil is a naturally dynamic system present on the surface of the earth which is composed of mineral and organic matters. Soil heterogeneity is variation in texture, fertility, topography, moisture content, drainage etc. in a relatively small area. If it exists in large scale due to the parent material or man-made activities, then the problem of soil suitability to agriculture arises.

The soils which possess characteristics that make them uneconomical for the cultivation of crops without adopting proper reclamation measures are known as Problematic soils. Often, we resort to chemical means of reclamation that leads to impairment of ecosystem functions. Resorting to natural and integrated methods will resolve the issue and prevent causing irreparable damage.

So, technological intervention is the use of new technologies to enhance the quality and improved the productivity of problematic soils. Commonly found problematic soils in India are Acidic soil, Saline/ Alkali soil, Calcareous soil and waterlogged soils.

Acidic Soil

The soils having pH less than 7.0 are considered as acidic soils. They have a high concentration of Exchangeable H+ & Al3+, whereas deficiency of Exchangeable Ca2+ & Mg2+. At low pH, Al, Mn

and Fe attain a toxic level and high P fixing capacity. In India, 49 million hectares of land are acidic soils, of which 26 million hectares of land having soil pH less than 5.6 and remaining 23 million hectares of land having soil pH range 5.6 to 6.5.

Reclamation of Acid Soils using lime use technology:

1. Liming material such as Calcic limestone, Dolomite, Quicklime, Slag, Hydrated (slaked) lime, Slags (Blast furnace, Basic slag, Electric furnace slag), Coral shell lime, Zeolites, Carbonated Press-mud and Marl or chalk (CaCO3) should be distributed evenly and thoroughly mixed with the soil and when dissolve moves only to vertically and to not appreciable extent laterally so only way of mixing lime thoroughly with the soil is tillage operations. – For legumes (Sensitive to soil acidity)

apply lime near the time of planting (hydrated lime).

– In Cereal- legume rotation, apply lime before cereal crop.

2. A Frequency of liming: Residual effect of liming is expected to last for 5-7 years. So, application of 200-500 kg lime/ ha/year has been reported to be adequate to maintain the level of Ca and Mg in soil under continuous

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



cropping while keeping the check on the release of exchangeable Al.

New commercial ameliorant: Mangala Setright which contains 20% Calcium, 6.8% Magnesium and 6.4% Sulphur helps in making the nutrients readily available to the plants and alleviates nutrient toxicities by increases the pH of the soils which are acidic in nature. 50 kg packing is available in the market. Use the following guidelines for deciding the dosage 15 days before sowing /transplanting for all crops:

Soil pH value

Dosage (kg acre-1)

Soil pH value

Dosage (kg acre-1)

6.8 - 6.3 50 5.7 - 5.2 150

6.2 - 5.8 100 Below 5.2 200

Salt-affected soils: About 7 million hectare land in India is salt-affected i.e. Saline and alkali

Soils. Saline soils contain excess neutral soluble salts like chlorides and sulphates of sodium, calcium and magnesium. In these soils, EC exceeds 4 dSm-1, pH is less than 8.5 and ESP is usually less than 15. Alkali soils have pH more than 8.5 and ESP is more than 15 due to the presence of carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium. Saline soils are in a flocculated state while Alkali soils develop poor physical properties by decreasing infiltration rate, crusting and hardening of soil surface upon drying.

Management of Salt-Affected Soils: Chemical Method

Gypsum: It reacts with soil exchangeable Na of alkali soils which converted into sodium sulphate and reduces soil pH.

CaSO4 + 2 Na X = Ca X + Na2SO4

Sulphur: Sulphur is a very effective chemical amendment to replaces exchangeable Na. Sulphated Press-mud used to control soil sodicity.

Iron sulphate: Iron sulphate forms sulphuric acid, which is converted into calcium sulphate. Calcium sulphate, thus formed replaces exchangeable sodium as shown below;

FeSO4 + H2O = H2SO4 + FeO H2SO4 + CaCO3 = CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

Limestone: When limestone is applied to the soil, it gets dissolved in the soil solution. The Calcium of the limestone reacts as with the spoil complex and replaces Na and Na combines with carbonate and form sodium carbonate which is leached down by flooding.

2NaX + CaCO3 = CaX2 + Na2CO3

Mechanical method: Flooding and leaching down of the soluble salts treatment 2 to 3 times helps to reclaim highly saline affected soils. Scraping of the soluble salts affected surface soil helps to remove salts. But this is a temporary cure.

Cultural method: Providing proper drainage, apply good quality of irrigation water, use of

acidic fertilizes, use of organic manures, growing of green manuring crops, Ploughing and levelling of the land, avoiding of soil water evaporation and growing of the salt tolerance crops (high salt tolerance crop- Barley, Sugar beet and moderately salt tolerant crops- Wheat, rice, maize, sorghum).

Calcareous Soils

Calcareous soil that contains carbonates of calcium and magnesium with pH values ranges from 7.0 to 8.5 at some horizon of the soil profile. They are formed by the weathering of calcareous rocks and fossil shell beds (varieties of chalk, marl, limestone and frequently a large amount of phosphates. Also with long-term irrigation of field with water containing small amounts of dissolved CaCO3 can develop calcareous soils with time.

Management of Calcareous Soils

Due to flocculation, Light (Sandy) calcareous soil develops a large number of pore spaces which leads to poor water holding capacity of soil. Therefore, to increase the water holding capacity of such types of soils needed soil compaction by plank and roller.

Organic manure (Farmyard manure composts, Biochar and Green manure) application increases the amount of carbon dioxide and acid compound in the soil and as a result pH of soil decreases.

As availability of phosphorus is less in calcareous soil, phosphorus fertilizers is applied near the root of the plant and may be used in split doses.

Addition of micronutrients like Zn, Fe and Cu would be helpful in increasing the yield of crop.

Waterlogged soils: Water logging refers to the saturation of soil with water. So, this will stops air getting in soil. In irrigated agricultural land, waterlogging is often accompanied by soil salinity as waterlogged soils prevent leaching of the salts imported by the irrigation water.

Management: Proper drainage (surface and sub-surface drainage), controlled irrigation, check the seepage of canal, flood control measures (Construction of bund and Raised bed and Furrow system may check flooded water flow of the cultivated land), nutrient management and Plantation of trees having a higher transpiration rate (Eucalyptus and Acacia). Growing of crops which are tolerant to waterlogged conditions like Paddy, Jute and Sesbenia. In water logged areas, sowing should be done on bunds or ridges for good aeration near the root zone.

Conclusion: Technological intervention like Raised bed and Furrow system increased the yield in waterlogged condition, Mangala setright as equivalent to calcium carbonate can be used as a liming agent, Biochar also help to increase the productivity of calcareous soil. In addition, green manure crops can improve the productivity of sodic soil.

Reference Anila, M. A., Visveswaran, S., Mercy George and

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



John, P. S., 2015, Dry matter production of rice as influenced by soil amelioration in acid Soils. J. Tropical Agric., 53 (1):75-78.

Muhammad Arifa, Kawsar Alie, Jana, M.T., shah, Z., Davey, l. Jones., and Richard S. Quilliam, 2016, Integration of biochar with animal manure and nitrogen for improving maize yields and soil properties in calcareous semi-arid agro ecosystems. Field Crops Res., 195: 28-35.

Pankaj Kumar Saraswat, Banshidhar Chaudhary,

Rathore, S.S. And ashu Singh Bhati., 2016, Gypsum and green manuring influence soil sodicity and mustard productivity under semi-arid conditions of Rajasthan. Ann. Agric. Res., 37(1): 91-99.

Velmurugana, A., Swarnama, T.P., Ambast, S.K. and Navneet Kumar., 2016, Managing water logging and soil salinity with a permanent raised bed and furrow system in coastal lowlands of humid tropics. Agr. Water Manage., 168:56-67.

48. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 17362

Importance of Nano Fertilizers in Agriculture Production. Kharag Singh1*, Vijay Kant Singh1 and Anuj Nehra2

1Department of Soil Science, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India- 263145

2Center for Bio-Nanotechnology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana, India-125004 *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter of sizes roughly in the range of 1 to 100 nanometers. Nanotechnology is a cocktail that brings together researchers from Chemistry, Physics, biology and Engineering. The nanotechnology-aided applications like nano- nutrients, nano- pesticides, insect repellants, nano-sensors, nano- magnets, nano- films, nano- filters etc. have the potential to change agricultural production by allowing better management and conservation of inputs. Applications of nanoparticles are many folds. Its high surface area to volume ratio provides high reactivity as well as its small size provides better penetration into soil and plants. As a result of environmental impacts a large proportion of those living in developing countries face daily food shortages. Use of nanotechnology in agriculture carries potential benefits range from improved food quality and safety to reduced agricultural inputs and improved processing and nutrition. Nanotechnology is a novel scientific approach that involves the use of materials and equipment capable of manipulating physical as well as chemical properties of a substance at molecular levels. On the other hand, biotechnology involves using the knowledge and techniques of biology to manipulate molecular, genetic and cellular processes to develop products and services and is used in diverse fields from medicine to agriculture.

Fertilizers have an axial role in enhancing the food production in developing countries especially after the introduction of high yielding and fertilizer responsive crop varieties. Moreover, excessive applications of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers affect the groundwater and also lead to eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems. Nutrient use efficiencies for fertilizers hardly exceed 30-35 %, 18-20 % and 35-40 % for N, P and K, respectively. Nano-fertilizers are nutrient carriers that are being developed using substrates with nano-dimensions of 1-100 nm. Nano particles have

extensive surface area and capable of holding abundance of nutrients and release it slowly and steadily in such a manner that it facilitates uptake of nutrients matching the crop requirement without any ill- effects. Nanostructured formulation might increase fertilizer efficiency and uptake ratio of the soil nutrients in crop production. Controlled release modes have properties of both release rate and release pattern of nutrients. For water-soluble fertilizers might be precisely controlled through encapsulation in envelope forms of semi-permeable membranes coated by resin-polymer, waxes and sulphur. Effective duration of nutrient release has desirable property of Nanostructured formulation; it can extend effective duration of nutrient supply of fertilizers into soil. Nanofertilizers are nutrient fertilizers composed, in whole or part, of nanostructures formulation(s) that can be delivered to the plants, allowing efficient uptake or slow release of active ingredients. Conventional bulk fertilizers have low plant uptake efficiencies, and thus, larger amounts have to be applied. Main challenges of the low nutrient uptake efficiency for nitrogenous fertilizers are the rapid changes into chemical forms that the plants do not take up, and runoff, leaching, or atmospheric losses. As a result, emission of harmful greenhouse gases and eutrophication, with negative consequences for soil and environmental health occurs.

Therefore, more readily uptake by the plants, it is critical to develop smart fertilizers. Nanotechnology is one of the possible routes for sustainably and precisely attaining this objective. Nanotechnology-based fertilizers hold promise as smart delivery systems for plant nutrients; fundamental properties such as size, specific surface area, crystal phase, surface capping of nanomaterials, not only control nutrient dissolution and reactivity, but also control material behavior during application. Recent reports indicate that nutrient use efficiency can be enhanced through nanoscale packaging,

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



compared to conventional fertilizers, the development and use of rationally designed nanoscale macro and micro nutrient fertilizer technologies remain nascent. Currently, there is

pressing need for improving nano-synthesis and delivery capabilities for next generation fertilizers, and their use in agricultural systems.

49. HORTICULTURE 16954

Senna Cultivation Practices in India and its Uses V. Karpagam

Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics JSA College of Agriculture and Technology, Cuddalore - 606108 (Tamil Nadu), India

Senna is a large genus of flowering plants in the legume family Fabaceae, and the subfamily Caesalpinioideae. Senna includes herbs, shrubs, and trees. The leaves are pinnate with opposite paired leaflets. The inflorescences are racemes at the ends of branches or emerging from the leaf axils. The flower has five sepals and five usually yellow petals. There are ten straight stamens. The fruit is a legume pod containing several seeds.

Production Technology

Climate: Grown in irrigated as well as rainfed conditions. Adversely affected by heavy rainfall and severe cold.

Soil: It is largely raised on red loams including coarse gravelly soils or alluvial loams. It is very sensitive to water logged conditions and thus avoid crust forming sticky soils which hinder germination.

Varieties: KKM (Se) 1, ALFT-2, Sona are suitable varieties for cultivation. KKM (Se) 1 is suitable for cultivation under rainfed conditions in Tirunelveli and Tuticorin regions.

Sowing: Sowing can be done thrice in a year. Generally first sowing during February - March, second in September - October are recommended.

Duration: Season wise: 90-140 days, for pod purpose: 150 days.

Seed Rate: About 15 - 20 kg/ha of seed is required. The seeds are scarified with sand or can be soaked overnight in water and sown in beds at a spacing 45 x 30 cm.

Manuring: Apply FYM 10 - 15 t/ha and N, P and K at 40:40:40 kg/ha as basal are recommended. Apply 40 kg N at 40 days after sowing.

Irrigation and Interculture

In the beginning, the field is irrigated at an interval of 6-7 days and later the interval is widened to 15-20 days depending on the weather and soil conditions.

Plots are kept weed free by earthing up the soil after 6 weeks of sowing and after each harvest.

Plant Protection

Major insects: White ants, cut worms and pod eating caterpillars

Major diseases: Damping off, seedling blight, leaf spot and leaf blight. Schedule

1. The crop is sprayed with 4 g of carbaryl in 1 litre of water at 70-80 days after sowing to combat the attack to pod eating caterpillars.

2. If leaf spot and leaf blight is seen the crop is sprayed with 0.1% benlate at about 7080 days after sowing.

3. Spray neem kernel extract to control sucking insects.

Harvesting, Processing and Yield

When bulk of the leaves are fully grown and are thick and bluish in colour, they are stripped by hand.

The crop is usually harvested at 90 days and the subsequent two harvest will be at an interval of 30-35 days.

Pods are picked after 15 days from sets as and when they mature and turn to golden yellow colour.

The leaves and pods so harvested are spread indoors on a clean floor for 7-10 days and dried until 20 per cent moisture.

The dried state is indicated by their light

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



yellow colour. Drying of leaves and pods in sun should be

avoided.

On an average it may yield, 2,000 kg of dry leaves and 800-1000 kg of pods per hectare under irrigated and good management practices.

Under rain fed conditions the yield may be about 1000 kg of leaves and 400 kg of pods, respectively, per hectare.

Marketing of Senna

Millions of farmers sell their material to local traders and we purchase senna from local traders. Senna is having good national as well as international market. Moreover, the demand if Indian Senna is increasing in the international market (specially desert Senna – due to its potential).

Medicinal Uses

Senna plant contains sennosides which is used as a laxative for thousands of years.

The leaf of the Senna plant is used for the treatment of constipation traditionally. It is also used to clear the bowel before a colonoscopy.

Senna plant is also used for treatment of hemorrhoids.

It is also used for weight loss. Senna is useful in the treatment of bronchitis. It fights against cough, cold, and asthma. This is useful in the treatment of skin

disorder. This is also helpful in the treatment of

leucodermia. Senna is useful in the treatment of typhoid

and cholera. It is proved useful in the treatment of gout and

jaundice.


Successful Pest Management for Winter Potato 1A. Nandi, *2S. P. Mishra and 3A. K. Padhiary

1Dept. of Vegetable Science, OUAT, Bhubaneswar-03; *2Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jagatsingpur, Odisha, India; 3Krishi Vigyan Kendra, RRTTS Campus (OUAT) Chiplima, Sambalpur 768026 Odisha, India


Potato crop is attacked by a number of insect’s pests, nematodes and diseases. Some of them are very severe in nature and can reduce the yield significantly unless proper control measures are adopted. Following few lines explain important insect pests and diseases of potato.

A. Pests

Potato crop is attacked by several insect pests and t mites, both in field as well as in storage. Some of these such as aphids, cutworms, white grubs, epilachna beetles, defoliating caterpillars, tuber moth and mites are great enemies of the crop and cause 10-20% loss. Besides, some of the pests act as transmitters of viruses and also affect the quality of seed tubers.

It is, therefore, essential to take timely plant protection measures against these pests. As soon as the symptoms appear in the potato, field spray of the crop with recommended insecticides is done. Description of some important pests and their control is given below.

1. Aphids

In some seasons, aphids pose serious limitations in the successful cultivation of potatoes. These are small insects either pale yellow or dark in colour. Both nymphs and adults damage the plant by sucking the cell sap from the leaves, tender shoots and stem. The leaves of attacked plant become yellowish and curved. If the population is very high, the affected plant may die. Besides this, the aphid secretes honey dew on leaves on which

black mould develops. This interferes in the photosynthesis. The winged aphids also transmit serious viral diseases in this crop.

Control: Spray Metasystox 25EC @ 600 ml in 1000 litres of water per hectare. If there is danger of spreading of viral diseases, it is desirable that the haulms should be cut at the time when the population of aphid. is below the critical level.

2. Cutworms

The damage is caused by the caterpillars. They cut the stems or leaves of potato plants just above ground level and thus affect their growth, vigour and yield. They also feed '! on tubers by boring and nibbling into them and affecting their market value. In badly infested fields, as high as about 40% tubers are damaged by this pest. The full grown caterpillars are about 5 cm long. During day time they remain hiding in the soil and in the night they come out to damage the crop.

Control: Flooding of the field reduces the activity of the caterpillar. Soil application of 5% Heptachlor or 5% Aldrin dust @ 45 kg/ha at the time of planting gives effective, control of cutworms. If the infestation is noticed after germination, Aldrin 30 EC @ 6.0 litres per hectare should be sprayed on ridges. Use of Carbafuron 5 g @ 30 kg/ha at the, (time of sowing has also been found very effective.

3. Potato Tuber Moth

Potato tuber moth is an important pest of potato in the country. Though the infestation generally

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



starts in the field, it does not usually become serious in most places; but it causes heavy damage to the potatoes in stores in the plains. Sometimes the entire stores of potato have been reported to be lost due to attack of this pest.

The tuber moth is a small insect of dull grey colour having dark brown or black marking on the wings. The pest is active throughout the year in the plains. The caterpillar of this pest feed inside the tuber pulp. The tunnels made by the caterpillars are filled by the excreta. Such tubers generally become unfit for human consumption and seed purposes.

Control

1. Only healthy tubers should be kept in the store.

2. Potatoes should be stored in cold stores. In case they are to be kept in ordinary stores, a sand layer of about 2.5 to 5 cm thickness should be kept below and above the heap of the potato.

3. Seed potato should be protected by spraying 5% BHC dust or 1% Malathion on and around the heap.

4. White Grub

The white grubs are the larvae of cockchafer beetles. They are usually present in all types of soils throughout the year in hilly areas to a depth of. 10 cm to 1 cm. The grubs are fleshy white or light grey in colour with curved bodies. They damage the plant by feeding on the underground portion viz. root, stems and tubers. The grub in early stage feed on the roots wi1h the result the plants-dry up. Later on when tubers are developed, the grubs cut holes in the tubers. The

market value of such tubers is very much reduced. Control: Apply Heptachlor 3% dust or Aldrin

5% dust @ 45 to 60 kg per hectare in soil before growing and mix it properly. Use Carbofuran 3g, Thimet 10 g @ 30 kg per hectare or, Temik 10 g @ 30 kg per hectare at the time of sowing.

5. Nematodes

Plant nematodes are microscopic organisms present in the soil and have a protrusible spear-like structure called stylet. With stylet they puncture root tissues on which they feed. Though as many as 27 different plant parasitic nematodes have been observed around the root zone of potato, only two namely cyst forming nematodes and root knot nematode are most serious known nematodes problem of potato.

Control

1. Use of DD (Dichloropane and Di Chloropropene) @ 200 litres or EDB (Ehylene dibromide) @ 90 litres, per hectare given at 15-20 cm depth and at 30 cm apart but 20-30 days prior to planting. Nemagon @ 20 litres per hectare can be applied through irrigation water preferably 3 weeks prior to planting. However, this treatment can also be given to the standing crop.

2. Keeping the land fallow and giving 3-4 ploughings during summer months improves the crop performance.

3. Vegetable nurseries and other plants meant for transplanting should not be grown in the infested field.

4. Potatoes grown in the infested field should not be used for seed purposes.


Nutritive Value of some Underutilized Fruit and Vegetable Crops

Arghya Mani

Ph.D. Research Scholar, BCKV, Mohanpur, India, 741252

Fruits and vegetables are indispensable part of our diet and food habits. Fruits and vegetables are rich in essential vitamins and minerals and are rich form of antioxidants. Fruits and vegetables are also a form of functional food and prebiotics. Apart from major fruits and vegetables, minor fruits and vegetables have a higher proportion of desirable components.

INTRODUCTION: Vegetables and fruits are most important part of our diet. They contain phytochemicals that have anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory properties which contributes many health benefits. The nutritional values of the major vegetables and fruits are known to mankind and are consumed in optimum scale but there are several other minor or underutilized vegetable and fruit crops whose nutritional benefits are yet to be

harnessed. At the present time a huge number of

population in our nation is suffering from the problem of mal-nourishment and also from the problem of poor nutrition. These under nutritional symptoms are more diverse in case of infants and women. In over populated and developing countries like India, the concern of proper food security has been achieved to an extent but when the question comes about the nutritional security. Our country is lacking too far because of lack of balanced diet. Every day more than 6,000 children below the age of five year die in India. More than half of these deaths are caused by malnutrition-mainly the lack of Vitamin A, iron, iodine, zinc and folic acid. The daily requirement of vegetables for an average human is 300g/adult/day but the

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



consumption rate is only and 145g/adult/day. About 600 species constitute the global diversity in vegetable crops. However, presently only one fourth is utilized as a major vegetable crops and rest are named as minor, underutilized, rare vegetables, wild edible vegetables, etc. For countries like India, these underutilized fruits and vegetables can play a very crucial role in ensuring nutritional security and healthy population.

Underutilized and neglected species fall within the broad basket of ‘minor’ crops. Minor does not mean in terms of quality but it is minor in aspects like its acceptability, knowledge about its quality and area under cultivation. Many fruits and vegetables that once were a minor in the modern world were domesticated worldwide and are now a major crop. The factors that make an unknown or underutilized fruits and vegetable as a major vegetable is the degree of attention towards that crop and the level of research focused on them. These minor crops are not adequately supported by government policies till now. The other reasons for less popularity are poor commercialization, lack of research and less information to consumers. The neglected crops are diversely grown in their centre of origin but the people from the other corner of the globe are hardly having any knowledge about the nutritional quality of them. Little or no research emphasis is on the propagation, breeding and commercialization of these crops.

Table 1: Underutilized fruits and their nutritional speciality (per 100g)

Fruit Botanical name

Nutritional speciality (per 100g)

Passion fruit Passiflora edulis

Vitamin A, Vitamin C, K, Ca, Fe, antioxidants

Naga Peanut Rhus semialata

High vitamin C

Star Gooseberry

Phyllanthus acidus

High Vitamin C

Khejri Prosopis cineraria

Vitamin C, Ca, P, Sucrose 13.6%, protein 9-15%

Patlekattus Castanopsis lanceifolia

Fat 0.01%, protein 4.1%, Carbohydrate 62%

Lupsi Spondias axillaris

Fat 0.05%, protein 4.11%, Carbohydrate 52%

Achuk Hippophae rham noide

Fat 5-16%, protein 2%, Vitamin C 250-333 mg/100g

Harra Terminalia chebula

Protein 1.38%, Carbohydrate 5%, Vit. C- 7.7mg

Karonda Carissa carandas

0.2% protein, 96% fat, 2.8% minerals, 0.10% Ca, 39% Fe, 0.06% P, 201-555mg Vit C.

Mulberry Morus alba Carbohydrate 7.8-9.2%, Protein 0.4-1.5%, Mineral 0.7-0.9%.

Phalsa Grewia subinaequalis

Carbohydrate 14.7g, Protein 1.58% Ca 12.9mg, P 39 mg, Fe 3.1mg, Vit A 419 IU.

Fruit Botanical name


Ladsora Cordia myxa

1.8 g protein, 1 g fat, 12.2g carbohydrate, Ca 40 mg P 60 mg.

Wood Apple Limonia acidissima

7.3% protein, 15.5% carbohydrate, Vit B2 170 IU, Vit C 2mg, Ca 0.17%, P 0.08%, Fe 0.07%.

Ker/Karil Capparis decidua

Calorie 100 kCal, protein 13.6-17 g, Fat 1.2-5 g, carbohydrate 20.9-71 g, Ca 55-210 mg, P 50-360 mg,

Fe 2-6 mg, Vit A 3486-3600 IU,

Pilu Salvadora oleoides

18.9 albuminoides, 23.5% carbohydrate, 5.8% fibre, Ca 630mg, P 167 mg, Fe 8 mg, Vit C 2 mg.

Khejri Prosopis cineraria

Protein 12-18%, Ca 2.1%, P 0.4%.

Khirni Manilkara hexandra

18.5 mg Vit C, Total sugar 17.5-18.5 mg, 24.6% Ryan oil

Rose apple Syzygium jambos

Protein 0.5-0.7%, carbohydrate 14.2% Ca 29-45 mg, Mg 4 mg, P 11.7-30 mg, Fe 0.45-1.2 mg, Na 34.1 mg, K 50 mg, S 13 mg

Carambola Averrhoa carambola

Vit A 560 IU, Protein 0.38 g, Fat 0.08 g, Carbohydrate 9.38 g, Ca 4.4-6 mg, P 15.5-21 mg, Fe 0.32-1.65 mg, Vit C 26-53.1 mg

Chalta Dillenia indica

Vit C 4.04-4.05mg, Fat 0.2-0.34 %, P 26mg, Ca 16mg

Passion fruit Passiflora edulis

Fat 0.7 g, Carbohydrate 21.2 g, Ca 13 g Ca 13 mg, P 64 mg, Fe 1.6 mg, Na 28 mg K 348 mg Vit A 700 IU, Vit C 30 mg

Chirounjee Buchanania lanzan

Protein 19-28%, Fat 59%, carbohydrate 12.1%, Mg 373 mg, Na 10.2 mg, I 436 mg, Ca 290 mg, Fe 8.5 mg, Vit C 5 mg

Amra Spondias pinnata

Protein 0.7%, 30% fat, 4.5% carbohydrate, Ca 0.036%, p 0.011%, Fe 0.01 mg

Mahua Madhuca indica

Fat 8-13%, protein 15-17%, Carbohydrate 48.7-54.6%

Barbados cherry

Malpighia punicifolia

Protein 0.68-1.8 g, Fat 0.1-0,.18 g, Ca 8.2-34.5 g, P 16-37 g, Vit A 408-1000 IU, Vit C 2000-4600 mg

Paniyala Flacourtia jangomas

0.03% protein, 0.39% fat, 4.86% sugar218mg Vit C

Barhal Artocarpus lakoocha

6.0-18.2 mg Vit C, 104-150 IU Vit A, P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Table 2: Underutilized vegetables and their nutritional speciality (per 100g)

Vegetable Botanical name


Chow-Chow Sechium edule

Protein 0.6g, Fat 0.5g,

Jack bean Canavalia ensiformis

Protein 23-34%, Carbohydrate 55%, Ca, Zn, P, Mg, Cu, Ni

Sohphlong Flemingia vestita sy. Maughania vestita

Iron (2.64 mg), phosphorous (64.06mg), fair amount of protein (2.99 g), calcium (19.77) and carbohydrates (27.02g)

Elephant foot yam

Amorphophallus sp.

It is a good source of carbohydrates, rich in minerals and vitamin A & B.

Pigweed Trianthema portulacastrum

Fibre highest (430.0 mg/g), protein (91.9 mg/g), moisture (80.0 mg/g), carbohydrate (30.2 mg/g) and total lipid (20.0 mg/g), riboflavin (2.02 mg/g), than retinol (0.81 mg/g), Fe, Zn, Mn, Ni, Cu.

Cockscomb Celosia argentea

Protein, fibre, Calcium, Chromium, Copper, Iron, Lead, Magnesium.

Moringa Moringa oleifera

Vitamin A, Vitamin C, protein, Fe, K

Fig Ficus auriculata

Protein, Ca, Fe, Fibre

Tree tomato Cyphomandra Vitamin A, Vitamin B6, Vitamin

Vegetable Botanical name


betacea C, Vitamin E, Fe

Colocasia Colocasia esculenta

Starch, palmatic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and crude protein.

Tree bean Parkia roxburghii

29% protein, 34% fat, essential amino acids,

Treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery

Conclusion: The promotion of these minor fruits and vegetables would not only ensure wider biodiversity but would allow the economic development of the place in which it is predominantly grown and stabilize the agricultural production. The far and foremost important thing about these un-utilized crops is that they are generally wild in nature and because of which they are more tolerant to key pests and diseases. Beside that they are having high nutrient content. In this an attempt has been made to highlight the nutrient content of some of the minor fruits and vegetables that are grown in various part of India. The knowledge about different nutrients available in these crops can help the reader to gain some attention about any particular crop in his/her surrounding. This can ultimately promote the research or consumption rate of that particular crop. Listed below are the various fruits and vegetables along with their nutrient content.


Family Nutritional Security through Backyard Kitchen Gardening

1Reetanjali Meher and 2Siba Prasad Mishra 1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture and Post-Harvest Technology, Palli-Siksha Bhavan

(Institute of Agriculture), Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan, West Bengal- 731236; 2Subject Matter Specialist, KVK, Jagatsinghpur, Odisha-754103


INTRODUCTION: Backyard kitchen gardening, popularly known as bari, is one of the world’s most ancient food production systems and is commonly practiced throughout the world. It is defined as “a small scale, supplementary food production system by and for household members that mimics the natural, multi-layered ecosystem”. Homestead is the resources that provide significant share of livelihood especially for poor farmers. Home gardens generally refer to the gardens occupying small area located near the residence, contain a high diversity of plants, and whose production is supplemental rather than as main source of family consumption or income. Access to even small pieces of land which may not be sufficient for providing income to a family for

subsistence, can significantly reduce poverty and food insecurity by providing an essential component in a diversified livelihood system. Ownership of even a small plot of land enables a family to raise its income and improve its nutritional status. Fresh fruits and vegetables provide carbohydrate, protein, vitamins, mineral, fats which are essential to our body. Hence, home gardens provide convenient and economic source of nutritious and balanced diet to the rural and tribal farm families.

Backyard Kitchen Gardens for Rural Biodiversity Conservation

The conservation of the diversity of crops in the backyard is credited to the household women due

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



to their continued maintenance and monitoring. The tribal women traditionally grow different plants like sem, bottle gourd, tomato, brinjal, wild amaranth, okra etc. But their cultivation is generally scanty, unproductive, and imbalanced in terms of nutrition and season.

Farm families are encouraged to systematically cultivate the traditional cultivars of fruit and vegetables in their kitchen garden, besides improved and elite varieties. While propagating the bari model, the crops grown in the bari are lelected based on the season and

nutrition requirement. The farm women play the major role in maintaining the diverse crops in the backyard. The vegetable crops like legumes (beans), greens (amaranth, dhania), roots (sweet potato, radish), fruits (tomato, brinjal), cucurbits (bottle gourd, ridge gourd) etc. cater to the daily nutritional season by the household women. Such conservation of diverse crops in the bari is expected to enhance not only the nutritional and financial security of the households, but also nurture their capabilities to conserve and utilize biodiversity at their backyard.

Cultural Hints on Fruits and Vegetables

Crop Sowing time Variety Method of planting Spacing (cm) Duration (days)

Amaranthus Mid Mar Mid July

Utkal Mayuri Broadcasting 30 cm between rows

25-30

Brinjal Feb-Mar June-July Sep-Oct

Utkal Mayuri Utkal Tarini Transplanting 75 x 60 160-165

Tomato Feb-Mar June-July

Sep-Oct

Utkal Kumari Transplanting 60 x 60 135-150

Chilli Feb-Mar June-July Sep-Oct

Utkal Ava Transplanting 45 x 30 210-240

Capsicum Sep-Oct California Wonder Transplanting 45 x 45 150-160

Cabbage Sep-Oct Golden Acre, Pride of India

Transplanting 60 x 45 105-120

Cauliflower Sep- Oct Pusa Early Synthetic, Pussa Katki, Pusa Sharad

Transplanting 60 x 45 90-105

Beet root Oct-Nov Crimson Globe Dibbing 30 x 15 40-45

Carrot Oct-Nov Pusa Kesar Dibbing 30 x 15 120

Radish Oct-Nov Pusa Desi, Pusa Chetki Dibbing 30 x 15 100

Sweet potato June-July, Sep-Oct

Kisan Ridge Planting 60 x 60 110-135

Potato Oct-Nov Kufri Jyoti Dibbling 45 x 30 100-140

Tapioca Through out the year

Sree Jaya, Sree Vijaya Inter crop in three crop block 75 x 75 270-300

Elephant foor yam

June-July Gajendra Inter crop in three crop block 45-90 240

Colacasia June-July White & black type Inter crop in three crop block 45 x 45 180

Onion Sep-Oct N53, Arka Kalyan Transplanted on both side of ridges/ irrigation channels

30 x 10 145-150

Garlic Oct-Nov Agri Found white Dibbling 15 x 10 90-100

French bean Oct-Nov Arka Komal, Contender Sowing 45 x 20 90-100

Cow pea June-July Feb-Mar

Arka Garima, Utkal Manika

Sowing 45 x 15 55-80

Cluster bean June-July Oct-Nov

Pusa Naubahar Sowing 45 x 30 90-105

Dolichos bean Throughout the year

Pusa Early Prolific Sowing 60 x 60 90

Cucumber June-July Jan-Feb

Japanese Long Green, Poinsette

Sowing in pits along the fence

60 cm distance between plants

120

Pumpkin June-July Jan-Feb Apr-May

Arka Suryamuki, Guamal (local)

Sowing 250 x 200 135-180

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Crop Sowing time Variety Method of planting Spacing (cm) Duration (days)

Bitter gourd June-July Jan-Feb Apr-May

Pusa Do Mausmi, Nakhra


100-150 cm distance between plants

140-150

Ridge gourd June-July Jan-Feb Apr-May

Utkal Trupti, Pusa Nasdar



125

Bittle gourd June-July Jan-Feb Apr-May

Pusa Summer Prolific Long, Rajendra Chmatkar

Sowing in pits near to compost pit


135

Pointed gourd Oct-Nov Feb-Mar Swarna Alaukik Arka Neelachal Kirti

Transplanting 100 x 100 3-5 years

Ivy gourd June-July Arka Neelachal Kunki, Arka Neelachal Sabuja



3-5 years

Snake gourd June-July Jan-Feb

Local MDU-1, Co-1, Co-2



135-145

Ash Gourd June-July Jan-Feb

Co-1 Sowing in pits along the fence

300 cm distance between plants

140-150

Bhendi Throughout the year

Utkal Gourav Dibbling 60 x 30 90-110

Drumstick June-July Local Limb cutting 400 x 400 Perennial

Curry leaf June-July Local Transplanting 400 x 400 Perennial

Poi June-July Green type Direct planting of stem cutting

60 x 60 Perennial

Precaution for Safe use of Pesticides

1. Use only recommended does/quantity of pesticides.

2. Read the directions of use of pesticides properly before their usage.

3. The expired pesticides should not be used. 4. Cover eyes, nose, hands, face properly at the

time of spraying. 5. Empty pesticide containers should be

disposed-off away from residential areas and water sources.

6. Application of pesticides should be avoided at the time of rains or heavy winds.

7. Separate clothing should be worn while spraying and those set of cloths should not be brought home from the field.

8. Hands and face should be properly washed after spraying.

9. The pesticides should be stored in places inaccessible to children.

10. Before harvesting recommended safe waiting periods should be followed after pesticides spraying. Chemical pesticides should be applied only after exploring available non-chemical options.


Rose Apple: An Underutilized Tropical Fruit Crop G. Ranganna

Ph.D. Scholar Department of Fruit Science, College of Horticulture, V.R. Gudem, Dr. Y.S.R. Horticultural University, W.G. 534101, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Common name: Rose Apple, Botanical name: Syzygium jambos, Family: Myrtaceae.

The "rose apple" (Syzygium jambos Alston) is native to the East Indies and Malaya and is cultivated and naturalized in many parts of India, Ceylon and the Pacific Islands. It also has other common English names such as wax jambu, Java apple, and Semarang rose-apple.

Various Syzygium species, especially the following:

Syzygium aqueum, Watery rose apple

Syzygium jambos, Rose apple or jamb Syzygium malaccense, Malay rose apple Syzygium samarangense, Java rose apple

It is a seasonal crop and generally comes to yield twice a year. In India, it is a rich man’s fruit since elite people of the society have developed special liking to its taste and flavor. In Buddhism, the Rose Apple Tree is considered sacred, referred to as the Enlightenment Tree. The ripe fruits, with seeds removed, could be distilled 4 times to make a "rosewater" equal to the best obtained from rose

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



petals.

Medicinal Use

Rose apple contains some beneficial organic compounds which include friedelolactone, jambosine and betulinic acid that can treat fungal infections on the skin. Traditionally, the seeds and leaves of rose apples can be used to treat dysentery, diarrhoea and several other sicknesses that is to say that generally, the fruits are wholesomely healthy and beneficial in everything.

Nutritional Chart for Rose Apples

Rose apples are rich in nutrients such as protein, vitamin C, thiamin, niacin, dietary fibre, vitamin A, protein, calcium, phosphorus, citric acid, calcium, iron, sulfur, and potassium.

Constituents

Water 93 g Riboflavin 0.03 mg

Carbohydrates 5.7 g Thiamin 0.02 mg

Protein 0.6 g Vitamin - A 17 mg

Energy 52 Kcal Niacin 0.8 mg

Fat 0.3 g Phosphorus 8 mg

Fiber 1.1 g Iron 1.2 mg

Calcium 30 mg Magnesium 5 mg

Bark contains tannins 12.4% Bark yields an alkaloid Jambosine Fruit contains 0.019% gallic acid

Root bark contains Jambosine and Oleoresin

Edibility

Fruit is dry, somewhat sweet, with a faint odor of rose. Fruits are also used in making stews, preserves, jellies and jams, with lemon juice added, or more frequently preserved in combination with other fruits of more pronounced flavour.

Sliced fruits are candied by stewing in cinnamon-flavored heavy sugar syrup. It is also made into a syrup for use as a sauce or to flavour cold drinks. Fruit extract can be used to make a sweet smelling rose water.

Folkloric

The fruit is regarded as a tonic for the brain and liver. all parts are used as stimulant, digestive and as a remedy for tooth problems.

Leaves are boiled and used as a remedy for sore eyes. Powdered leaves rubbed on the body in smallpox. Leaf decoction used as diuretic, expectorant, and treatment for rheumatism. infusion of leaves given for fever. Used to treat infections. The juice of macerated leaves -febrifuge.

Conserve of flowers considered cooling. Seeds used for diarrhea, dysentery and catarrh. Pulverized seeds used for diabetes, anesthetic property.

Roots used for epilepsy. decoction - relieve asthma, bronchitis and hoarseness. In Ayurveda, plant pacifies vitiated pitta, diarrhea, colic, wounds, ulcers, stomatitis, and general debility.

Keeping Quality

Rose apples bruise easily and are highly perishable. They must be freshly picked to be crisp. The fruit is non-climacteric.

Conclusion: There is always a market demand all over the world for new food products, nutritious and delicately flavoured. Rose apple play an important role in satisfying these demands because this fruit has unlimited potential in their processed forms. Increasing awareness of health principles particularly among educated, middle and upper income urban customers have created an opportunity for the use of plant based flavours and other products from ROSE APPLE.


Vegetable Forcing Srivighesh Sundaresan1, Durgadevi Dhakshinamoorthy2 and I. Arumuka Pravin3

1National Post-Doctoral Fellow, 2Senior Research Fellow, 3Ph.D. Scholar (Plant Pathology), Department of Nano Science and Technology, TNAU, Coimbatore- 641003


India is the second largest producer of vegetable crops in the world. However, its vegetable production is much less than the requirement if

balanced diet is provided to every individual. There are different ways and means to achieve this target, e.g., bringing additional area under

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



vegetable crops, using hybrid seeds, use of improved agro-techniques. Another potential approach is perfection and promotion of vegetable forcing adopting protected cultivation of vegetables. Cultivation of vegetables apart from the primary season of growing is termed as vegetable forcing. This is accomplished by using different agro-climatic conditions, adjusting the planting time, select and improving varieties, and creating a controlled environment (cooled and heated greenhouses, glass houses, Polythene houses, Shade net, river bed cultivation and under other artificial growing systems (hydroponics, aquaponics). This type of vegetable growing is intensive, resulting in high production as well as high returns due to off season availability. However in India, this type of cultivation is not practiced under large scale due to low purchasing power (price) of the consumers, diversified agro climatic regions harboring crops at different seasons, well developed transport facility to exchange goods from one region to other

Advantages of Vegetable Forcing

1. The farmers can get obtain higher profits from off-season production.

2. The availability of fresh vegetables to consumer during off seasons too

3. The famers can learn about the advanced technologies in vegetable production

4. Export of off season vegetables can earn high foreign exchange reserves

5. Year around employment for farm labors

Disadvantages of Vegetable Forcing

1. Highly specialized structures is mandatory (Green house, glass house, heating and Cooling structure), which requires high initial cost

2. Cost of production is higher when compared to growing them on regular season (Environmental control)

3. Skilled labors are necessity for ease of operation

4. Standard operating procedures, as well complete crop production techniques are not available for all crops except major vegetables (tomatoes, spinach, cucumber, peas).

The marginal and small farmers were benefited by cultivation of off-season vegetables as it provided them more employment, higher returns per unit of land, best use of their resources and higher income, etc. The study concluded that cultivation of off-season vegetables on commercial scale gave more economic benefits to the vegetable growers than traditional crops growers in the Himachal Pradesh state (Singh 1993). River bed cultivation is also a kind of vegetable forcing which is common in India, facilitating off season production of vegetables on the river basins (diara land). Generally it is mainly adopted in north and

North- western regions during winter (November to February) for cucumbers and tomatoes. Forcing is also practiced in certain flower crops, roses, carnations, daffodils and violets.

Modern technologies such as protected cultivation and specially bred varieties increasingly allow farmers to do this. These technologies can make an important contribution to the year-round availability of nutrient-rich food to consumers, and to the income of farmers. During winters in north Indian plains and hills, the temperature and solar radiations are sub-optimal for growing off-season vegetables –tomato, capsicum, brinjal, cucurbits, okra, cowpea, amaranth and chilli. In tomato, low temperature and low radiation cause puffiness and blotchy ripening. Hence, during extreme conditions of winter season (October-February) these vegetables can be well cultivated under polyhouse. Off-season cultivation of cucurbits under low plastic tunnels is one of the most profitable technologies under northern plains of India. Walk-in tunnels are also suitable and effective to raise off-season nursery and off-season vegetable cultivation due to their low initial cost. Insect proof net houses can be used for virus-free cultivation of tomato, chilli, sweet pepper and other vegetables mainly during the rainy season. These low cost structures are also suitable for growing pesticide-free green vegetables. Low cost greenhouses can be used for high quality vegetable cultivation for long duration (6-10 months) mainly in peri-urban areas of the country to fetch commensurate price of produces. Polytrenches have proved extremely useful for growing vegetables under cold desert conditions in upper reaches of Himalayas in the country.

A large number of processing and preservation units are functioning, though on part time basis, because of irregular supply of raw material. Ensuring their full time functioning in an organized way will assure utilization of market glut as well as availability of products during off-season. Various state and central government is advising the farmers to adopt off season vegetable production.

Conclusion: There is very little or sometimes no dissemination of advanced/improved production technologies including high-tech vegetable cultivation and off-season vegetable cultivation, probably due to lack of trained manpower/system. The nodal agricultural organizations have to develop and demonstrate the Off-season nursery production of vegetables to enhance the availability of produce and Off-season production (vegetable forcing) technologies for high valued vegetables. Protected crop and nursery production technology should be popularized so as to make it profitable/viable on commercial scale.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m




Methods of Preparation of Jam and Jelly Dr. Shahroon Khan

Assistant Professor, Faculty of Agriculture, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Sadopur, Ambala

Jam: When fruit pulp and sugar are boiled in appropriate quantity to make it thick is called Jam. Jam is more or less a concentrated fruit pulp possessing a fairly heavy body form. It contain at least 45% fruit pulp and 68% sugar quantity and thus high concentration of sugar facilitate preservation. A jam manufacturer can choose fresh fruit, frozen, chilled or cold stored fruit, fruits or fruit pulp preserved by heat.

Preparation of the Fruits for Jam Making

1. The fruits must be washed thoroughly to remove any adhering dust or dirt.

2. Leaves, stalk and other undesirable portion of the fruits must be removed.

3. Fruit pulp must be removed these fruits like pear, pulp, mango, papaya, grapes and karonda.

4. Stone fruits like peach, they are lye peeled (i.e. dipping the fruits in boiling water few minutes to facilitate the removal of the skin) and stones are then removed and the pulp is cut into pieces.

Material Required (For 1 kg fruit pulp)

Fruit Sugar (kg) Citric acid (g) Water (mg)

Apple 0.750 2.0 100

Mango 0.750-1.0 2.0 50

Plum 1.0 0.5 25

Pear 0.750 2.0 125

Grapes 0.750 1.0 25

Karonda 1.0 0.5 150

Sapota 0.750 3.0 125

Papaya 0.700 3.0 50

Packing

Soon after the end point is reached, the jam should be cooled in cooling pan to about 93°C and filled into jars at this temperature either mechanically or by hand. The surface of the jam in the jars should be covered with a thin disc of

waxed tissue paper and allowed to cool. The jars should be stored in a dry place.

Jelly: The pectin is the most important constituent for jelly. This pectin is present in the cell wall of fruits. While boiling, precipitation of pectin cause jelly formation. Precipitation takes place only when pectin, acid, sugar and water are in definite range.

Selection of fruits for Jelly: The fruits should be sufficiently ripe (but not over ripe) and should have good flavor. The most common fruits for jelly are guava, plum, apple, karonda and orange.

Pectin Requirement

Usually about 0.5 to 1.0% pectin of suitable quality in the extract is sufficient to produce a good jelly. If the pectin is in excess of this, a firm and tough jelly is formed and if it is less the jelly fell to set. Pectin, sugar, acid and water must be present approximately in the following proportions:

Pectin........................................................................... 1.0% Sugar ....................................................................... 60-65% Fruit acid ...................................................................... 1.0% Water ....................................................................... 33-38%

To the volume of pectin extract, equal quantity of sugar is added. The sugar should be sprinkled on the fruit extract while it is boiling and should be thoroughly mixed by stirring to ensure complete dilution. During boiling, the scum which rises to the top is removed.

Cooking of Jelly

The mixture is boiled for about 20 minutes and the end point is that the final brix reaches 65o brix. The end point can also determine easily by flake test. In this case some portion of a jelly is taken in a large and cooled slightly. It is then allowed to drop. If it drops like syrup, it requires further concentrations or if it falls in the form of flakes or sheet the end point has been reached. Jelly is then cooled slightly and poured into hot and dry containers.


Physiological Disorders In Fruit Crops Dr. Shahroon Khan


The productivity as well as the quality of fruit crops is affected to a greater extent due to the physiological and nutritional disorders. Disturbance in the plant metabolic activities resulting from an excess or deficit of

environmental variables like temperature, light, aeration and nutritional imbalances result in crop disorders. In fruit crops, the deficiency of micronutrients causes many more disorders than that of macronutrients. Nutritional disorders have

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



become widespread with diminishing use of organic manures, adoption of high density planting, use of root stocks for dwarfing, disease and salt tolerance, unbalanced NPK fertilizer application and extension of horticulture to marginal lands. To get high quality fruit and yields, micronutrient deficiencies have to be detected before visual symptoms are expressed. The deficiencies of Zn, Mn and B are common in sweet orange, acid lime, banana, guava and papaya in India. To correct both visual and hidden micronutrient deficiencies, appropriate foliar and soil applications are necessary. The description of physiological and nutritional disorders in crops include a number of technical terms and it is essential to understand the terms for better identification of symptoms.

Physiological Disorder of Mango

Black Tip: Coal fumes of brick kilns containing sulphur dioxide, ethylene and carbon monoxide are observed to be responsible for black tip. The damage has been noticed in the mango orchards located up to 200metres of distance from brick kiln. It is characterised by depressed spots of yellowing tissues at the distal end of the fruit, which gradually increase in size, become brown and finally black. The necrotic area is always restricted to the tip of the fruit. The growth of the fruit is almost at stand still and the fruit becomes soft after premature ripening. Such fruits never reach full maturity and drop earlier. The preventive measure is to have orchards 1.5 km to the east and west and 0.75 km to the north and south away from the kilns. Spraying of 2% sodium carbonate or 0.6% borax is recommended as control measure.

Spongy Tissue: A non-edible sour patch developed in the mesocarp of mango fruit is broadly termed spongy tissue. The malady has been reported only in Alphonso. The peculiarity of this malady is that external symptoms of the fruit affected by spongy tissue are not apparent at the time of picking or at the ripe stage. These can be detected only on cutting the ripe fruit. This malady renders the fruit unfit for human consumption. It is a physiological disorder in which fruit pulp remains unripe because of unhydrolyzed starch due to physiological and biochemical disturbances caused by heat in mature fruit at pre-and post-harvest stages. Single and double preharvest dip of fruits in calcium solution significantly increased the calcium content in the ripe fruits, whereas there was no significant increase in calcium content by post-harvest Ca dip treatment. The pre harvest dip significantly reduced the occurrence of spongy tissue in the ripe ‘Alphonso’ fruits. The use of wind-breaks for protecting the orchard from warm air during May, and use of proper precautions at post-harvest stage checks the disorder.

Malformation: Among all the known diseases and insect pests of mango, malformation is undoubtedly the most serious. Depending on the plant part affected, two categories of the

malformation, vegetative and floral, have been recognized. In vegetative malformation, the vegetative buds in the leaf axils or at the apical meristem of the younger plants, on activation, develop abnormally as compact rosette-like shootlets, bearing tiny leaf rudiments. Many such shoots may arise to form a bunch, hence it is also sometimes known as bunchy top. The problem is not serious in the grown-up trees. The affected new shoots on the old trees, however, become thick, stunted, and develop a whorl of small leaves. Floral malformation, in contrast, is very virulent and can cause the loss of the entire crop. It affects the fruit production directly by converting the panicle to a barren one. Floral malformation exhibits all sorts of symptoms, but any deviation of a part of the panicle, or all the parts of a panicle, from the normal to abnormal should be considered as a symptom of this malady. In severe form, the affected panicle, appears like a compact mass, being more green and sturdy. It bends down due to its own weight. It is found that the application of 200ppm NAA during the first week of October as spray resulted in considerable reduction of floral malformation. Early deblossoming, combined with NAA spray during October, may reduce the extent of malformation considerably.

Fruit Drop: In mango, there is a heavy drop of hermaphrodite flowers and young fruits amounting to 99% or more. In general, in mango 0.1% or less hermaphrodite flowers develop fruits to maturity. The maximum drop of fruits in ‘Langra’ and ‘Dashehari’ takes place in the first three weeks of April and differs significantly from the drops in the following weeks. Fruit drop is to some extent associated with the variety, as the variety ‘Langra’ is more prone to fruit drop than ‘Dashehari’. Deficient nutrition of many developing embryos may be the most important internal factor leading to post-fertilization drop in mango. This results due to competition among overcrowded fruitlets on panicle. Degeneration of the embryo in the initial stages of its development may yet be another cause of drop. This occurs invariably, if the flowers are self-pollinated. 2,4-D produced better results at concentrations below 20ppm, because at higher concentrations fruit and seed development is retarded. Single spray of NAA or 2,4-D each at 20ppm or Alar 100ppm at pea stage of fruit gives promising results.

Zinc Deficiency: The major nutritional disorder in mango is little leaf caused by the deficiency of zinc. This leads to stunted growth of roots, shoots and leaves. The lamina of leaves turn pale yellow while midrib remain green. Leaves become very small, little with interveinal chlorosis. Yellowing, necrotic patches develop on old leaves with drying of leaves. Subsequently necrotic patches turn grey and cover the entire surface. Two sprays of 1-2% Zinc sulphate, one at the time of flowering and the other at one month after the first spray correct the disorder.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Citrus

Fruit Drop: The most pronounced stages of fruit drop are, (i) immediately after fruitset at marble stage which lasts for a month after full bloom, referred as post-set drop, (ii) the second wave of intense fruit drop occurs at the onset of hot summer weather during May-June, known as June drop, and (iii) preharvest drop or premature drop occurring during ripening period, which lasts from August to December-January. Higher summer temperature, excess or deficiency of soil moisture, lack of nutrients like zinc, phosphorus and potash and attack of fungal diseases like anthracnose, styler-end rot and stem-end rot are some of the primary factors responsible for fruit drop. Application of 2,4-D 10ppm combined with aureofungin 20ppm in the first week of September provides excellent check against physiological and pathological pre-harvest fruit drop in citrus.

Granulation: Granulation is a serious problem of citrus, especially under North Indian conditions. This abnormality is initiated at the stem end of the fruit which gradually extends towards the stylar end. The affected juice sacs become hard and dry, fruits become grey in colour, enlarged in size, have flat and insipid taste and assume a granular texture. Granulated fruits contain less extractable juice as most of it turns into gelatinous mass. This results in more quantity of rag and thus low pulp/rag ratio. The terms granulation, crystallization and dry end are used to describe this trouble. It is much more prevalent in larger sized fruits than in small fruit, in young than in old trees and in humid than in dry areas. Several factors like luxuriant growth, rootstock

and the variety, frequent irrigation, mineral constituents in plant tissue, time of harvest, exposure to sunlight, etc., are found to be associated with this malady. Singh and Singh (1980) reported that in the areas with high incidence of granulation, the plant tissues contain high Ca and Mn, and low P and B. The incidence is relatively high in the fruits of younger plants as compared to those in older plants. The vigorous rootstocks like rough lemon increase the incidence of granulation as compared to less vigorous rootstocks. Late maturity and persistent cold weather throughout the period of maturity have been found to increase the incidence of granulation. The incidence of granulation could be reduced to 50 per cent by applying two to three sprays of NAA (300 ppm) in the months of August, September and October. Spraying of GA 15 ppm followed by NAA 300 ppm in October and November also reduce granulation.

Pomegranate

Fruit Cracking: Fruit cracking is a serious problem of pomegranate. The malady is thought to be due to boron deficiency in young fruits while in developed fruits it may be caused due to variations in soil moisture content and atmospheric humidity. At the time of fruit ripening, if the soils become too dry and then irrigated heavily or there is some rains, cracking may occur. Some cultivars, like Guleshan, Khog, Kazaki are reported to be resistant to fruit cracking. Regular irrigation to maintain soil moisture at desired level, spraying of calcium compounds or GA3 at 120 ppm on young fruits are reported to minimize the fruit cracking.

57. MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND PROCESSING 17061

Shiitake Mushroom: Lentinus edodes Dr. S. Maheswari1* and Vindyashree. M2

1Department of Agricultural Microbiology, 2Department of Plant Pathology, School of Agricultural Sciences & Forestry, Rai Technology University, Bangalore.


INTRODUCTION: Shiitake mushroom, the common Japanese name for Lentinus edodes derives from the mushroom associated with the shii tree (Castanopsis cuspidate Schottky). These mushrooms are renowned in Japan, China and Korea as a food and medicine for thousands of years. Shiitake mushroom cultivation techniques were probably introduced to Japanese farmers by the Chinese between 1500 and 1600 A.D. Shiitake mushroom cultivation techniques was probably introduced to the Japanese farmers by Chinese between 1500 and 1600 A.D. At present, shiitake is one of the five most cultivated edible mushrooms in the world. Its production (2 million tons) is second to button mushroom Agaricus bisporus, grown mainly in East Asia. Shiitake Mushroom is now arousing interest worldwide and accounts 17 % of world production in terms of weight. It can

grow in winter season and also it can grow all the year in controlled condition. The fungus is saprophytic and grows on dead material. Mushrooms depend on substrates for nutrition and the substrate is typically a source of lignocellulose material which supports growth, development and fruiting of mushroom.

Habitat and Distribution

Gregarious on fallen wood of a wide variety of deciduous trees, especially shii, oak, chestnut, beech, maple, sweet gum, poplar (aspen, cottonwood), alder, hornbeam, ironwood, chinquapin, mulberry (Castanopsis cuspidate, Quercus, Castanea, Fagus, Acer, Liquidambar, Populus, Diospyros, Alnus, Carpinus, Morus) in a warm, moist climate. Most of these are raised for artificial cultivation of shiitake mushroom.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Lentinus edodes occurs naturally throughout Southeast Asia. It has been reported from China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Thailand, Burma, North Borneo, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Papua New Guinea.

Nutritional Value

Shiitake mushrooms have excellent nutritional value. The raw fruiting bodies includes 88–92% water, protein, lipids, carbohydrates as well as vitamins and minerals. It should be noted that amounts of nutrients and biologically active compounds differ in various strains and are affected by substrate, fruiting conditions, and methods of cultivation. On a dry weight basis, they have a relatively high nutritional value when compared to commonly consumed vegetables. Dried shiitake mushrooms are rich in carbohydrates and protein. They contain 58–60% carbohydrates, 20–23% protein (digestibility of 80–87%), 9–10% fiber, 3–4% lipids, and 4–5% ash. The mushroom is a good source of vitamins, especially provitamin D2 (ergosterol), 325 mg%, which under ultraviolet (UV) light and heat yields calciferol (vitamin D2). It also contains B vitamins, including B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B12 (niacin), and pantothenic acid.

Medicinal Properties

Shiitake mushrooms have been attributed with many medical properties by both eastern and western medicine. They are used for reducing cholesterol, lowering blood pressure, strengthening the immune system against diseases including viral ones, fighting tumors, and improving liver function. Many of the shiitake health benefits come from chemical compounds includes lentinan, eritadenine, L-ergothioneine. Lentinan has shown some effect on bowel cancer, liver cancer, stomach cancer, ovarian cancer and lung cancer. Lentinan stimulates the production of T lymphocytes and natural killer cells and can

potentiate the effect of AZT in the anti-viral treatment of AIDS. Shiitake is rich in several antioxidants (selenium, uric acid, vitamin A, E, C) as well as vitamin D20. Shiitake mushrooms may also lower blood pressure in those with hypertension, lower serum cholesterol levels, stimulate the production of interferon which has antiviral effects, and has proven effective against Hepatitis also.

Shiitake Mushroom Cultivation

Shiitake Mushroom cultivation is dependent on the environmental conditions similar to those found in a forest. There are six key cultivation phases, each of which requires careful attention: 1) obtaining viable inoculum in pure culture and storing it until use, 2) preparing logs for cultivation, 3) inoculation, 4) laying the logs — to favour fungal growth, 5) raising — to favour fruiting, and 6) harvesting and storing the crop. As problems are encountered, common sense, reading about standard cultural practices and the growth requirement of fungi, reviewing techniques, or innovative thinking (such as thinking back to the log in the forest) will serve as a guide in solving many problems.

58. MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND PROCESSING 17261

Economic Viability through Mushroom Cultivation Senpon Ngomle and Bharat Singh Ambesh

Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Coochbehar-736165 *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Mushrooms belong to the kingdom of fungi, a group very distinct from plants, animals and bacteria. Fungi lack the most importance feature of plants i.e. the ability to use energy from the sun directly through chlorophyll. Thus, fungi depend on other organisms for food, absorbing nutrients from the organic material in which they live. The living body of the fungus is mycelium made out of a tiny web or threads or filaments called hyphae. Under specific condition, sexually compatible hyphae will fuse and start to form spores. The larger spore producing structures (bigger than about 1 mm) are called mushrooms. In nature this

is the most striking part of the organism, but in fact it is just the fruiting body and the major part of the living organism is found under the ground or inside the wood.

Mushroom have been gathered and consumed from the wild since time immemorial for food and medicinal purpose. This practice is still continuing even today but most of the world’s supply comes from commercial mushroom growers. Mushroom cultivation was started in India in sixties but till now it could not get place in the diet of common man particularly because of lack of awareness and high price and its consumption is mostly localized

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



to big cities and five star hotels. Thus, India is lagging behind both on respect of production and consumption as compared to other mushroom producing countries.

Importance of Mushroom Cultivation

1. Mushroom cultivation is a labour intensive activity. India has abundance rural labour, which is suited for such a project.

2. Mushroom harvesting cannot be effectively automated. Manual operations are best suited as it ensures creation of more employment.

3. Mushroom helps in maintaining the cycle of nature by decomposing agro residues. Thus agro residues is available in abundance in our country.

4. Mushroom is good source of high quality proteins and rich in vitamins and minerals.

5. Mushroom cultivation provides excellent opportunity to educated rural youth to become entrepreneurs and provide jobs to others.

6. Mushroom cultivation provides opportunity to use wastelands except water logged land.

7. The rural women whether they are educated or uneducated can easily handle such type of projects very easily along with their house jobs and become economically sound.

8. Mushroom cultivation provides excellent opportunity to become economically sound by selling mushroom because of its great demands.

Medicinal Values

Mushrooms are being used as medicine since time immemorial. It is suitable for people suffering from hyper-tension, obesity and diabetes as it contains low sodium-potassium ratio, carbohydrates, fat and calorific value.

Table 1: Medicinal value of some important mushrooms

Mushroom Compounds Medicinal properties

Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderic acid Beta-glucan

Augments immune system, Liver protection, Antibiotic properties, Inhibits cholesterol synthesis.

Lentinula edodes

Eritadenine Lentinan

Lower cholesterol, Anti-cancer agent.

Agaricus bisporus

Lectins Enhance insulin secretion

Pleurotus sajor-caju

Lovastatin Lower cholesterol

Ganoderma frondosa

Polysaccharide Lectins

Increase insulin secretion. Decrease blood glucose.

Auricularia auricular

Acidic polysaccharides

Decrease blood glucose.

Flammulina velutipes

Ergothioneine Proflamin

Antioxidant,

Anti-cancer activity

Cordyceps sinensis

Coedycepin Cures ling infection, Hypoglycaemic activity, Cellular health properties,

Mushroom Compounds Medicinal properties

Anti-depressant activity.

Trametes versicolor

Polysaccharide-K (Kresin)

Decrease immune system depression.

Source: K. Manikandan. Nutritional and Medicinal Values of Mushrooms. (2011)

Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus spp.)

Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.) belonging to Class Basidiomycetes and Family Agaricaceae is popularly known as ‘dhingri’ in India. Oyster mushroom can grow at moderate temperature ranging from 20 to 300 C and humidity 55-70% for a period of 6 to 8 months (September/October to March/April) in a year.

Traditional Method of Oyster Mushroom Cultivation

Easily available agricultural waste of rice, maize, banana etc and even sawdust are used for Oyster Mushroom cultivation. Rice straw are first cut into 4-5” pieces, is then soaked in water for 12 hr. After soaking the straw is boiled. Treated straw is spread in wire mesh for 15 min to drain the excess water. Now these straws are put in polythene bags of 40X60cm size. This can hold 3 kg of wet straw. There should be holes in the bags. Now put 10 cm layer straw in the bags and press it. Then sprinkle spawn in the layer. Fill the bags to ¾th capacity with alternate layers of straw and spawn. Tie the bag and place in spawn running room. These bags are kept in a dark room at 20 to 30ºc for 12-20 days. White mycelial growth starts and covers the entire straw in 20-25 days. Remove the polythene bag after completion of spawn run to allow for fruiting. Pinheads formation starts after 5-7 days after completion of spawn run and it will be ready for harvesting in 3 -5 days after their pinheads formation.

Mushroom Cultivation

Economics of Oyster Mushroom Production

A. Fixed capital

1. Mushroom cropping room (thatched roof) of 3m x 6m size (Capacity of 250 beds)

Rs. 25,000.00

2. Chaff cutter Rs. 7,000.00

3. Aluminium pan (120 litres) Rs. 2,500.00

4. Sprayer (1no.) Rs. 300.00

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



5. Fire wood Rs. 1000.00

Subtotal Rs. 35,800.00

B. Fixed cost

1. Interest @ 10% for crop season (4 months)

Rs. 3580.00

2. Depreciation on items 1-4 @ 10 % Rs. 3580.00

Sub total Rs.7,160.00

C. Working capital

1. Paddy straw 0.5 ton (500kg) Rs.2,500.00

2. Spawn 250 packets (200g) @ Rs. 20 Rs.5,000.00

3. Polythene bags (10kg) Rs.1,500.00

4. Labour 100 man days @ 150 Rs.15,000.00

5. Miscellaneous Rs. 500.00

Sub total Rs. 24500.00

D. Cost of mushroom production

1. Working capital plus fixed cost (B+C) Rs. 31,660.00

2. Cost of production of 1 kg mushroom (32,460/500) Cost of production of 1 kg mushroom (Rounded off)

Rs.63.32 Rs.63.00

E. Income

1. By sale of 5kg mushroom/day @ 120/kg for 100 days

Rs. 60,000.00

2. Total cost of production Rs. 31,660.00

3. Net income for 4 months Rs. 28,340.00

Reference Borah R T, Hoque H, Kikon EL, Deka BC and

Rajesha G, 2014. Mushroom Cultivation for subsidiary income and nutritional security. ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Nagaland Centre, Jharnapani, Medziphema, Nagaland-797106.

Chowdhury A K and Bhattacharya, 2007. A guide for Mushroom cultivation.

59. MEDICINAL PLANTS 17567

Medicinal and Therapeutic Value of Sea Buckthorn Ankit Dongariyal, Rajat Sharma and Manpreet Singh Preet

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand (263 145)


Sea buckthorn is a newly emerged horticultural crop of temperate region belonging to the family Elaeagnaceae. It is a hardy, spiny, deciduous and dioecious shrub. Eurasia is confined as a home of Sea buckthorn.

In India, it is widespread in dry semi-desert areas of Leh/Ladakh and Jammu & Kashmir. It is a medicinal plant long used in herbal medicine as all its parts (leaves, flowers, seeds, and fruits) can be used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics industry. Available in supplement form, sea buckthorn extract contains a variety of essential fatty acids and antioxidants (including vitamin C, vitamin E, and anthocyanins) and minerals (Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron and Phosphorus). Defense Institute of physiology and Allied Sciences, New Delhi reported that alcoholic leaf extract of Sea buckthorn has significant antioxidant and Immune modulatory activity against chromium induced oxidative stress in rat

lymphocytes. The leaf extract has potent cytoprotective activity against hypoxia induced oxidative stress in glial cells.

The antioxidant property of leaves is due to presence of flavonoids (Hippophaeosides Catechin, Epicatechin, Gallocatechin, Epigallocatechin), querecetin, isorhamnetin and flavonols. Flavonoids have a high level of free radical scavenging activity, which contributes to sea buckthorn’s protection against oxidative stress, tumor growth, ulcers, inflammation, and stress-induced conditions. Leaf extract of Sea buckthorn has significant anti-inflamation activity which affects cell viability with potential of treating inflammatory diseases like arthritis in line with traditional uses. The leaves are also used for treating gastrointestinal ulcers, gout, and skin rashes caused by infectious diseases such as measles. Sea buckthorn leaves when used in a Tea serves as a source of vitamins, antioxidants, protein building blocks (amino acids), fatty acids and minerals which helps in improving blood pressure and lowering cholesterol along with preventing and controlling blood vessel diseases. Sea buckthorn berries are used for preventing infections, improving sight, and slowing the aging process. Active compounds present in its berries helps to promote the immune function and regulate the activity of immune cells thus playing important role in promoting human resistance against diseases and postponing senescence. The seed or berry oil is used as an expectorant for treating asthma, heart disorders including chest pain (angina) and high cholesterol; for preventing

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



blood vessel disease; and as an antioxidant.

Sea buckthorn oil is also used for slowing the decline of thinking skills with age, reducing illness due to cancer, as well as limiting the toxicity of chemical cancer treatment (chemotherapy); balancing the immune system; treating stomach and intestinal diseases including ulcers and reflux esophagus (GERD); treating night blindness and dry eye; and as a supplemental source of vitamins C, A, and E, beta-carotene, minerals, amino acids,

and fatty acids. Some people apply sea buckthorn berries, berry concentrate, and berry or seed oil directly to the skin for preventing sunburn; for treating radiation damage from x-rays and sunburns; for healing wounds including bedsores, burns, and cuts; for acne, dermatitis, dry skin, eczema, skin ulcers, and skin color changes after giving birth; and for protecting mucus membranes. In foods, sea buckthorn berries are used to make jellies, juices, purees, and sauces. In manufacturing, sea buckthorn is used in cosmetics and anti-aging products.

References Quach, H. (2018, November 27). Interesting health

benefits of Sea Buckthorn + mechanisms and side effects. Retrieved by https:// www.selfhacked.com.

Singh, B (2010). Seabuckthorn: A New Underutilized Fruit crop. In K.V. Peter (ed.), Underutilized and Underexploited Horticultural Crops (Vol 5, pp. 449-471). New Delhi, India: New India Publishing Agency.

Wong, C. (2018, October 19). The benefits of Sea Buckthorn. Retrieved by http://www.verywellhealth.com.

60. PLANT BREEDING AND GENETICS 17325

Transgenics in Maize Aman Deep Ranga*, Sourav Kumar and Mayur Darvhankar

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, School of Agriculture Lovely Professional University, Phagwara Punjab


INTRODUCTION: Maize (also known as corn) is Zea mays, belongs to the family Poaceae. It is a cereal grain was first grown by people in ancient Central America and was domesticated from its wild progenitor Teosinte (Balsas teosinte). Ploidy level (Chromosome Number) was given by Randolph (1928) and Mc Clintock (1929) (2n = 20) is the ploidy number of Zea mays.

Importance of Maize

Globally, maize ranks first in productivity (10.32 t/ha, USA) with an area of 161 million ha producing 827 million tons and productivity is 5136 kg/ha whereas in India area under maize is 8.26 million ha with a production of 21.23 million tons and productivity is 2570 kg/ha. In 2017, total corn production was 1033.74 million metric tons. United States was the largest producer in 2007 with a corn production of 370.96 million metric tons whereas India produced 27.15 million metric tons. It can be used as human food, animal and poultry feed and raw material industrial products.

The development of biotechnology has led to a great increase in our knowledge of genetics and understanding of the structure and behaviour of maize genomes. Molecular methods enables scientists to see the layout of the entire genome of select plants with preferred characteristics by

"reading" at the molecular level, saving precious time and resources. DNA markers have provided valuable tools in various analyses ranging from phylogenetic analysis to the positional cloning of genes. Application of molecular markers for genetic studies of maize include: assessment of genetic variability and characterization of germ plasm, identification and fingerprinting of genotypes, estimation of genetic distance, detection of monogamic and quantitative trait loci, marker assisted selection, identification of sequence of useful candidate genes, etc. The development of high-density molecular maps which has been facilitated by PCR-based markers, have made the mapping and tagging of almost any trait possible and serve as bases for marker assisted selection. Sequencing of maize genomes would help to elucidate gene function, gene regulation and their expression. Development of informatics and biotechnology are resulted in bioinformatic as well as in expansion of microarrey technique. Modern biotechnologies could complement and improve the efficiency of traditional selection and breeding techniques to enhance agricultural productivity.

Traditional Plant Breeding

In traditional plant breeding there is a chance of

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



transfer of recessive gene but in plant biotechnology there is no chances of transfer of recessive gene as expressed below:

Transgenic Plants

A transgenic plant contains a gene or genes artificially inserted (Transgene) instead of the plant acquiring them through pollination. Transgene may come from another unrelated plant or a completely different species. Plants containing transgenes are often called genetically modified or GM crops. The above figure shows procedure of producing transgenic plant.

The United States is the leading producer of Biotech crops with planting of 69 million ha. Brazil was the second with over 30 million ha., while Agrentina was the third largest producer with over 23 million ha. India and Canada held the fourth and fifth place with over 20 million ha each. Worldwide maize has 161 million ha under hybrid or common maize while area under GM maize is 42 million ha with a proportion of 26%.

Importance of GM Crops

Genetically modified (GM) crops have many potential advantages in terms of raising agricultural productivity and reducing the need for (environmentally harmful) pesticides. In 2009, GM crops were being grown on 10% of the Earth’s

arable land. In these plants, one or more genes coding for desirable traits have been inserted. The traits targeted through genetic engineering are often the same as those pursued by conventional breeding.

Second-generation GM crops involve enhanced quality traits, such as higher nutrient content. “Golden Rice,” one of the very first GM crops, is biofortified to address vitamin A deficiency, a common condition in developing countries that leads to blindness and entails higher rates of child mortality and infectious diseases. Other biofortification projects include corn, sorghum, cassava, and banana plants, with enhanced minerals and vitamins.

Methods of Developing Transgenic Plants

Agrobacterium tumefaciens and related Agrobacterium species are used to transfer DNA into plant cells for the purpose of genetic engineering

Particle bombardment gun shoots foreign DNA into plant cells or tissue at a very high speed. This technique is also known as particle bombardment, particle gun method, biolistic process, microprojectile bombardment or particle acceleration.

Microinjection technique is a direct physical approach, and therefore host-range independent, for introducing substances under microscopical control into defined cells without damaging them.

Direct DNA delivery are available, ranging from uptake of DNA into isolated protoplasts mediated by chemical procedures or electroporation, to injection and the use of high-velocity particles to introduce DNA into intact tissues. Direct DNA uptake is applicable to both stable and transient gene expression studies and utilizes a range of vectors, including those employed for gene cloning.


CRISPR/Cas9: A New Tool for Genome Editing Ashutosh1*, Monu Kumar1, Prashant Singh2 and Sameer Upadhyay1

1Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, 2Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (U.P.), India


INTRODUCTION: The CRISPR/Cas9 system is a powerful tool for genome editing in plant cells that allows researchers to generate genetic variants at lower cost and with high throughput than alternative methods like zinc finger nuclease (ZFN) or transcription activator-like effector nuclease (TALEN) genome editing. The introductory discoveries that led to CRISPR/Cas9 technology can be traced back to 1993, when the genomic regions known as CRISPR loci were first identified. In 2007, after years of studying CRISPR

genetic motifs, researchers came to the conclusion that CRISPR’s function is related to microbial cellular immunity. Throughout the next 5 years, several research groups worked to illuminate the underlying molecular mechanisms behind CRISPR in prokaryotes. CRISPR works as a form of prokaryotic immunity that identifies, targets and eliminates bacteriophage and foreign DNA. By 2012, researchers realized that CRISPR could be adapted for engineering the genomes of microbes, plants, animal, and other varieties of

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



cells. Today, CRISPR is utilized for countless applications and its adoption continues to increase exponentially in laboratories throughout the world. Due to its adaptability across a wide range of species and its simplicity of use, CRISPR/Cas9 has quickly revolutionized as very efficient genome editing tool.

What is CRISPR/Cas9?

The Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) Type II system is a form of prokaryotic immunity that has been adapted for genome engineering. It consists of two components: a specific guide RNA (gRNA) and a non-specific CRISPR associated endonuclease protein from Streptococcus pyogenes (Cas9). In nature, prokaryotes store small palindromic segments of DNA that are interspaced with other fragments of genetic material. These segments fall between CRISPR loci and correspond to fragments of viral DNA that the cell has previously encountered. After a prokaryotic cell successfully clears a viral infection or encounters a foreign plasmid, it stores fragments of foreign DNA as a way to retain a genetic memory in order to recognize and disable future infections.

Think of CRISPR/Cas9 as a pair of molecular scissors guided by a GPS. The disabling of the invading genetic material is carried out by the Cas9 protein which is a non-specific but programmable endonuclease that is directed to a specific sequence target by a guide RNA (gRNA). Once located, Cas9 causes a double-stranded break (DSB) in its target loci. The guide RNA is complementary to a segment of the foreign DNA or viral genome; this allows Cas9 to identify and cut DNA with a high degree of specificity.

One of the critical discoveries made about CRISPR/Cas9 was the identification of two distinct segments of RNA that are required for function: CRISPR RNA (crRNA) and trans-activating CRISPR RNA (tracrRNA). The crRNA is complementary to the target DNA sequence and will bind to the sequence to be cleaved. The tracrRNA is a small RNA molecule that enables maturation of the crRNA. The crRNA and tracrRNA segments may exist in nature as a duplex or, synthetically, as part of one seamless fusion sequence known as single-guide RNA (sgRNA).

Under the direction of its corresponding gRNA, the Cas9 enzyme binds DNA at a specific genetic element (known as the protospacer adjacent motif, or PAM) given by one of several trimers with the sequence 5’-NGG-3’. After binding, the Cas9 creates a blunt, double-stranded

break in the foreign DNA, rendering it harmless to the cell. As a biotechnological tool, CRISPR/Cas9 operates in a similar way as happens in nature. However, by providing the Cas9 protein with a gRNA, the nuclease can be programmed to cleave any host organism’s genome at virtually any location, as per the design specifications of the gRNA.

After the cut, CRISPR/Cas9 technology relies on the cell’s natural repair mechanisms to attend the double-stranded break in one of two ways. First, the cell may proceed with non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) of the cleaved fragments. NHEJ binds the double stranded break back together, but in the process may insert or delete a nucleotide and produce a frameshift mutation (Indel). This method typically leads to a frameshift mutation and a knockout of the targeted genetic element’s function. Alternatively, if the object of the experiment is to replace the targeted genetic element with a different sequence (e.g., for gene deletion, single-base editing, etc.), the cell can be directed towards an alternative repair pathway, homology directed repair (HDR). To accomplish this, a cell must be provided with a homologous DNA template containing the desired change in sequence. A certain number of cells will use this template to repair the broken sequence via homologous recombination, thereby incorporating the desired edits into the genome.

Crispr Applications

No matter how you look at it, CRISPR gene editing has proven itself to be something of a miracle. The technique has transformed biology and genetics, offering a cheap, effective and precise method. Whereas this has obvious implications for healthcare, CRISPR has also found a place within numerous other disciplines. But which are some of the most notable achievements so far?

1. Fighting Cancer: Perhaps CRISPR’s most celebrated application is in detecting and treating cancer. UK scientists are currently using the technique to explore the biology of cancerous brain tumours with the aim of producing specialized treatment.

2. Extracting HIV: As well as treating cancer, CRISPR is tackling other fatal diseases. One of the greatest triumphs so far has been the successful removal of HIV from human immune cells. At Temple University, a research team eliminated HIV-1 DNA from T cell genomes in human lab cultures. This is a major advancement in potential HIV treatment, as the virus is prone to re-infect victims. The method was shown to be safe for human cells, and could provide a more long term treatment for patients.

3. Making Disease Self Destruct: Some scientists developing an antibiotic that makes pathogens ‘commit suicide’. Through a DNA slicing enzyme called Cas, CRISPR chops up the genes of invading bacterium. The method

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



kills off the targeted disease whilst leaving other beneficial bacteria intact. The antibiotic comes in the form of a pill, making it easy to administer as well as incredibly effective.

4. Protecting Plants: Using CRISPR to kill weeds might seem like a trivial application, however they are a serious problem for farmers globally and can drastically impact crop yield. Equipping plants with resistance genes could lead to reduced reliance on pesticides and herbicides. In January, Monsanto revealed a new global licensing agreement to use CRISPR within agriculture, alongside the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard.

5. Producing Food: Earlier this year, researchers at Tokushima University announced the creation of seedless tomatoes using CRISPR.

Seedless fruit could be a vital step towards more sustainable food production, as they can be grown from scratch in laboratories. Project leader Keishi Osakabe believes that CRISPR could also be used to remove allergens from food, as well as improving shelf life.

6. Creating Biofuel: A partnership between J. Craig Venter and Exxon Mobil has used CRISPR to improve the energy production of algae. After eight years of research, their joint venture Synthetic Genomics Inc. has successfully doubled the amount of oil produced by the aquatic organism via CRISPR gene editing. The project, which revealed its findings this summer, represents a significant development in alternative energy solutions.


Different Genome Editing Technologies Saurabh Pandey


Targeted nucleases have provided researchers with the ability to manipulate virtually any genomic sequence. Among them core technologies now most commonly used to facilitate genome editing are (1) clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated protein9 (Cas9), (2) transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), (3) zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs), and (4) homing endonucleases or mega nucleases.

The ease with which CRISPRCas9 and TALENs can be particularly constructed to recognize new genomic sequences has driven a revolution in genome editing that has accelerated scientific breakthroughs and discoveries in disciplines as diverse as synthetic biology, human gene therapy, disease modelling, drug discovery, neuroscience, and the agricultural sciences.

These systems efficiently induce targeted DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) which further activates cellular DNA repair pathways and enable the introduction of site-specific genomic alterations mostly used for gene knockouts via random base insertions and/or deletions that can be introduced by non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). But in the presence of a donor template with homology to the targeted chromosomal site, gene integration, or base correction via homology-directed repair (HDR) can be achieved.

A) Zinc-Finger Nucleases (ZFNs)

These are fusions between a custom designed Cys2-His2 zinc-finger protein and the cleavage domain of the FokI restriction endonuclease were the first targeted nuclease to achieve wide spread use. ZFNs function as dimers, with each monomer recognizing a specific “half site” sequence—typically nine to 18 base pairs (bps) of DNA—via the zinc-finger DNA-binding domain.

Dimerization of the ZFN proteins is mediated by the FokI cleavage domain, which cuts DNA within a five- to seven-bp spacer sequence that separates two flanking zinc-finger binding sites. Each ZFN is typically composed of three or four zinc-finger domains, with each individual domain composed of 30 amino acid residues that are organized in a bba motif. The residues that facilitate DNA recognition are located within the a-helical domain and typically interact with three bps of DNA, with occasional overlap from an adjacent domain

One major concern associated with ZFNs for genome editing (in addition to all targeted nucleases) is off-target mutations. One particularly promising approach for improving ZFN specificity is to deliver them into cells as protein. Because of the intrinsic cell-penetrating activity of zinc-finger domains ZFN proteins themselves are inherently cell-permeable and can facilitate gene editing with fewer off-target effects when applied directly onto cells as purified protein compared to when expressed within cells from nucleic acids. It remains challenging to create zinc-finger domains that can effectively recognize all DNA triplets, especially those of the 50-CNN-30 and 50-TNN-30 variety.

B) TALE Nucleases

TALE proteins are bacterial effectors. Like ZFNs, TALENs are modular in form and function, comprised of an amino-terminal TALE DNA-binding domain fused to a carboxy-terminal FokI cleavage domain. Also like ZFNs, dimerization of TALEN proteins is mediated by the FokI cleavage domain, which cuts within a12- to 19-bp spacer sequence that separates each TALE binding site. TALEs are typically assembled to recognize between 12- to 20-bps of DNA, with more bases

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



typically leading to higher genome-editing specificity. The TALE binding domain consists of a series of repeat domains, each 34 residues in length. Each repeat contacts DNA via the amino acid residues at positions 12 and 13, known as the repeat variable di residues (RVDs). Each TALE repeat recognizes only a single bp, with little to no target site overlap from adjacent domains. The most commonly used RVDs for assembling synthetic TALE arrays are: NI for adenine, HD for cytosine, NG for thymine, and NN or HN for guanine or adenine). TALE DNA-binding domains can be constructed by Golden Gate assembly, FLASH assembly, iterative capped assembly, and ligation independent cloning.

Compared to ZFNs, TALENs offer two distinct advantages for genome editing. First, no selection or directed evolution is necessary to engineer TALE arrays, dramatically reducing the amount of time and experience needed to assemble a functional nuclease. Second, TALENs have been reported to show improved specificity and reduced toxicity compared to some ZFNs potentially because of their increased affinity for target DNA (Meckler et al., 2013) or perhaps a greater energetic penalty for associating with base mismatches.

However, TALENs do have disadvantages. They are substantially larger than ZFNs, and have a highly repetitive structure, making their efficient delivery into cells challenging. Methods for overcoming these limitations have emerged as TALENs can be readily delivered into cells as mRNA and even protein although alternative codon usage and amino acid degeneracy can also be leveraged to express RVD arrays that might be less susceptible to recombination.

C) CRISPR-Cas9

The CRISPR-Cas9 system is the most recent addition to the genome-editing toolbox. In bacteria, the type-II CRISPR system provides protection against DNA from invading viruses and plasmids via RNA-guided DNA cleavage by Cas proteins. Short segments of foreign DNA are integrated within the CRISPR locus and transcribed into CRISPR RNA (crRNA), which then anneal to trans-activating crRNA (tracrRNA) to direct sequence specific degradation of pathogenic DNA by theCas9 protein. Target

recognition by the Cas9 protein only requires a seed sequence within the crRNA and a conserved proto spacer-adjacent motif (PAM) upstream of the crRNA binding site. This system now consists of only the Cas9 nuclease and a single guide RNA (gRNA) containing the essential crRNA and tracrRNA elements.

The only major restriction for Cas9 target site recognition is that the PAM motif—which is recognized by the Cas9 nuclease and is essential for DNA cleavage—be located immediately downstream of the gRNA target site.

Cas9 could be prone to inducing off-target mutations. Off-target cleavage has also been reduced by controlling the dosage of either the Cas9 protein or gRNA within the cell. Finally, several studies have recently showed that protein engineering can broadly enhance Cas9 specificity and even alter its PAM requirements the latter having the potential to enable creation of customized variants of Cas9 for allele-specific gene editing, although Cas9 orthologs or alternative CRISPR systems (Zetsche et al., 2015a) with unique PAM specificities have been uncovered in nature.

D) Homing Endonucleases

Homing endonucleases, also known as meganucleases, represent the final member of the targeted nuclease family. These enzymes are members of the LAGLIDADG family of endonucleases—so named for the conserved amino acid motif present within these enzymes that interacts with DNA—are a collection of naturally occurring enzymes that recognize and cleave long DNA sequences (14–40 bps). These enzymes make extensive sequence-specific contacts with their DNA substrate and thus typically show exquisite specificity.

However, unlike ZFNs and TALENs, the binding and cleavage domains in homing endonucleases are not modular. This overlap in form and function make their reprogramming challenging, and limits their utility for more routine applications of genome editing. More recently megaTALs—fusions of a rare-cleaving homing endonuclease to a TALE-binding domain—have been reported to induce highly specific gene modifications.


MutMap: As Novel Approach in Crop Improvement R. D. Vekariya1*and D. K. Janghel2

1Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Navsari Agriculture University, Navsari, Gujarat, India 2Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana


INTRODUCTION: Conventional breeding approaches alone can’t accelerate crop breeding programme until breeders are not incorporated the findings of the genomic revolution.

Advancement in genome sequencing technologies enabled the researchers and breeders to rapidly associate phenotypic variation to genome sequence differences. Mutmap sequencing

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



method is the promise approach to accelerate selective crop breeding. Abe et al. (2012) introduced MutMap (Mutation multi-analyte panel), a method based on whole genome re-sequencing of pooled DNA from a segregating population of plants that show a useful phenotype.

Why MutMap?

Most of breeding traits relevant to agronomic improvement of crops are controlled by several loci–QTL (Quantitative Trait Loci). It makes possible plant breeding through marker-assisted selection, but before that is important to identify the locus or chromosome region associated with the quantitative trait. Traditional molecular marker based linkage mapping methods requires crosses between genetically distant lines, difficult to determine causal mutant, not easy to find and develop markers for many agronomical important traits. Large number of F1 progenies has to be grown (500 -5000), PCR and gel electrophoresis (GE) in each step would be labour intensive and time-consuming so that map-based cloning is not possible if possible then it won’t be straight forward. However, now a days rapid development of Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) technologies renders the sequencing of plant genome routine. So, MutMap is simple and efficient method to identifying and cloning genes that determine the quantitative minor effect phenotypes with using NGS platform.

Mutation Detection Methods based on NGS (Next-Generation Sequencing) Technologies

MutMap: (Abe et al., 2012), a mutant is crossed directly to the original wild-type lines and then F1 is selfed to raise segregating population in second filial generation and F2 progeny show phenotypic differences then whole-genome re-sequencing of pooled DNA from a segregating population of plants that important for identification of casual mutation. All the nucleotide changes incorporated into the mutant by mutagenesis are detected as single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and insertion-deletions (indels) between mutant and wild type. Among the F2 progeny, the majority of SNPs will segregate in a 1:1 mutant/wild type ratio. MutMap detection mutation in whole genome that means identification of SNP responsible for casual mutation i.e. SNP marker based approach, detect SNP by using NGS platform.

MutMap+: (Fekih et al., 2013), versatile extension of MutMap that identifies causal mutations by comparing SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms) frequencies of bulked DNA of mutants and wild type progenies of M3 generation derived from selfing of an M2 heterozygous individual. Notably, MutMap+ does not necessitate artificial crossing between mutants and wild-type parental lines. Therefore, this method is suitable for identifying mutations that causes early development lethality, sterility or generally hampers crossing.

MutMap Gap: (Takagi et al., 2013), when the

re-sequenced cultivar/line displays significant structural variation from the reference genome, mutations in the genome regions missing from the reference (gaps) cannot be identified by simple alignment. MutMap-Gap is identification of the causative nucleotide change for a given mutant phenotype in a genomic region that is missing from the reference genome. Here scientist report on a method called ‘MutMap-Gap’ combines MutMap method with targeted region and de novo assembly of genome gap region.

Review of Research Work

Takagi et al. (2015) utilized MutMap approach to accelerate breeding of a salt-tolerant rice cultivar and identified a rice mutant hst1 with enhanced tolerance of salt stress and used MutMap to map the causative hst1 mutation to the OsRR22 gene. The resulting releasing variety Kaijin in 2015 is practically equivalent to Hitomebore except for the hst1 mutation but took only two years to breed, which is far quicker than for conventional rice breeding (~10 years).

Fekih et al. (2013) applied MutMap+ for the identification of causal SNPs in rice mutants Hit9188 derived from EMS mutagenesis of cultivar Hitomebore. Identified mutant, among M3 plants that originated from a self-fertilized M2 individual planted in the paddy field, is characterized by dwarfism and pale green leaves followed by two bulks of DNA; a mutant bulk of 40 mutant-type progenies and a wild-type bulk of 40 wild-type progenies. Whole genome sequencing of mutant bulk and reads aligned to reference sequences of Hitembore using BWA software. SNP-index was calculated for each SNP, SNP-index and chromosome position was plotted for the 12 rice chromosomes, ∆(SNP-index) calculated, region that exhibited a SNP-index difference of >0 identified as a casual mutant and finally Hit 9188- Gene OsNAP6 in chromosome 1 identified as responsible for the development of mutant phenotypes.

Takagi et al. (2013) identified causative nucleotide changes for a given mutant phenotype in a genomic region that is missing from the reference genome. Scientist applied MutMap-Gap to isolate the blast resistant gene Pii from the rice cv. Hitomebore using mutant lines Hit5948 and Hit6780 that have lost Pii function. SNP-10290916 was localized in the second exon of the gene Os09t0327600-01 predicted in the Nipponbare genome and reported that the Os09t0327600-01 homolog in Hitomebore functions as Pii and that is Hit5948 lacks a functional Pii. Gene prediction by GENSCAN and finally concluded the HIT7 gene contains an NBS-LRR domain, suggesting that this SNP is the likely causal mutation of Hit6780.

Abe et al. (2012) applied MutMap method to pale green leaf mutants and in agronomical important traits, mutagenized with EMS (Ethyl Methane Sulfonate) about 12,000 plants of M3 – M4 generation and crossed between mutant and

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



wild type genotype, >200 F2 progenies were obtained for each cross and 20 F2 mutant progenies are bulked to allow whole genome sequencing. Then reads aligned to reference sequences of Hitembore using MAB Q software and identified SNP with SNP index 1 which detected mutated gene (OsCA01 gene) causing pale green leaf on chromosome 10. Similarly, for agronomical important traits applied MutMap and reported in all cases that only a single genomic region containing a cluster of SNPs with SNP index of 1. The average interval of SNPs within these regions with a SNP index ≥0.9 was 2.1 Mb, and found at most four SNPs that could have caused non-synonymous changes of protein-coding genes. Therefore, we concluded that these regions correspond to locations of the causal mutations responsible for the observed phenotypes.

Conclusion and Future Prospectus: OsCA01 gene for a pale green phenotype, Pii for blast resistant phenotype and hst 1 for salt tolerant phenotype are identified. MutMap can accelerate the genetic improvement of rice and other crop plants. MutMap+ method is suitable for identifying mutations that causes early development lethality, sterility or generally hampers crossing. One of the key advantages of

the MutMap approach is the ability to rapidly identify mutations affecting quantitative traits in crop genomes, a limiting feature in many breeding programs. Recent studies are going on to identify gene - stay green, single tiller, high root phenotype.

References Abe, A., Kosugi, S., Yoshida, K, Natsume, S., Takagi,

H., Kanzaki, H., Matsumura, H., Yoshida, K., Mitsuoka, C., Tamiru, M., Hideki, I., Liliana, C., Sophien, K. and Ryohei, T. (2012). Genome sequencing reveals agronomically important loci in rice using MutMap. Nature biotechnology, 30:174-178.

Fekih, R., Takagi, H., Tamiru, M., Abe, A., Natsume, S., Yaegashi, H., Sharma S., Sharma, S., Kanzaki, H., Matsumura, H., Saitoh, H., Mitsuoka, C., Utsushi, H., Uemura, A., Kanzaki, E., Kosugi, S., Yoshida, K., Cano, L., Kamoun, S. and Terauchi, R. (2013). MutMap+: Genetic Mapping and Mutant Identification without Crossing in Rice. Plos one, 30(2):174-8.

Takagi, H., Tamiru, M., Abe, A., Yoshida, K., Uemura, A., Yaegashi, H., Obara, T., Oikawa, K., Utsushi, H., Kanzaki1, E., Mitsuoka1, C., Natsume, S., Kosugi, S., Kanzaki, H., Matsumura, H., Urasaki, N., Kamoun, S. andTerauchi1, R. (2015). MutMap accelerates breeding of a salt-tolerant rice cultivar. Nature biotechnology, 33:445-449.


Orphan Crops: Promising Future Vinod Kumar* and Arjun Negi

Department of Crop Improvement, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur-176062 *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Orphan crops are the solution to global food supply system risks and an investment opportunity for future agricultural research. The number of plant species used by humans around the world is only one third of the number of species existing and for many other species of local importance, the knowledge on the distribution of their genetic diversity and use patterns are still largely limited. Increased reliance on major food crops has been accompanied by shrinking of the food basket which humankind has been relying upon for generations (Pauline et al., 2015).

Modern agricultural systems that promote cultivation of a very limited number of crop species have relegated indigenous crops to the status of neglected and underutilized crop species, yet such crops (quinoa, grain amaranth, rice bean, millets, tef, bambara groundnut, dolichos bean, grass pea, cassava, yam, jajoba etc.) offer greater genetic biodiversity and have potential to improve food and nutritional security. The 21st Century has started with the awareness on the need to rescue and improve the use of those crops left aside by research, technology, marketing systems as well as conservation efforts throughout the

world2. Eragrostis tef is a staple food crops in developing world, a reverse genetics approach known as TILLING is implemented in order to tackle lodging (HTD and DWARF4 genes) the major yield limiting factor in tef (Zerihun 2009). A mutant form of a gene regulating retention of green colour in the leaves (sgr) had been introgressed into ryegrass background from the closely related medow fescue, comparative mapping studies revealed that the genomes of plant species within families are conserved for chromosomal regions. Hence, orthologoues genes from orphan crops could be identified and isolated based on information from major crops.

Employing plant breeding strategies like, exploration, domestication, introduction, conventional, molecular, mutational breeding, participatory plant breeding and comparative genomics will boost up the efforts in trying to convert underutilized species into major crops of the world and address the limitations such as poor grain yield and nutrient content, unfavorable agronomic features, toxic compounds associated with underexploited crops.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Why has Agricultural Research Neglected Orphan Crops?

From the 1930s through to the 1960s, the so-called “Green Revolution” in agriculture constituted a major push to boost agricultural productivity through intensive research and development programmes. This was coupled with technology transfer and extension work in the developing world, especially in parts of Central America (e.g. Mexico) and Asia (e.g. India and the Philippines). It was based on plant breeding programmes which focused on creating high-yielding varieties of a few key staple crops, namely wheat, maize and rice, as well as irrigation and the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.

While the Green Revolution can be credited with feeding billions of extra people around the world, it was not followed by equivalent efforts to develop similarly improved varieties and cultivation methods of many other crops that also have great potential. For example, today rice, maize and wheat alone provide over 60 percent of global food energy intake, according to the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation. But there are over 50,000 kinds of edible plants available in the

world. The potential to increase productivity, diversity and nutritional outcomes through investments in orphan crops is tremendous.

Orphan crops require more attention and funding if they are to fully contribute to food security, nutrition and sustainability. More than 800 million people globally still suffer from acute or chronic undernourishment. More than 3 million children die from under-nutrition each year, accounting for almost half (45%) of all deaths of children under age five. Meanwhile, unsustainable water use means that two-fifths of the world’s grain production is at risk.

References 3. Pauline, C., Tafadzwanashe, M., Albert, T and

Paramu, M., 2015, The potential role of neglected and underutilized crop species as future crops under water scarce conditions in sub-Saharan Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 12: 5685-5711.

4. Zerihun, T., 2009, New Approaches to plant breeding of orphan crops in Africa: Proceedings of an International Conference, 19-21, September 2007, Bern, Switzerland. Pp. 123-126.

65. PLANT PATHOLOGY 16461

Effector Proteins of Phytopathogenic Bacteria D. Ladhalakshmi1 and P. Valarmathi2

1ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research (IIRR), Hyderabad 2ICAR-Central Institute for Cotton Research (CICR), Coimbatore

Resistance through the hypersensitive response has been shown to be the result of gene-for- gene systems in which an avirulence (avr) gene in the pathogen corresponds to a resistance (R) gene in the host plant. Whatever the type of pathogen, it is believed that resistance through the hypersensitive response is the result of recognition by the plant of specific signal molecules, the elicitors, produced by the avirulence genes of the pathogen and recognized by R gene-coded specific receptor molecules in the plant. Such recognition causes the activation of a cascade of host genes, which result in a burst of oxidative reactions, disruption of cell membranes, and release of phenolic and other toxic compounds, which then lead to the hypersensitive response, programmed cell death, inhibition of pathogen growth, and thereby resistance. It also leads to the activation of numerous other defense related genes that result in other types of resistance, including horizontal resistance and systemic acquired resistance.

Evolution of the Plant–Bacterial Pathogen Interaction

1. Plants have evolved receptors that could recognize PAMPs and triggers basal defence.

2. Bacterium injects effector protein through type III secretion system (T3SS) to interfere with defence signalling or response.

3. Plant responds to infection by generation of immune receptors encoding for nucleotide-binding (NB), MAP kinase, (LRR) R-proteins that recognizes effector protein and triggers an acute defence response usually involving HR & programmed cell death.

Effector Proteins of Phytopathogenic Bacteria: Bifunctional Signals in Virulence and Host Recognition

Plant defense responses often include cell wall cross-linking, the release of active oxygen species, expression of antimicrobial compounds, and a form of localized cell death, termed the

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



hypersensitive response (HR). Either function, initiation of R-mediated defenses or enhancement of virulence, requires a bacterially encoded Type III secretion system. Thus, Avr proteins are probable Type III effector proteins.

Virulence and regulatory genes involved in bacterial pathogenicity are frequently located in blocks on the bacterial chromosome called pathogenicity islands (PAIs). Peculiar to PAIs are DNA sequences indicative of gene mobility such as transposases, flanking direct repeats, or insertion sequence (IS) elements. These regions generally have a different G+C content than their

host genome, suggesting acquisition via horizontal gene transfer. PAIs have also been localized to mobilizable plasmids and, interestingly, many avr genes are also plasmid localized.

In phytopathogenic bacteria, the genes encoding components of the Type III system were originally designated hrp (hypersensitive response and pathogenicity). Those with broad conservation among many Type III systems have been renamed hrc (hypersensitive response, pathogenicity and conserved). The hrp/hrc regulon includes regulatory genes, effectors, and structural components of the secretion apparatus.


Induction of Pathogenesis–Related Proteins and their Role in Induced Resistance against Pathogens

Sujata Singh* and Yogita Bohra

Ph.D. Research Scholar, G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar, Uttarakhnad *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Higher plants have a broad range of mechanisms to protect themselves against various threats including physical, chemical and biological stresses, such as wounding, exposures to salinity, drought, cold, heavy metals, air pollutants and ultraviolet rays and pathogen attacks, like fungi, bacteria and viruses. Plant reactions to these factors are very complex and involve the activation of a set of genes, encoding different proteins. These stresses can induce biochemical and physiological changes in plants, such as the physical strengthening of the cell wall through lignification, suberization, and callose deposition; by producing phenolic compounds, phytoalexins and pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins which subsequently prevent various pathogen invasion. Among these, production and accumulation of pathogenesis-related proteins in plants in response to invading pathogen and/or stress situation is very important. PR proteins accumulate locally in the infected and uninfected tissues. Production of PR proteins in the uninfected parts of plants can prevent the affected plants from further infection. PR protein (initially named “b” proteins in the plants was first discovered and reported in tobacco plants infected by tobacco mosaic virus. PR proteins depending on their isoelectric points may be acidic or basic proteins but they have similar functions. Most acidic PR proteins are located in the intercellular spaces, whereas, basic PR proteins are predominantly located in the vacuole. Currently, PR-proteins were categorized into 17 families.

Biochemical and Structural Characteristics. Cellular and Tissue Localization

PRs are distinguished by specific biochemical properties. They are low-molecular proteins (6-43 kDa), extractable and stable at low pH (< 3), thermostable, and highly resistant to proteases.

PRs have dual cellular localization – vacuolar and apoplastic.

Classification of Pathogenesis-Related Proteins

PR-1 (Antifungal) - These are in basic nature. PR-1 proteins have antifungal activity at the micromolar level against a number of plant pathogenic fungi.

PR-2 (β-1,3 glucanase) –It has both acidic and basic isoforms. It expressed against the fungi, bacteria, or virus pathogens.

PR-3(Chitinase)- it is also found that Chitinase gene is also expressed in response to stress like cold up to -2 to -5ºC. Chitinases cleaves the cell wall chitin polymers, resulting in a weakened cell wall and rendering fungal cells osmotically sensitive.

PR-4 (Chitin Binding Protein (CBP)- It is acidic proteins. All chitin binding proteins do not possess antifungal activities. they are involved in the Acquired Systemic Resistance and biotic stress.

PR-5 (Thaumatin-like protein (TLP): It has a close resemblance to a sweet tasting protein called thaumatin. TLP is typically absent in healthy plants but accumulates in response biotic and abiotic stresses. At higher concentration, TLP can actively lyse fungal membranes and reduce of spore germination.

PR-6 (Proteinase inhibitors)-They are highly stable defensive proteins that are developmentally regulated and induced only in response to insect and pathogen attack. It inhibits only fungal and bacterial proteinases not plant proteinases.

PR-7: This group shows endoproteinase activity. it has a role in the disease resistance in response to pathogen attack.

PR-8: It is grouped under chitinase class III group and has an additional lysozyme function. This group is present in both acidic and basic isoforms.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



PR-9 (Peroxidases): This group of PR's exhibits peroxidase-like activity. Amino acids like arginine, asparagine and aspartate are involved in the peroxidase specific catalysis. Peroxidases are the key enzymes in the wall building processes. These active oxygen species may act as secondary messengers to activate plant defense responses that contribute to resistance.

PR-10: They are acidic in nature and do not have any signal peptide suggesting that they are intracellularly localized. They are also induced in response to stress stimuli like auxin depletion. PR-10 is reported to function in mRNA degradation and nutrient remobilization in infected host tissues.

PR-11: They show affinity to zinc and do not have any homology with any known chitinase group. They induced in response to ultraviolet radiation and virus infection.

PR-12 (Defensins): Defensins contain eight cysteine residues. They have been identified to be constitutively present in the leaves, tubers, flowers and produced during Pathogenesis pods and seeds. They are also located in the peripheral cell layers and in the xylem.

PR-13 (Thionins): Cysteine-rich proteins first isolated from barley. Thionins are distributed in the cell walls, vacuoles and protein bodies.

PR-14 (Lipid transfer proteins (LTP): it is associated with the cell wall. It is distributed at increase concentration in the epidermis of exposed surfaces and in vascular tissues. LTP’s may be involved in the secretion or deposition of extracellular lipophilic materials like the cutin and acts a structural barrier

PR-15 and 16: Oxalate-oxidase and oxalate-oxidase like proteins (OLP’s) are described under the PR-15 and 16 groups of pathogenesis-related proteins. They are glycoprotein in nature and are responsible for the generation of reactive oxygen species immediately after pathogen infection.

PR-17: It has only one representative in barley and characterized mainly by its cDNA. The PR-17 family has an affinity towards zinc and therefore is similar to Zinc metalloproteinases.

Association of Pathogenesis-Related Proteins with Disease Resistance

PR proteins are more rapidly induced in response to resistant interactions. Bacteria, fungi, viruses and nematodes induce PR proteins upon entry into the incompatible host. Rice leaves inoculated with Pseudomonas syringae to enhance the production of PR-1, 2,3,5 and 9. Glucanases and chitinases are synthesized in tobacco leaves stressed with different isolates of Ralstonia solanacearum. PR proteins including peroxidases, glucanases and chitinases are found to increase in rice upon inoculation with Erwinia caratovora.

PR Proteins in Systemic Acquired Resistance and signaling in Activation of PR Gene Expression

When a plant is inoculated with an incompatible or sometimes even compatible pathogen or treated with biotic and abiotic inducers, systemic induction of resistance against the pathogen is seen and the phenomenon is called systemic acquired resistance (SAR). One of the major physiological traits of SAR is the very rapid and systemic accumulation of PR proteins. SAR is known to be operational against bacteria, fungi and viruses. Exogenous application at even micromolar concentrations of various abiotic inducers like salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, INA, BABA, BTH, chitosan, methyl jasmonate pathogen-derived molecules has been known to induce various PR genes Oligogalacturonides and growth hormones like auxins and the cytokinins also induce PR gene expression. A number of molecules derived from pathogens can serve as elicitors of PR gene expression. Chitin fragments, glucans, glycoproteins, proteins, glycans, oligosaccharides, hairpins and Avr proteins from bacteria and fungi. Upon infection by the pathogen or the pathogen-derived molecules, the plants increase the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), salicylic acid (SA,) ethylene and jasmonates. SA induces PR 1 and 2 in tobacco. Glucanase is down-regulated by ethylene, auxins and cytokinins. Some inducers like BTH induce PR gene transcript in both ethylene and jasmonate independent manner.

Transcriptional Activation of PR Genes

Pathogen-induced PR gene expression often occurs at the level of transcription. Analysis by deletion mutants, a gain of function, synthetic promoters, DNA fingerprinting and in vivo footprinting and mobility shift assay reveals several cis-regulatory elements controlling pathogen stress have been identified. The W box, GCC box. It has been found that GCC box is necessary for ethylene induced transcription of PR gene expression in tobacco, G box, SA responsive element, the eleven base pair elicitor-responsive element are few of the cis-elements that have been identified. NPR 1 is targeted to the nucleus at the onset of SAR suggesting a role for NPR 1 the nucleus to activate PR gene expression. Genetic studies have revealed that CPR may be responsible for cross-talk between SA and JA mediated signalling pathways.

Reference Van Loon LC (1999) Occurrence and properties of

plant pathogenesis related proteins. In: Dutta SK, Muthukrishnan S (eds.) Pathogenesis related proteins in plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton.

Vigers AJ, Roberts WK, Selitrennikoff CP (1991) A new family of plant antifungal proteins. Mol Plant Microbe Inter 4, 315-323.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m




Resistant Gene: Role, Type and their Function in Plant’s Defense

Raina Bajpai

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi - 221005 *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Plants involve multilayered immune system. It also defines the co-evolution of pathogens and plants. Zig zag model explains the relationship between plant resistance and pathogen virulence on the basis of co-evolution. Basal defense of host rely on the recognition of pathogen/ microbe-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs/ MAMPs) by pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) in the plasma membrane which are basically pathogen derived conserved molecules. These PRRs belongs to family of receptor like proteins (RLPs)/ receptor like kinases (RLKs). On the ground of bacterial flagellin flg22 recognition via Arabidopsis FLAGELLIN SENSING 2 (FLS2) the role of PAMPs in plant defense response is explained well by PAMP triggered immunity model. After identification of ligand, complex formation occurs between FLS2 with the LRR-receptor kinase termed BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE 1-ASSOCIATED KINASE 1 (BAK1), which triggers synthesis of reactive oxygen species (ROS), calcium-dependent and mitogen activated protein kinases (CDPKs or MAPKs). By the secretion of effectors which is basically a virulence factor, MAMP triggered immunity can be easily suppressed thus pathogen overcome the defense mechanism. These effectors also referred as avirulence factors (AVRs) is recognized by the resistance proteins that induces a next barrier of host defense known as effector triggered immunity (ETI) or R-gene mediated defense. This mechanism includes a speedy, localized death of cell at the infection court, known as hypersensitive response (HR). Signaling of distal plant organs for the induction defense response genes is caused by the HR which ultimately grants protection against infections caused via pathogen. This also create selective pressure on potential pathogens which ultimately causes genetic variants that are not recognized by the receptors causing compatible interaction i.e. susceptibility. H.H. Flor first studied the genetics of plant disease resistance including HR in linseed –Melampsora lini system. The classic interaction between plant and pathogen had been explained in form of a hypothesis known as gene-for-gene hypothesis. The hypothesis explains the existence of corresponding avirulence gene (Avr) in the pathogen for specific resistance (R) gene in a plant. The interaction between the host resistance gene and the pathogen avirulence gene leads to

incompatible reaction leading to resistance. This model explains that there may be direct or indirect physical interaction between pathogen produced ligand with corresponding plant receptor and which eventually leads to activation of downstream defense response genes.

Types of Resistant Genes on the basis of Structural Features

R-genes have identified and characterized in different plants and differentiated in eight classes on the basis of amino acid motif organization. Maximum R proteins contain Leucine Rich Repeats (LRRs) domain and play significant part in specificity and recognition.

1. The first disease resistance gene is to be known is Hm1 in maize. It offers resistance against Cochliobolus carbonum a maize fungal pathogen, by inactivating the HC toxin produced by this fungus.

2. The second class of R-genes includes the genes encoding for cytoplasmic proteins consisting nucleotide binding site (NBS), leucine rich repeat (LRR) at C terminal and coiled-coil (CC) domain at the N-terminus. For example: Arabidopsis RPM1 and RPS2, tomato I2 resistance gene.

3. The third class of resistance genes includes another cytoplasmic protein consisting NBS, LRR motifs and an N terminal domain with homology to the mammalian toll-interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain. For example: tobacco N gene, flax L6 gene and RPP5 gene.

4. The fourth major class of resistance gene family lack NBS motif but possess of additional cytoplasmic leucine rich repeats (eLRR) connected to a trans-membrane (TM) domain. The eLRR participate in activation of defense proteins such as polygalactouronase inhibiting protein (PGIPs), moreover it is not involved directly in recognition of pathogen and activation of defense genes. For example: Cf-2, Cf-4, Cf-9 resistance gene of tomato against Cladosporium fulvum and Arabidopsis FLS2.

5. The fifth major class comprises of eLRR, a transmembrane (TM), and a serine-threonine kinase domain (KIN). For example: rice, Xa21 gene against resistance to Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Oryzae.

6. The sixth class contains those genes which have putative extracellular LRR, along with a

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



PEST (Pro-Glu-Ser-Thr) domain for degradation of protein and short protein motifs for receptor mediated endocytosis. For example: tomato Ve1 and Ve2 genes.

7. The RPW8 of Arabidopsis is an example of seventh major class of resistance gene including trans-membrane (TM) protein domain merged with the coiled-coil (CC) domain.

8. The eighth class includes the Arabidopsis RRS1 in which R-gene involves putative nuclear localization signal (NLS) and a WRKY domain, besides TIR-NBS-LRR domains.

The number of disease resistance genes family could increase in nearby future by increasing availability of genome sequencing data from different plant species. Maximum disease resistance genes show dominant inheritance whereas recessive inheritance is also found in few cases. For example: rice xa5, xa13, barley mlo and Arabidopsis rrs1 R-gene.

Functions of Resistance Genes

To know and understand the function of resistance gene and its downstream signaling mechanisms a cumulative effort of high-throughput omics, molecular biology, genetics and plant breeding approaches are required. Recent advances explains the role of mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades, ubiquitin, E3, and E2 as signaling element downstream of receptor that transduces the signal. Involvement of MAPK cascades had been observed in signaling different responses of defense like plant stress hormones secretion and signaling, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, biosynthesis of ethylene, activation of defense gene causing biosynthesis of phytoalexin, strengthening of cell wall by the deposition of callose and hypersensitive response. Ubiquitination play crucial position in cell signaling that controls numerous processes like degradation of protein and immunological response utilizing functional proteasomes and protein targeting.


Plant Defense through RNA Silencing Shikha Sharma and Pooja Goswami

College of Agriculture, Waraseoni, Balaghat (M.P.)

RNA silencing is a type of gene regulation that, in plants, serves as an antiviral defense. RNA silencing is based on targeting specific sequences of RNA and degrading them. RNA silencing occurs in a broad range of eukaryotic organisms, including plants, fungi, and animals. While plants use RNA silencing to defend themselves against viruses, the viruses, in turn, encode proteins by which they attempt to suppress the silencing of their RNA. The consensus is that RNA silencing is one of the many interconnected pathways for RNA surveillance and cell defense. RNA silencing was first observed in transgenic plants transformed with viral genes providing “pathogen derived resistance.” It was noticed then that sense orientation genes in the transgenic plant interfered with the expression of both the transgenes themselves and related endogenous genes of the plant. Because of the concurrent suppression of both genes, RNA silencing was at first called “co-suppression.” RNA silencing is due to a process that occurs after transcription (posttranscriptional gene silencing) of the RNA and involves targeted mRNA degradation. Clues of its existence came from the discovery that plants carrying viral transgenes were resistant to related strains of the virus that replicate in the cytoplasm, which meant that silencing occurs in the cytoplasm rather than the nucleus.

The nucleotide sequence specificity of the RNA depends on the sequence of 21–25 nucleotides of antisense RNA produced directly or indirectly from sense transgenes, or from dsRNA.

The dsRNA is a trigger or an intermediate in the cleaving into small (21–25 nucleotides), sense or antisense RNAs called small interfering (siRNAs). siRNAs act as guides that direct the RNA degradation machinery [the RNA induced silencing complex (RISC)] to the target RNAs.

The main events in RNA Silencing

A plant or viral gene is inserted in the plant DNA where it is expressed and produces messenger RNA (mRNA). The viral gene may also be able to do that without being inserted in the plant genome. RNA viruses routinely produce double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), and RNA from some abnormal genes doubles up upon itself and forms “aberrant” dsRNA. Both dsRNAs are cleaved by an enzyme called “Dicer” into small interfering RNAs about 21–25 nucleotides long. The siRNA fragments split into individual ssRNAs and these combine with proteins and produce an RNA induced silencing complex (RISC). This complex captures mRNAs that complement each short RNA sequence. RNAs with a nearly perfect match of their sequence with that of small RNA are sliced into useless small fragments.

RNAs with less perfect sequence matches cause the RISC complex to block the movement of the ribosomes on the mRNA so that the mRNA is not translated and does not produce a protein, thereby silencing that RNA. Once RNA silencing of the transgene is established, all RNAs homologous to the transgene, including those from an infecting virus, are degraded. Also,

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



although RNA silencing is triggered locally, it can spread throughout the plant via a mobile silencing signal. The movement of the silencing signal in the plant parallels that of the virus, moving at first from cell to cell and then entering the phloem and from there spreading out to parenchyma cells again. The parallel movement of the virus and RNA-silencing signal may represent a race between the two, with the out-come of the race being a successful infection if the virus moves faster and becomes established first, or resistance, i.e., lack of infection, if RNA silencing becomes established first. It was later shown that plant viruses could also induce RNA silencing. It was further shown that virus induced gene silencing (VIGS) could be directed to either transgenes in the plant or endogenous genes of the plant. As a result, plant viruses could both induce RNA silencing and could be targeted for RNA silencing by transgenes.

RNA silencing produces exceptionally strong virus resistance in transgenic plants. Such plants have neither detectable accumulation of virus in their inoculated leaves nor can this resistance be overcome with high-titer inocula. VIGS, however, is rather mild, transient, and restricted to regions around the veins. RNA silencing has not yet been reported to occur in plant DNA viruses, both the ssDNA geminiviruses and the reverse transcribing dsDNA viruses. All DNA viruses, however, seem to have the potential to induce gene silencing in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm, as they produce multiple copies of viral DNA genomes in the nucleus, show illegitimate integration of viral DNA into host chromosomes that mimics transgene transformation for such viruses, and generate a great deal of viral RNAs in the cytoplasm. After the discovery of RNA silencing, it

was discovered that many plant viruses encode proteins that suppress RNA silencing. The suppressors are structurally diverse and seem to have undergone repeated evolution steps in their attempt to keep up with developments in RNA silencing. One suppressor, the helper component-proteinase of potyviruses, is so effective in suppressing viral RNA silencing that it actually increases the accumulation of several unrelated plant viruses and is, possibly, responsible for the many potyvirus associated synergistic diseases of plants. The same suppressor prevents both virus-induced and transgene induced RNA silencing and can even reverse an already established RNA silencing of a transgene. The suppression induced by the potyvirus suppressor to a transgene induced RNA silencing can be reversed at a step at which the accumulation of siRNAs is eliminated, but it cannot eliminate the mobile silencing signal. Another suppressor, the potato virus X p25 protein, is much less effective in suppressing RNA silencing and it apparently targets and interferes with systemic silencing.

In addition to the suppression of RNA silencing by virus-encoded proteins, RNA silencing can also be suppressed by certain host genes. Some of these genes are expressed in transgenic plants, in plants following infection with certain viruses, and in transgenic plants carrying the potyvirus suppressor protein. These observations suggest that the host–coded suppressor acts as a relay for the potyvirus suppressor-mediated suppression of posttranscriptional gene silencing or that the potyvirus suppressor- induced suppression of silencing perhaps takes place via activation of the host-induced suppressor protein and its unknown target protein


Biopesticides Vijayalakshmi1, Humma Ambuja2 and Triveni B3

1Climate Change Unit, UAS, Raichur; 2Department of Plant Pathology, UAS, Raichur; 3Department of Agricultural Entomology, UAS, Bengaluru

INTRODUCTION: Bio pesticides are certain types of pesticides that are derived from natural materials like plants (botanical origin), bacteria, fungi and virus (microbial origin) and certain minerals, when used as a component of Integrated Pest management (IPM) programs these biopesticides can greatly decrease the use of conventional pesticides, while crop yield remains high.

According to botanists, there are around 1,400 products that are registered as biopesticides, and 299 active ingredients considered to have biopesticide properties. For example, baking soda and canola oil are officially classified as biopesticides that have pesticidal applications.

As of April 2016, there are 299 registered

biopesticide active ingredients and 1401 active registered biopesticide products are available.

Biologicals are used to control pests, pathogens and weeds by a variety of means. Microbial biocontrol may include a pathogen or parasite that infects the target organism. Alternatively, they might act as competitors or inducers of plant host resistance. Biochemical bio-controls can also act through a variety of mechanisms. Some act by inhibiting the growth, feeding, development or reproduction of a pest or pathogen. Still other bio-controls may be used to form a barrier on the host, so as to act as a feeding or infection inhibitor.

Characteristic of an Ideal Microbial Insecticide

It should be economical for mass production

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



It should be available in formulations which should have long shelf life, remain stable in the target insect and disseminate quickly and uniformly.

It should be safe to non-target organisms and man

It should ensure consistent suppression of pest populations to acceptable low densities

Some examples of bio-controls developed in more recent years

Agrobacterium radiobacter Strain K84: Agrobacterium radiobacter Strain K84 is a naturally occurring bacterium found in many soils and in plant root zones. This bio-controls is used in the greenhouse and nursery environment to control crown gall, an important plant disease.

Bacillus spp: Bacillus licheniformis, B. pumilus, and B. subtilis are naturally occurring soil bacteria with fungicidal properties that together have become one of the fastest growing biocontrols in today’s market. Successes include uses as seed treatments or dressings, foliar application and soil-applied control of diseases in a variety of crops.

Coniothyrium minitans: Coniothyrium minitans is a naturally occurring fungus used commercially to control common Sclerotinia plant diseases through parasitism of the resting structures of the pathogen.

Paecilomyces fumosoroseus and P. lilacinus: Paecilomyces fumosoroseus is a naturally occurring fungus used in a greenhouse environment to control several species of insects including whiteflies, thrips, aphids, and spider mites. Paecilomyces lilacinus is used to control nematodes that attack plant roots in field crops including many vegetables, fruit, turf, and ornamental crops.

Trichoderma spp.: Trichoderma spp. is another bio-controls technology developed in the 1990s that has been widely commercialized in recent years. Trichoderma is a genus of fungi that helps to control plant disease by stimulating plant host defenses and growth, and, under certain conditions, parasitizing harmful fungi within the plant root zone.

Azadirachtin: Azadirachtin is an insect growth regulator derived from neem tree seeds. Known to affect some 200 species of insects, azadirachtin disrupts insect feeding and inhibits its ability to molt as it changes from the pupa to adult stage.

Beauveria bassiana: Beauveria bassiana is a naturally occurring soil fungus that grows as white mold. This insect pathogen can be used to control a wide range of target pests, which become infected and develop white muscadine disease, killing the pest within a matter of days.

Cydia pomonella granulo virus (CpGV): CpGV is a natural pathogen of the codling moth, a major pest of tree fruits such as apples and pears. Developed through research begun in the 1980’s, commercial use of CpGV in both organic and conventional systems has gained in popularity over the last ten years as codling moth has displayed resistance to many traditional insecticides.

Dysphania ambrosioides: An extract of the plant Dysphania ambrosioides (syn. Chenopodium ambrosioides) is used to control a number of sucking insect pests such as aphids, leafhoppers, whiteflies, and mites in citrus, grapes, tree nuts, and vegetables. This product breaks down the pest’s exoskeleton, adversely affects its respiratory system, and interrupts its ability to navigate (find food).

What are the Advantages of using Biopesticides?

Biopesticides are usually inherently less toxic than conventional pesticides.

Biopesticides generally affect only the target pest and closely related organisms, in contrast to broad spectrum, conventional pesticides that may affect organisms as different as birds, insects and mammals.

Biopesticides often are effective in very small quantities and often decompose quickly, resulting in lower exposures and largely avoiding the pollution problems caused by conventional pesticides.

When used as a component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs, biopesticides can greatly reduce the use of conventional pesticides, while crop yields remain high.

Disadvantages of Biopesticides

Slower rate of action compared with conventional chemical pesticides

Shorter persistence in the environment and Susceptibility to unfavourable environmental

conditions.

References Abdul kareem, A., Gunasekaran, K. and Anbakagan,

G. (1998), Botanical pesticides in integrated pest management In: G. S. Dhaliwal, N. S. Randhwa, R. Arora and A. K. Dhawan (eds) Ecological Agriculture and Sustainable Development. Vol. 2. Indian Ecological Society and Centres for Research in Rural and Industrial Development, Chandigarh, India, pp. 146-161.

Gurr, G. M. and Wratten, S. D. (1999), Integrated Biological Control: A proposal for enhancing success in biological control. Int. J. Pest Manage. 45 (2): 81-84.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m




Molecular Basis of Plant Response to Biotrophic and Hemibiotrophic Pathogens

K. V. Shivakumar

Scientist, Sunnhemp Research Station, Pratapgarh

INTRODUCTION: Although plants are under constant attack by pathogens in nature, their immune systems allow infection only by limited numbers of adapted pathogens. One strategy to understand what determines the outcome of plant–microbe interactions is to study the molecular mechanisms that are adopted by plant pathogens to overcome plant immunity. As a result from co-evolution with their hosts, three prominent infection strategies. Biotrophic pathogens that require living plant tissue to survive and complete their life cycle. Members of this group include the rusts, downy mildews, powdery mildews, Cladosporium and species in the Ustilago. In contrast, necrotrophic pathogens secrete enzymes and toxins that kill the host tissue ahead of pathogen invasion, thus avoiding direct contact with defense molecules in living plant cells. Hemibiotrophic fungi combine both strategies. Genera viz., Magnaporthe, Colletotrichum and Phytophthora fungi belongs to hemibiotrophs. Collectively, they represent destructive plant parasites, causing huge economic losses and threatening global food security. In recent years it has become apparent that, like bacterial pathogens of plants and animals, plant pathogenic fungi produce and secrete many so-called effector proteins that interact with the host and play an important role in virulence.

Terminology

1. Elicitor: Compounds stimulating any type of plant defence

2. Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS): Conserved microbial molecular signatures, associated with groups of pathogens, activate immune responses

Ex: chitin, gulacan, flagelin etc,

3. Microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPS): The conserved microbe-specific molecules associated with beneficial organisms.

4. Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPS): Endogenous molecules and fragments from damaged cells and tissues can also be recognized as danger signals

Ex: Oligogalacturonides (OGs), Peptides, and Cutin monomers

Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMP’S)

Multilayered Plant Immunity: Interactions between pathogens and their hosts are complicated and dynamic. The plant innate immune system is composed of pathogen– associated molecular pattern (PAMP)–triggered immunity (PTI) and effector–triggered immunity (ETI) pathways. Plants recognize pathogens through two major groups of receptors. Initially, plants sense pathogens via perception of their conserved PAMPs by pattern– recognition receptors (PRRs) located on the cell surface. This first level of recognition results in PAMP–triggered immunity (PTI), which is sufficient to ward off most pathogens. Different from PTI, diverse plant pathogens independently evolved mechanisms to secrete and release effector proteins into host cells evolutionarily. These effectors interact with cellular host targets and regulate PTI and/or host metabolism in a manner conducive to pathogen multiplication and dispersal. Nevertheless, these specific effectors can be recognized by a second set of polymorphic intracellular immune receptors in plants, which mostly belongs to the nucleotide–binding site–leucine–rich repeat (NB–LRR) protein family (Lorang et al., 2012).

Effector recognition by Plant Immune Receptors: To counteract effector molecules, plants have developed an additional layer of immune recognition based on intracellular NB-LRR (nucleotide binding – leucine-rich repeats) receptor proteins that can detect individual effectors either directly or indirectly. These receptors are often referred to as resistance (R) proteins and the effectors they recognize as avirulence (Avr) proteins. Generally, the plant ETI response to R-protein-mediated recognition is more severe than PTI and frequently results in localized plant cell death, also known as the hypersensitive response (HR). This response is particularly effective against biotrophic and

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



hemibiotrophs pathogens which depend on living host cells for nutrition.

References Lorang, J., Kidarsa T., Bradford, C. S., Gilbert, B. and

Curtis, M., 2012, Tricking the guard: exploiting plant defense for disease susceptibility. Science., 338: 659-662.


Black Pod Disease of Cocoa Janani, P1* A. Balusamy2, Ngursangzuala Sailo1 and Clarissa Challam1

1Scientist, ICAR- Central Potato Research Station, Shillong, Meghalaya-793009 2Scientist, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya-793103


INTRODUCTION: Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is a cross-pollinated, perennial diploid plant belonging to the family Malvaceae and it is considered as an important plantation crop indigenous to South America- Amazon river basin. The crop prefers a warm humid tropical condition for growth and hence, it is confined to the equatorial and tropical countries. Cocoa introduced in India during 1798 and now it is cultivated predominantly in four states viz., Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Cocoa is a shade loving crop, grown as an intercrop in existing coconut and arecanut gardens. Black pod disease is an important disease in cocoa caused by which cause 40-60 % yield loss. The pathogen is also known to cause canker, seedling die back, twig die back and chupon blight in cocoa.

Epidemiology

In India, the epidemic of black pod diseases is often most severe during South-West monsoon period (June- August). Environmental conditions such as high rainfall, high humidity (70-80 percent) and temperature (l8-23°C) favor the development of disease. The layer of dead leaves on the soil and plant debris like pods, husks in which P. palmivora thrives saprophytically serve as a source of primary inoculum. The spread of pathogen also occurs by contact, rain splashes, insects and rodents.

Symptoms

The major symptoms produced by P. palmivora on cocoa plant include seedling blight, trunk canker, dieback of twigs, blight and necrosis of leaf, petiole and rotting of fruit. Cocoa pods are infected by Phytophthora at any stage viz., from cherelle to mature pods and the pathogen penetrates the waxy cuticle and attack epidermis results in shriveling, wilting and dying of young pods and finally the affected internal tissues, beans turns dark brown in colour (Photo 1). The symptom of black pod disease starts with small necrotic lesion on the cocoa pod with brown or black colour, which eventually enlarges and rapidly covers the entire pod surface. White webs of mycelium also appear on the infected pods at an advanced stage of infections.

Photo.1. Intensity of Phytophthora pod rot (PPR) disease infection in field

Disease Management

The effective control of black pod disease involves three main strategies viz., cultural practices and use of chemicals and use of resistant varieties.

1. Periodical removal and destruction of infected pods, unharvested but infected and mummified pods, will help to reduce the incidence of the diseases

2. Frequent harvesting will reduce the spread of the disease from infected pods

3. Overcrowded large tree with thick shade should be avoided

4. Regular pruning and removal of basal chupons regulate shade, increases air circulation and reduce the humidity under the canopy and further reduce the spread of the disease

5. The thick overhead shade trees in the border of the garden should be removed

6. Avoid water stagnation during monsoon season

7. The proper drainage system will reduce the amount of inoculum in and on the soil

8. Spray 1 % Bordeaux mixture at onset of monsoon and frequent intervals

9. Foliar spray of Pseudomonas fluorescens

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



liquid formulations @ 0.5% 10. Select thicker cuticle Varieties are more

resistant to black pod rot


Mycorrhiza for Soil Borne Plant Disease Management Aravind T1*, Ashish Kumar Satpathi2 and Karibasappa C. S1.

1Department of Plant Pathology, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand-263145; 2Department of Plant Pathology, B.A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural

University, Anand, Gujarat-388110. *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Soil borne plant pathogens have been a menace to crop production. Important soil borne plant pathogens include Pythium, Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Macrophomina, Fusarium, Ralstonia and plant parasitic nematodes. Due to their hidden nature, they are difficult to manage through conventional disease management strategies. The management of these pathogens using chemical fungicide is not advisable due to environmental pollution and higher cost involvement. Hence, we need to have an integrated disease management (IDM) strategy against these pathogens. IDM involves the harmonious integration of different disease management methods like cultural, physical, biological, host resistance and chemicals for the sustainable management of plant diseases based on a sound understanding of whole crop ecosystem. In the past few decades, biocontrol has gained much momentum due to its efficacy and ecofriendly nature. Among the biocontrol agents, Trichoderma sp. and Pseudomonas fluorescens has been most widely used. Recently, use of mycorrhizae for the management of soil borne plant pathogens is increasingly becoming popular.

Mycorrhiza refers to the symbiotic association between fungus and roots of higher plants. The word mycorrhiza (Mykes = fungus, rhiza = roots) literally means fungus roots. It was initially discovered by German botanist, Frank in 1885. They form arbuscules and/or vesicles in the plant roots and occur in more than 95 per cent of terrestrial plant species. They are broadly divided into 3 types viz., ectomycorrhizae, endomycorhizae and ectendomycorhizae. Ectomycorrhizae do not penetrate the root cells and is characterized by the formation of hartig net between the root cortical cells. It is found in around three per cent of the plant species most of which are temperate tree species. Endomycorrhizae invades the root cells and is further divided into three types viz., ericoid mycorrhizae, orchid mycorrhizae and arbuscular mycorrhizae. Of these, arbuscular mycorrhizae is the most common and commercially important one. They form vesicles (storage structures) and dichotomously branched arbuscules (for nutrient absorption). Ectendomycorrrhizae shares the features of both ecto- and endomycorrhizae. They form hyphal sheath and hartig nets like ectomycorrhizae as well as invade the root cortical

cells like the endomycorrhizae. Best examples are the arbutoid and monotropoid mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizae benefits the plants in many ways. They enhance the nutrient uptake from the soil. For example, enhanced P uptake in case of AM fungi and N in case of ericoid mycorrhizae. Moreover, they impart resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses.

Role of Mycorrhiza in Plant Disease Management

Mycorrhizae help in reducing the diseases caused by plant pathogenic fungi in multiple ways. It includes enhanced plant vigor due to improved nutrient uptake, modifying the rhizosphere microbial community, induction of systemic resistance and secretion of antibiotic compounds.

1. Enhanced plant vigour: This is the most important means of protection against the plant diseases. With the help of fine and spreading hyphal network, plant roots containing mycorrhizae is able to explore more amount of soil and absorb the nutrients more efficiently than those lacking these symbiotic association. This enhanced supply of nutrients helps in improving the plant vigor which in turn impart resistance to plant pathogens. AM fungi enhance phosphorous uptake, ericoid mycorrhizae enhance nitrogen uptake and orchid mycorrhizae enhance the N and P uptake in plants.

2. Modifying the rhizosphere: The portion of the soil which is under the influence of mycorrhizae is called as mycorrhizosphere. The microbial community in the mycorrhizosphere is different from that of normal rhizosphere. It occurs due to the differences in the root and fungal exudates in mycorrhizosphere. This diverse microflora and fauna have a suppressive effect on the plant pathogens.

3. Competition with plant pathogens: Mycorrhizal fungi compete with the plant pathogens for nutrients and space. The mycorrhizal fungi envelop the root surface; there by blocking the sites for entry and infection of plant pathogens. Moreover, they also sequester the excess carbohydrate available in the soil there by limiting the growth of plant pathogens.

4. Antibiosis: Recently, there are some reports

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



regarding the secretion of antibiotic and other chemical inhibitor compounds by the AM fungi that inhibit the germination and growth of plant pathogenic fungi.

5. Induction of host resistance: Inoculation of AM fungi has been demonstrated to induce systemic resistance in host plants. It is characterized by the enhanced synthesis of PR protein, phytoalexins, phenolic compounds and hydrolytic enzymes which impart resistance to plant pathogens. Moreover there are reports regarding changed host physiology following the mycorrhizal inoculation like improved lignifications of plant cell walls.

Thus, mycorrhizae play a crucial role in controlling plant diseases apart from improving the nutrient uptake from soil. Hence, they can be used as a promising tool in IDM programmes for the management of soil borne plant pathogens.

References Dube, H. C. (2013). An Introduction to Fungi.

Scientiic Publishers, Jodhpur.455-469. Sharma, Y. P., Watpade, S. and Thakur, J. S. (2014).

Role of Mycorrhizae: a component of integrated disease management strategies. Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology, 44(1): 12-19.

Tahat, M. M., Kamaruzaman, Sijam and Othma, R. (2010). Mycorrhizal fungi as a biocontrol agent. Plant Pathology Journal, 9(4): 198-207.


Exploitation of Hypovirulence in Controlling Plant Diseases B. Siva Bharathi

M.Sc. (Ag), Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Advanced Post Graduate Center, Lam, Guntur. *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Hypovirulence

Hypovirulence is the advantageous infection of viruses which decrease the pathogenicity of plant pathogenic fungi. In simple words, a reduction in disease producing capacity of the pathogen. Hypovirulence is the most common in mycoviruses and used for biological control of various plant diseases such as Cryphonecteria parasitica (chestnut blight), white root rot of woody plants, rice blast and against various soil borne pathogens.

Mechanisms of Hypovirulence

The mechanism of hypovirulence is still not clear, but various hypothesis were given by different workers, such as signal transduction pathways (Turina and Rostagno, 2007), RNA silencing of the fungus and the counter silencing mechanisms by the hypovirus (Nuss, 2011). There are various other mechanisms, which are reported such as mitochondrial mutations, nuclear mutations and plasmids have been, or may be, associated with hypovirulence.

One discovery that has been very successful for controlling Chestnut blight in Europe was a biological control method called hypovirulence. Hypovirulence refers to a virus that infects Cryphonectria parasitica, the fungal pathogen that causes Chestnut blight, and reduces its ability to cause disease. The use of fungal viruses to control fungal plant pathogens is a relatively new strategy for biological control of plant diseases that was discovered in Europe after the European chestnut (Castanea sativa) was destroyed in a similar manner as American chestnut was destroyed in North America.

Mycoviruses

The viruses that infect fungi and multiples within

the fungi are called mycoviruses. They are also known as fungal virus, mycophage and virus like particles (VLPs). The majority of mycoviruses have segmented double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) genomes. Mycoviruses have isometric particles, approximately 30 per cent have positive sense, and single stranded RNA (+ ssRNA) genome and they must have the ability to be transmitted, in other words they are able to infect other healthy fungi. Mycoviruses, which are widespread in all major groups of plant-pathogenic fungi, are associated with latent infections of their hosts. Mycoviruses that debilitate the virulence of their phytopathogenic fungal hosts are valuable for the development of novel biocontrol strategies and represent an important way to combat fungal diseases.

Symptoms Associated with Mycoviruses

Mycoviruses can alter phenotypes of infected fungi, such as reduced growth, pigmentation and lack of sporulation. They cause change in morphology, colony of infected fungi and cause latent and persistent infections. Some mycovirus families are connected with variable phenotypic effects such as hypovirulence or killer phenomena in their host. Hypovirulence is, among other characteristics, defined as reduced pigmentation, reduced asexual sporulation, loss of fertility and reduced growth rate. Hypovirulence associated mycoviruses have ssRNA or, mainly, dsRNA genomes. The killer phenomena are induced by proteins encoded by satellite dsRNA.

Hypovirulence against Rhizoctonia solani (Sheath Blight of Rice): Strain GD-11 of R. solani AG-1 IA causing sheath blight of rice having dsRNA mycovirus Rhizoctonia solani partitivirus 2 (RsPV2). The RsPV2 genome comprises two dsRNAs and mycovirues RsPV2 shows a high

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



sequence identity with the members of genus Alphapartitivirus in the family Partitiviridae. When the purified RsPV2 virus particles introduced into protoplasts of a virus-free virulent strain GD-118 of R. solani AG-1 IA resulted in a derivative isogenic strain GD-118T with reduced mycelial growth and hypovirulence to rice leaves. Therefore, the novel dsRNA virus can be used successfully in biological control of R. solani.

Hypovirulence against Fusarium graminearum: Fusarium graminearum isolates China-9 evaluated against the dsRNA mycovirus FgV-ch9 for hypovirulence-related traits. Single conidial originating cultures of China-9 isolate can be associated either with high, medium or low amounts of the viral dsRNAs. At high and medium dsRNA levels, China-9 isolates exhibit reduced mycelia growth rate and conidiation capacity, abnormal colony morphology, disorganized cytoplasm, as well as reduced virulence for wheat and maize plants. At low dsRNA levels the fungus shows no symptoms, however, the RNA segments can be detected by RTPCR. Transfection of the virulent F. graminearum PH1 isolate with purified Virus-like Particles (VLPs) of FgVch9 reduced its conidiation capacity, perithecia formation, and pathogenicity for wheat and maize several folds. These results demonstrate that FgV-ch9 is associated with hypovirulence of F. Graminearum.

Hypovirulence against Rosellinia necatrix (White Root Rot): Rosellinia necatrix, is a serious soilborne pathgen causes white root rot disease of fruit trees and other woody plants. Yaegashi et al. (2012) report forty-two sub-isolates of R. necatrix, after 2-3 years of inoculation into the apple trees in an orchard and found that all subisolate were genetically identical to W563 or NW10. However, 22 of the sub-isolates contained novel dsRNAs. Out of these six novel dsRNAs were isolated: S1 was a new victorivirus; S2, S3, and S4 were new partitiviruses; and S5 and S6 were novel viruses that could not be assigned to any known mycovirus family. These isolated mycoviruses have reduced mycelial growth, change in morphology and reduced pathogenicity. R. necatrix isolate W370 contains 12 segments of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) that is believed to less virulent than the parent strain R. necatrix RT 37-1. When these mycoviruses contain strain N370 was inoculated in apple seedlings before their planting the mortality of seedlings ranges from 0 to 16.7 per cent and 50 to 100 per cent for

seedlings inoculated with the dsRNA-free strains i.e., RT 37-1 and hence, it proves that mycoviruses present in fungal mycelium cause the hypovirulence.

Hypovirulence against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum: Several different mycoviruses (ssRNA, dsRNA, and ssDNA viruses) have been identified in S. sclerotiorum. Thus, the S. sclerotiorum mycovirus system provides the opportunity to explore interactions between different types of mycoviruses and S. sclerotiorum. SsDRV confers hypovirulence in the strain Ep-1PN (Li et al., 2000). Using the S. sclerotiorum– SsDRV system, 150 genes were identified that were down regulated in the strain Ep-1PN (Li et al., 2008). The genes down regulated by SsDRV represented a broad spectrum of biological functions. Subsequently, the S. sclerotiorum integrin like gene (SSITL), which was suppressed in the presence of SsDRV, was further investigated via forward and reverse genetics approaches (Zhu et al., 2013). In addition, mixed infections by two or more related or unrelated viruses are common in this fungus. Recently identified an ssDNA virus (SsHADV1) and are establishing a S. sclerotiorum SsHADV-1 interaction system. Investigation of different S. sclerotiorum mycovirus interaction systems might supply new insights or clues regarding virus-host and virus-virus interactions as well as control strategies for Sclerotinia disease.

Hypovirulence against Botrytis Species (Gray Mold Disease): Gray mold disease, which is caused by Botrytis spp., is one of the most widespread and destructive fungal diseases of crops and postharvest fruits. Similar to other plant-pathogenic fungi, various mycoviruses are prevalent in the Botrytis population are Botrytis virus F (BVF), Botrytis virus X (BVX), Botrytis cinerea mitovirus 1 (BcMV1), and Botrytis porri RNA virus 1 (BpRV1) (Castro et al., 2003; Howitt et al., 1995 and Llorens et al., 2013). BVF belongs to Mycoflexivirus in the family Gammaflexiviridae, whereas BVX belongs to Botrexvirus in the family Alphaflexiviridae (King et al., 2012). A mitovirus (BcMV1) was originally isolated from a hypovirulent strain (CanBc-1) in China (Zhang et al., 2010 and Zhang et al., 2007). Recently, BcMV1 was found in 55 per cent of the Spanish Botrytis cinerea isolates that contained mycoviruses.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m




Mycotoxins and Mycotoxicoses ¹Ashish Kumar Satpathi, ²Arvind T and 3Karibasappa C. S.

¹Department of Plant Pathology, B. A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agriculture University, Anand (388110) Gujarat, ²Department of Plant Pathology, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,

Pantnagar, Uttarakhand (263145) *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Mycotoxins or fungal toxins are toxic chemicals produced by fungi and such toxins which are injurious to the plant is called phytotoxins and the disease they cause as mycoses (in animal) and mycotoxicoses (in plant).

Major Mycotoxins and their Effects

Aflatoxins: In 1962 due to aflatoxin, thousands of turkey poults died in England in one stroke with the turkey x disease. These are the most thoroughly investigated toxins, are among the most carcinogenic in nature. Aflatoxin producing species are Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus and Penicillium puberulum Aspergillus bombycis, Aspergillus ochraceoroseus, Aspergillus nomius, and Aspergillus pseudotamari. A. parasiticus is most potent producer of aflatoxins and A. flavus is most common contaminant in agriculture. Peanuts and their products, cotton seeds and copra are the most favourable substrates and are called high aflatoxin risk materials.

Major aflatoxins are B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, M2 (named on the blue and or green fluorescence in UV light and first detected in milk of cows fed on groundnut meal), and B2a and G2a (derivatives of B2 and G2). Among these, B1, B2, G1 and G2 are more common. They may found together or independently.

Acute aflatoxin may cause death, immune suppression and liver cancer in rats, trouts and humans. AFB1 is classified as a known human carcinogen by the international agency for Research on Cancer. Liver is the primary target and if it is found in higher quantity, may produces an acute hepatic necrosis, resulting later in cirrhosis, and/or carcinoma of liver. Humans are found more tolerant to aflatoxin as compare to other animals but no animal is immune to the acute toxic effect t of chemical. Flavobacterium is a bacteria, which can remove aflatoxins completely from contaminated milk peanut, peanut oil, butter and corn. But the preventive measures are more effective to protect the humans from toxic effect of aflatoxins.

Citrinin: Citrinin was first isolated from Penicillium citrinum and later it was identified in many species of Aspergillus and Penicillium. It is a toxic yellow pigment produced by many species of Aspergillus and Penicillium and associated with the yellow rice disease. Citrinin acts as nephrotoxin in all animals tested but variation can be seen from species to species. Citrinin is reported in wheat, oat, rye, corn, barley, rice and

dried fish. It acts synergetically with ochratoxin-A for the inhibition of the RNA synthesis in murine kidneys.

Ergot Toxins: Ergot toxin also called ergot alkaloid are the most fascinating fungal metabolites. The very well-known and one of the oldest producer of these toxins is Claviceps purpurea which cause the ergot of rye disease. The disease is also named as ergotism and St. Antony’s fire. This disease is very rare now because of the availability of the modern cleaning methods. Ergotoxin alkaloids, especially ergocornine on oral administration to female rats and mice, shows inhibitory performance in the implantation of ovum and prevent pregnancy despite fertilsation. This principal can be utilized for the benefit of humans.

Fumonisins: Fumonisins are the mycotoxins produced by the several Fusarium species moulds, mostly by the F. verticillioides (formely F. moniliforme=G. fujikuroi) that contaminate crop, predominantly maize. They synthesized by condensation of amino acid alanine with ab acetate-derived precursor. Out of various fumonisins, FB1 is the most abundant and toxicologically most significant, which causes hole in the head syndrome (leucoencephalomalacia, LEM) in horses. It causes liver and kidney damage in rodents (moles, rates and squirrels), sheep and rabbits. In humans, exposure of FB1 linked with the higher incidence of primary liver cancer and oesophageal cancer, which are more common in such a region where maize is staple food.

Zearalenone (Esterogenic Toxin): Zearalenone also known as F2 mycotoxin, is a potent estrogenic metabolite produced by some Fusarium and Gibberella species and causes esterogenic symptoms in animals and man. Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium cerealis, Fusarium equiseti, Fusarium verticillioides, Fusarium incarnatum, Fusarium roseum, F, tricinctum, F. oxysporium and F. moniliforme are the important Zearalenone producing species.

Zearalenone shows strong antagonistic effect on humans, which can be seen as premature pubertal in children. It causes carcinogenic and teratogenic effect (i.e. defects in embryo).

Patulin: Patulin 4-hydroxy-4H-furo [3,2c]pyran-2(6H)-one, is a mycotoxin which is also carcinogenic in nature, produced by a variety of molds, mainly Aspergillus and Penicillium. It is commonly found in rotting apples, and the

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



amount of patulin in apple products is generally viewed as a measure of the quality of the apples used in production. It is also found in mould bread and other bakery products. It is carcinogenic to mice and causes neurotoxicosis in cattle. It also shows antifungal and antibacterial properties.

Other Mycotoxins

There are several other mycotoxins are also found in the nature such as LSD (Lysergic acid-Dimethylamide), Ochratoxins, Trichothecenes and

some mushroom toxins such as Amanita toxin, Orellanine, Gyromitrin muscarine etc. which are hazardous and some of them can be made useful for humans benefit.

References Dube, H. C. 2013. An Introduction to Fungi. Scientific

publishers (India). pp. 523-540. Bennett, J. W. and M. Klich, 2003. Mycotoxins. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 16 (3)


Major Diseases and their Management in Potato Cultivation Pankaj Kumar Sharma

Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana, India 125004


Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) originates from South America (Peru). The potato was introduced into Europe in the sixteenth century; the crop subsequently was distributed throughout the world, including Asia. It is one of the important vegetables as well as cash crop. This is a tuber crop and belongs to family solanaceae. It is grown in more than 125 countries and over one billion people consume potato worldwide and it is the staple diet of half a billion people in developing countries. Potato is mainly grown as a Rabi crop in India. India ranks third in area and second in production in the world with an average yield of 22.7 tonne/ha.

Potato cultivation is affected by various limiting factors, which are as follow:

Unavailability of good quality seed Lack of fertilizers in time Insect pest infestation Disease infestation Lack of cold storage facilities Low marketable prices at harvesting time High cold storage charge Lack of government policies for purchase

Major Diseases Late blight:

Caused by Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary.

Symptoms

The disease first appears as water-soaked, light brown lesions on the leaf blade.

Characteristic lesions are roundish with concentric markings on the margin.

Whitish growth of the fungus can be seen on the lower surface.

Fungus causing dry rot and brown discolouration of the tissues.

Severe infestation cause wilting of plant.

Management

The seed material should be free from disease

infection. Seed material should be pre-treated by dipping

in 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture or other fungicides.

The plants should be sprayed with copper fungicides at 15 day intervals, starting starts from about a month after planting until the crop matures.

Ridomil at 7 kg/ha in combination with Dithane M-45 showed effective results.

The Central Potato Research Station, Shimla, has released three resistant varieties, viz., Kufri Kishan, Kufri Sindhuri and Kufri Kuber.

Bacterial Wilt

Caused by Ralstonia solanacearum (earlier known as Pseudomonas solanacearum).

Symptoms

Typical symptoms are wilting, yellowing and stunting of the plants, which finally die right back.

Affected leaves later become permanently wilted and roll upwards and inwards from the margins.

Brownish grey areas are seen on the outside, especially near the point of attachment of the stolon.

Cut tubers may show pockets of white to brown pus or browning of the vascular tissue.

Management

Bacterial wilt is difficult to control (or eradicate) because of the soil-borne nature of its causal organism.

Adopt crop rotations non-solanaceous crops for periods exceeding five years.

Use of disease free seeds for cultivation. Regular crop inspection for disease symptoms

and remove and destroy diseased plants, tubers etc.

Potato blackleg

Caused by Pectobacterium atrosepticum

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Symptoms

The stems of potato plants appear stunted and pale green or yellow

Leaves at the top of affected stems may be small, stiff and have margins curled inwards

At ground level, these affected stems appear black and rotted

Affected tubers flesh showed grey or brown discolouration.

Management

Removal and destruction of infected plants as soon as symptoms are noticed and before the disease has time to spread

Rotation also reduces the risk of infection arising from infected volunteer potatoes.

Viral diseases

Potatoes can be infected by potato leaf roll virus (PLRV), potato virus Y (PVY) and potato virus X (PVX).

Symptoms

Potato leaf roll virus (PLRV) cause upward rolling of leaf margins (cupping) so that the under surface is partially exposed.

Potato virus Y (PVY) causes stipple streak. It also cause necrosis in the leaves of susceptible potato varieties.

Potato virus X (PVX) often do not exhibit symptoms, but the virus can cause symptoms of chlorosis, mosaic, decreased leaf size, and necrotic lesions in tubers.

Management

Use of healthy seed tubers. Elimination of sources of infection. Control of vector transmission by spraying of

insecticides.


Cause and Remedies of Citrus Fruit Disease Dr. Shahroon Khan


Gummosis: Phytophthora parasitica, P. palmivora, P. citrophthora

Symptoms

First symptoms are dark staining of bark which progresses into the wood.

Bark at the base is destroyed resulting in girdling and finally death of the tree.

Bark in such parts dries, shrinks and cracks and shreds in lengthwise vertical strips.

Later profuse exudation of gum from the bark of the trunk.

Infection extends to crown roots. Prolonged contact of trunk with water as in

flood irrigation; water logged areas and heavy soils.

Soil inhabitants. Sporangia spread by splashing rain water,

irrigation water and wind. Irrigation water and wind.

Management

Injuries to crown roots or base of stem during cultural operations should be avoided.

If lesion has girdled less than ½ the girth, remove the diseased bark with a knife along with ½” of uninvaded bark.

Bark of trunk should be coated with Bordeaux paste.

Scab: Elsinoe fawcettii

Symptoms

Attacks leaves, twigs and fruits of mandarin. Sour orange, lemon, mandarin, tangelos

extremely susceptible Grapefruit, sweet oranges and acid lime highly resistant. Severe in rainy seasons.

On the leaves the disease starts as small pale orange coloured spots.

The leaf tissue is distorted to firm hollow conical growths with the lesion at the apex.

The crest of these growth becomes covered with scabby corky tissue colour at first but later becomes dark olive with age.

Lesions most common on undersurface of leaf. They penetrate leaf and are later visible on both sides.

Infected areas run together and cover large area. Leaves wrinkled, distorted and stunted.

On twigs similar lesions are produced. They form corky outgrowths. On fruits

irregular scably spots or caked masses produced.

Cream colour in young fruits; dark olive grey in old fruits.

Fruits attacked when young become misshapen with prominent warty projections. They drop prematurely.

Management

Spray Carbendazim 0.1%

Canker: Xanthomonas campestris pv citri

Symptoms

Acid lime, lemon and grapefruit are affected. Rare on sweet oranges and mandarins.

Affects leaf, twig and fruits. In canker, leaves are not distorted.

Lesions are typically circular with yellow halo;

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



appear on both sides of leaf, severe in acid lime (difference from scab) when lesions are produced on twigs, they are girdled and die.

On fruits, canker lesions reduce market value.

Management

Streptomycin sulphate 500-1000 ppm; or Phytomycin 2500 ppm or Copper oxychloride 0.2% at fortnight intervals.

Control leaf miner when young flush is produced.

Prune badly infected twigs before the onset of monsoon

Tristeza or Quick Decline: Citrus tristeza virus (CTV)

Symptoms

Lime is susceptible both as seedling or budding on any root stock.

But mandarin and sweet orange seedlings or on rough lemon, trifoliate orange, citrange; Rangpur lime root stocks tolerant; susceptible root stocks are grapefruit and sour orange.

In sweet orange or mandarin on susceptible root stocks, leaves develop deficiency symptoms and abscise.

Roots decay, twigs die back. Fruit set diminishes; only skeleton remains.

Fine pitting of inner face of bark of sour orange stock.

Grapefruit and acid lime are susceptible irrespective of root stock.

Acid lime leaves show large number of vein flecks (elongated translucent area).

Tree stunted and dies yield very much reduced. Fruits are small in size.

Use of infected bud wood and Toxoptera citricida (aphid) is the important vector.

Management

For sweet orange and mandarin, avoid

susceptible root stocks. For acid lime, use seedling pre-immunised

with mild strain of tristeza.

Greening: Liberobacter asiaticum

Symptoms

This disease affects almost all citrus varieties irrespective of root stock.

Stunting of leaf, sparse foliation, twig die back, poor crop of predominantly greened, worthless fruits.

Sometimes only a portion of tree is affected. A diversity of foliar chlorosis.

A type of mottling resembling zinc deficiency often predominates.

Young leaves appear normal but soon assume on outright position, become leathery and develop prominent veins and dull olive green colour. Green circular dots on leaves.

Many twigs become upright and produce smaller leaves.

Fruits small, lopsided with curved columella. The side exposed to direct sunlight develops full orange colour but the other side remain dull olive green.

Low in juice and soluble solids, high in acid. Worthless either as fresh fruit or for processing. Seeds poorly developed, dark coloured, aborted.

Infected budwood; psyllid vector-Diaphorina citri

Management

Control psyllids with insecticides. Use pathogen free bud wood for propagation. 500 ppm tetracycline spray, requires

fortnightly application.

77. BIOCONTROL 17364

Biopesticides *M. Kirithiga

B.Sc., (Agriculture), Kumaraguru Institute of Agriculture, Sakthinagar, Erode - 638 315. *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected].

Biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals. Canola oil and baking soda have pesticidal applications and are considered biopesticides. As of April 2016, there are 299 registered biopesticide active ingredients and 1401 active biopesticide product registrations.

Biopesticides are generally target specific and affect only the target pest and closely related organisms vis-a-vis broad spectrum, conventional pesticides that may also affect organisms such as birds, insects and mammals.

Classes of Biopesticides

Biopesticides fall into three major classes: Biochemical Pesticides: They are naturally

occurring substances that control pests by non-toxic mechanisms. Conventional pesticides, by contrast, are generally synthetic materials that directly kill or inactivate the pest. Biochemical pesticides include substances that interfere with mating, such as insect sex pheromones, as well as various scented plant extracts that attract insect pests to traps.

Microbial Pesticides: They consist of a microorganism (e.g., a bacterium, fungus, virus or

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



protozoan) as the active ingredient. Microbial pesticides can control many different kinds of pests, although each separate active ingredient is relatively specific for its target pests. For example, there are fungi that control certain weeds and other fungi that kill specific insects.

The most widely used microbial pesticides are subspecies and strains of Bacillus thuringiensis or Bt. Each strain of this bacterium produces a different mix of proteins and specifically kills one or a few related species of insect larvae. While some Bt ingredients control moth larvae found on plants, other Bt ingredients are specific for larvae of flies and mosquitoes.

Plant-Incorporated-Protectants (PIPs): They are pesticidal substances that plants produce from genetic material that has been added to the plant. For example, scientists can take the gene for the Bt pesticidal protein and introduce the gene into the plant's own genetic material. Then the plant, instead of the Bt bacterium, manufactures the substance that destroys the pest. The protein and its genetic material, but not the plant itself, are regulated by EPA.

Advantages of Biopesticides

Biopesticides are usually inherently less toxic than conventional pesticides. Biopesticides generally affect only the target pest and closely related organisms, in contrast to broad spectrum, conventional pesticides that may affect organisms as different as birds, insects and mammals.

Biopesticides often are effective in very small quantities and often decompose quickly, resulting in lower exposures and largely avoiding the pollution problems caused by conventional pesticides.

When used as a component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs, biopesticides can greatly reduce the use of conventional pesticides, while crop yields remain high.

Encouragement of EPA for the Development and use of Biopesticides: In 1994, we established the Biopesticides and Pollution Prevention Division in the Office of Pesticide Programs to facilitate the registration of biopesticides. This division promotes the use of safer pesticides, including biopesticides, as components of IPM programs. The division also coordinates the Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program (PESP).

Since biopesticides tend to pose fewer risks than conventional pesticides, EPA generally requires much less data to register a biopesticide than to register a conventional pesticide. In fact, new biopesticides are often registered in less than a year, compared with an average of more than three years for conventional pesticides.

While biopesticides require less data and are registered in less time than conventional pesticides, EPA always conducts rigorous reviews to ensure that registered pesticides will not harm people or the environment. For EPA to be sure that a pesticide is safe, the Agency requires that registrants submit the results of a variety of studies and other information about the composition, toxicity, degradation, and other characteristics of the pesticide.

Biopesticides play an important role in providing pest management tools in areas where pesticide resistance, niche markets and environmental concerns limit the use of conventional chemical pesticide products. Examples are:

Insect Control

Bacteria - Bacillus thuringiensis, B. sphaericus, Paenibacillus popilliae, Serratia entomophila Viruses - nuclear polyhedrosis viruses, granulosis viruses, non-occluded baculoviruses Fungi - Beauveria spp, Metarhizium, Entomophaga, Zoopthora, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus, Normuraea, Lecanicillium lecanii Protozoa - Nosema, Thelohania, Vairimorpha Entomopathogenic nematodes - Steinernema spp, Heterorhabditis spp Others - Pheromones, parasitoids, predators, microbial by-products

Weed Control

Fungi - Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Chondrostereum purpureum, Cylindrobasidium leave Bacteria - Xanthomonas campestris pv. Poannua.

Plant Disease Control

Fungi - Ampelomyces quisqualis, Candida spp., Clonostachys rosea f. catenulate, Coniothyrium minitans, Pseudozyma flocculosa, Trichoderma spp.

Competitive and Soil Inoculants - Bacillus pumilus, B. subtilis, Pseudomonas spp, Streptomyces griseoviridis.

Nematicides

Nematode Trapping Fungi - Myrothecium verrucaria, Paecilomyces lilacinus

Bacteria - Bacillus firmus, Pasteuria penetrans Mollusc parasitic nematode - Phasmarhabditis

hermaphrodita

References

Burges, H.D. 1998. Formulation of Microbial Biopesticides, beneficial microorganisms, nematodes and seed treatments Publ. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 412 pp.

Matthews G.A. et al., 2014. Pesticide Application Methods (4th Edition), Chapter 16. Wiley, UK.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



78. DISEASE MANAGEMENT 17339

New Innovative Approaches to Crop Protection Vindyashree, M1, Kavyashri, V, V2 and Maheswari, S3

1Department of Plant Pathology, SASF, RTU. 2PhD Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, GKVK, UAS, Bangalore and 3Department of Microbiology, SASF, RTU

Controlling pests and diseases is not a trivial issue, and never has been. Plant Pest and disease management remains an important component of Agricultural Entomology and Plant pathology and is more complex today than ever before including new innovation in diagnostic kits, the discovery of new modes of action of chemicals with low environmental impact, biological control agents with reliable and persistent activity, as well as the development of new plant varieties with durable disease resistance.

The development of non-targeted analytical methods for everything from metabolites to genomes has revolutionized biological research and been a major driver for the adoption of systems-based approaches to biological research. The potential for ‘omic’-based technologies to drive innovation in crop protection is powerful when applied to understanding plant-pathogen interactions and genetic variation among crop genotypes and populations of target organisms (weeds, invertebrates and pathogens). Faced with a decline in the discovery of new actives using conventional methods, ‘omic’ technologies linked to systems approaches are now being increasingly used across the life science area to identify new potential ‘drugable’ targets.

Some Ideas on using ‘Omics’ more extensively in ‘Conventional’ Crop Protection Strategies include:

Using molecular approaches to optimize the integrated use of agrochemicals with crop varieties of differing genetic background (e.g. matching fungicide mode of action with host resistance)

Identification of new crop protection targets for intervention in pathogens, pests and weeds which may provide the basis for screening chemical and biological agents

Understanding how beneficial entophytes and resistance elicitors enhance crop protection and thereby improve their efficacy

Understanding and exploiting ‘natural’ plant protection strategies including pest and disease resistance, as well as embracing less studied interactions such as allelopathy

Understanding the many resistance mechanisms reducing ability to deploy existing toxophore and how they may be counteracted

Developing synergistic mixes and formulations of pesticides; and Directly identifying novel bioactive natural products through bioprospecting

Novel Control Agents: Biological Control Agents (Biologics)

Biological control agents (BCAs) present immediate opportunities for economically beneficial investments, as there is a need to replace withdrawn crop protection products with more sustainable alternatives for the where these are unlikely to be high priorities for normal commercial activity and where new pests and diseases need to be controlled.

Biological control agents play an integral role in the present day organic farming and integrated disease management scenario for increased quality as well as quantity of the yield. Biological control assumes special significance as it is environment friendly and cost-effective. These not only control the disease but also have other mechanisms viz., plant growth promotion, hyper parasitism, and antibiosis and induced systemic resistance.

Improved Management of Crop Rotations

The practice of crop rotation is one of the most effective agricultural control strategies, as it comes with numerous advantages that are very important for reducing the use of chemicals on farms and supporting long-term soil fertility and many more advantages like better nitrogen management, Reduced water and land pollution, water conservation and most importantly reduced pest and diseases and improved resistance in crops.

Other than Innovative Farming Practices there are three types of Intervention

‘Traditionally’, farmers have been used to a succession of new chemicals to deal with their crop protection problems. More recently, a combination of new legislation, and increased costs associated with dealing with that legislation have eliminated many pesticides, and slowed down the introduction of new ones to a trickle.

There has been much interest in the use of advanced breeding techniques, including agricultural biotechnology, to introduce insect and disease resistance into major crop plants. This has been very successful in many parts of the world.

The use of novel control agents and biopesticides has seen many dawns, some of them false. More recently there has been a flurry of interest in this area, highlighted by high visibility acquisitions of biopesticide.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Conclusion: There are ways to stimulate greater innovation in basic and applied research to support farmers with innovative crop protection practices, so that they start to bridge the yield gap. This will be best supported by a national crop protection strategy, founded on the principles of integrated management (i.e. using all the available

tools and developing more) to provide durable control of those pests, diseases and weeds causing the largest losses in major arable and horticultural crops. The approach needs to be sufficiently robust and far-sighted to enable adaptation to climate change.

79. PLANT DISEASES MANAGEMENT 17293

Diseases of Grapes and their Management K. K. Suryawanshi1, K. E. Shewale2 and N. M. Kelwatker3

1Assistant Professor, K.D.S.P. College of Agriculture, Nashik; 2Assistant Professor, H.H.S.S.M.S. College of Agriculture, Malegaon; 3Senior Research Assistant, Abhinav Krishi Tantr Niketan Hingani,

Wardha *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected].

Identification of diseases in the vineyard is key to preventing serious outbreaks and losses in yield and quality. However, the presence of a pathogen or disease does not necessarily mean that a treatment is required. The severity of diseases varies from year to year, depending primarily on weather conditions, the presence of inoculum (history of the disease) and the susceptibility of the vines. This means that a disease can be devastating one year and insignificant the next. The measures to be taken to prevent losses may therefore vary from season to season. The purpose of this article is to aid in the identification of grape diseases and in pest management decision-making.

1. Powdery Mildew: C.O. Uncinula necator

Symptoms

Small whitish patches appear on both the surfaces of young leaves, stems, flowers and fruits.

These patches enlarges covering whole leaf surface with characteristic whitish powdery coating

The infected leaves turn grayish white, become dwarfed, twisted and malformed

The infected stem become grey, turn dark brown

Figure 1 Powdery mildew

If the blossom is affected, a grayish white

powdery growth appears on the floral parts and the flowers may drop

The entire inflorescence may appear discolored and barren

The affected berries become malformed with grayish to dark brown patches on the skin

The skin of affected berries cracks and the pulp is exposed

Disease cycle: Fungus survives in cleistothecia on the shoots and buds from season to season. Secondary spread is by air-borne conidia.

Favourable Condition

Warm weather 200 to 33.50C, dry atmosphere favours the disease development.

North India- observe in Oct-Nov South India- observe in Feb-June

Management

Overcrowding and dense growth of vines should be avoided by proper pruning

Spry W. sulphur 0.2% or dinocap 0.7% or Karthane 0.2%

Sulphur dusting at berry development stage as prophylactic treatment (20 – 25 kg/ha)

Use resistant variety i.e. Red Sultana, Saint George and No-1613 are highly resistant.

2. Downy Mildew C.O. Plasmopara viticola

Symptoms

The pathogen infects all tender plant parts, showing small light green patches on upper surface of the new leaves and a whitish downy growth on a corresponding lower surface

The mildew growth may cover the entire leaf blade, which turns brown and withers

The disease may also spread to the floral parts and the fruits.

The infected flower dies and drops away prematurely.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Figure 2 Downy mildew

The infected fruit become greyish, the skin hardens and shrivels

The infected berries and bunches become mummified.

The juice quality of fruit is reduced.

Disease Cycle

Primary source : The pathogen survives on the infected leaves and vines as oospore and dormant mycelium. The secondary spread takes through wind borne sporangia and zoospores

Favourable Condition

Sporangia germinates at 100-23°C and disease development is favoured during rainy season when there is heavy dew, RH 80% and temp. 23-27°C

Management

Remove all disease leaves, shoots, bunches and flowers and destroy them as they hibernates (oospores)

Use recommended spacing for planting vines After pruning spray BM 1% or difolatan 0.2%

or chlorothalonil 0.2% or metalaxyal 0.25% is effective. This may be repeated weekly intervals.

3. Anthracnose/Bird’s Eye Spot: c.o. Gloeosporium ampelophagum

Symptoms

The fungus affects the stem, young shoots,

leaves and berries Small circular spots with grayish black

centers and yellow margin are produced on the leaves

On the stem and young shoots irregular black spots develop, which later enlarge to form cankerous growths

Figure 3 Anthracnose

Characteristic round, brownish, sunken spots resembling bird’s eyes appear on the berries and hence the name bird’s eyes

The infected berries rots

Disease Cycle

Pathogen survives as mycelium in the cankers on the stem and on infected twigs. Secondary spread is thorough conidia carried by wind and rain water

Favorable condition:-Heavy rains after pruning leads to more incidence. Warm weather favors the disease development.

Management

Diseased leaves and twigs should be pruned and burnt

Spry BM 1%, copper oxycholoride 0.25%, carbendazim 0.1%, mancozeb 0.2%, difolatan 0.2%, chlorothalonil 0.2% and baycor 0.1% found effective

Grow resistant varieties i.e. Bangalore blue, Gulabi, Golden queen, Golden Muscat, Hussaini and Bharat early are resistant.

80. PLANT DISEASES MANAGEMENT 17470

Biological Approaches in Plant Diseases Management Pankaj Kumar Sharma

Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana, India 125004.


Biological control is the reduction of inoculum density or disease producing activities of a pathogen or parasite in its active or dormant state, by one or more organisms (biological control agent). The term biological control also has been applied to the use of the natural products extracted or organic amendments.

Characteristics of Biological Control Agents

Non-toxic to human Not a water contaminant concern Once colonized may last for years Host specific i.e. only affects one or few

species

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m

http://images.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://fruit.cfans.umn.edu/grape/pictures/anthracberry.jpg&imgrefurl=http://fruit.cfans.umn.edu/grape/IPM/anthracnose.htm&usg=___MXj7DTAHH8KfjGAfADvEUPushQ=&h=728&w=1111&sz=228&hl=en&start=2&tbnid=MUslzsiL76oypM:&tbnh=98&tbnw=150&prev=/images?q=Anthracnose+of+graps&gbv=2&hl=en&sa=G



BCAs (biological control agent) should be fast growing and aggressive against pathogen.

They work on pathogens by two or more mechanisms.

BCAs may exhibit antibiosis, parasitism and competition of nutrients.

Commercial Formulation of Biological Control Agent

Bioderma (Trichoderma viride + Trichoderma harzianum), Defenso SF; Bioguard (Trichoderma viride) and Biocon (Trichoderma harzianum) are available as commercial formulation of biological control agent.

Mechanism of Action of Biological Control Agent

Antibiosis: The process has been defined as the interactions that involve a low-molecular weight compound or an antibiotic produced by a microorganism that has a direct effect on another microorganism.

Competition: This process is considered to be an indirect interaction whereby pathogens are excluded by depletion of a food base or by physical occupation of site. Generally, nutrient competition has been believed to have an important role in disease suppression.

The bio control agent like, bacteria and fungi compete for food and essential elements with the pathogen thereby displacing and suppressing the growth of pathogen.

Parasitism: This process involves the direct utilization of one organism as food by another. Fungi that are parasitic on other fungi are usually referred to as mycoparasites.

Disease Management by Organic Amendments

Composts and organic wastes are the most

effective organic amendments which inhibit the activity of pathogen.

There are some Mechanisms of Action of Organic Amendments which are as follow:

Direct antimicrobial action of toxins released by compost biomass or produced in soil by microbial action:

Sulphur from crucifer leaves Ammonia from lucern meal

Reduction in Pathogen Nutrition

Indirect starvation: Nutrients adequate but poor competition ability or antibiosis prevents utilization.

Direct starvation: Low level or absence of essential nutrients cause reduction or cessation of pathogen activity.

Host Nutrition

Resistance or tolerance of host increased by improved nutrition through:

More vigorous, healthier roots growth. Nutrients availability in amendments.

Bio Fumigation

Based on incorporating soil amendment release chemical substances, known as isothiocyanates (ITC's), able to suppress soil-borne diseases, plus a soil heater to enhance biological activities.

Plants from Cruciferae family (cabbage, radish, cauliflower etc.) release large amount of these toxic to soil-borne pests and diseases substances in the soil.

81. NEMATOLOGY 17036

Threat to India’s Maize Crop from Invasive Worm Dr. M. Shanmuga Priya

Asst. Prof. (Nematology), AC&RI, Eachangkottai, Tamil and Agricultural University

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research on July 30 issued a ‘pest alert’ based on results of surveys conducted between July 9 and July 18 that recorded more than 70% prevalence of the Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) in a maize field in Chikkaballapur, Karnataka.

The fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda, a devastating insect-pest, has been identified for the first time on the Indian subcontinent. Native to the Americas, the pest is known to eat over 80 plant species including rice, corn, vegetables, groundnuts and cotton with a particular preference for maize, a main staple crop around the world. Sightings of damage to maize crops in India due to fall armyworm mark the first report of the pest in Asia.

Fig 1. Fall armyworm in Maize

Life Cycle

Female lays about 1,000-2,000 eggs in clusters of

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



up to 400 at night, usually on leaves or on light-colored surfaces. The egg mass is covered with grayish scales from the female's abdomen. The development of all eggs within a mass usually needs 3-7 days. After consuming the remains of the egg mass, the newly-hatched larvae disperse in search of food, often using a silken thread to reach the ground. Over a 2-4 week period they pass through six, occasionally only five, instars. They feed in daylight too, but tend to spend the warmest part of the day hidden from the sun. Older larvae become cannibalistic, thus only one or two of them are found on each plant.

For pupation, the mature caterpillar burrows 2-8 cm (0.78-3.15 inch) deep into the ground, where it builds a loose cocoon from silk and earth particles. If the soil is too hard, the larva remains on the surface and uses plant material. The pupal stage lasts from eight to 24 days. The adult moths emerge at night. They usually fly many kilometers during their pre-oviposition period of 3-4 days. They live up to three weeks.

FAW Hot spots mapping could help assess the damages, understand and forecast future outbreaks and plan long-term FAW management.

Seed treatment is far more affordable for small farmers than spraying the field when the crop has matured, and worth the investment.

Training of farmer organizations and the

distribution of small packs of seed treatment, could be implemented quite quickly with the right public private partnership.

Application of Bacillus thuringiensis or nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPVSf) have shown good results against FAW and could be tested in the context of African farms. However, this solution could be out of reach for most small farmers.

A push-pull strategy using Desmodium as intercrop and Brachiaria another forage crop as border can reduce by more than 80% FAW damage as this recent study from the International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE)

Two potential sorghum lines have been identified in the ICRISAT Genebank, which could be useful for breeding for FAW resistance.

The most important cultural practice to reduce damage is early planting (if possible of early- maturing varieties) in order to escape the peak of fall armyworm immigration.

References https://www.cabi.org/fallarmyworm https://www.scidev.net/global/agriculture/news/fall-

armyworm-infests-indian-maize.html www.plantprotection.org

82. NEMATOLOGY 17274

Wheat Seed Gall Nematode (Anguina tritici) and its Management

Dr. A. Muthukumar

Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University, Annamalainaga-608 002, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India.


INTRODUCTION: The name Anguina is derived from Latin word which means snake like. This nematode is being the first plant parasitic nematode recorded in 1743 by Needham. The present name of Anguina tritici was given by Filipjev in 1936. In India, Milne reported it for the first time from Punjab in 1919.

Occurrence: Anguina tritici has been reported from all the major wheat growing regions of Europe, Asia, USA, Australia, New Zealand and Russia, but it is considered to be problematic in India, Eastern Europe and the Middle East.

Host range: Species belonging to genus Anguina can infect cereals and grasses. Wheat is the main host. Barley has been reported to be a poor host under experimental conditions.

Biology: Seed galls with seed get introduced into the soil at the time of sowing. Each seed gall may contain 3000 to 12,000 second stage juveniles in a quiescent phase. At the time of floral

initiation, the second stage juvenile enters inside the floral primordial and become endoparasites. Several male and female are present in the same gall which is green at this stage. As the crop matures, the galls turn brown and hard. At harvest, the seed galls are also collected along with healthy seed.

Symptoms: Infected seedlings show basal swelling of the stem after about 20-25 days of germination. Subsequently the leaves emerging from such seedlings are crinkled, curled and twisted. The infected plants are generally stunted and grow prostrate with increased tillers. Glumes may be loosely arranged and galls replace the seeds.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Symptoms of wheat seed gall nematode Nematode Anguina

Management: Presence of galls in the seed material is the source of inoculums. It’s possible to eradicate if gall-free certified seed is used for sowing. However, galls can be separated from contaminated seed material by the following methods but the efficacy is variable.

i) Dry cleaning: Most of the galls can be separated from the seed by using a coarse sieve (3 mesh).

ii) Winnowing/Fanning: This practice, however will not remove 100% of the galls.

iii) Water/Salt flotation: Putting the contaminated seed material in plain water followed by stirring results in flotation of the galls on the surface with this simple method about 955 of the galls can be removed. Use of 20% salt solution in place of plain water removes almost 100% galls, but treatment must follow thorough washing of seed in a plain water several times to remove salt. This is followed by healthy seed must be dried in a shade before sowing.

83. ENTOMOLOGY 16613

Various Integrated Approaches for the Management of Mango Hoppers

Rakesh Kumar

Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture G.B.P.U.A.&T., Pantnagar *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]*

INTRODUCTION: Mango, Mangifera indica (Linn) is the most important member of family Anacardiaceae, consider as the delicious fruits and known as ‘King of Fruits’ and it value in both national and export markets is due to its attractive colour, odour and a nice delicacy. Mango is one of the major fruit crops of south Asia. India is the largest producer of mango in the world, contributing 40.48% of the total world mango production. The second largest mango producer is China with 4.77 million tons of mango. Thailand is the third largest mango producer in the world, with 3.4 million tons produced in 2016. In Uttarakhand, mango is cultivated in Nainital, U. S. Nagar, Almora, Haridwar, Dehradun and valley area of all hill districts. The principle insect pests of mango are hopper, mealy bug, shoot gall, fruit fly, scale, shoot borer, leaf Webber and stone weevil. Among all mango pests, hoppers Idioscopus clypealis (Lethierry), Idioscopus nitidulus (Walker) and Amritodus atkinsoni (Lethierry) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) are the most damaging and important pests, cause damage up to 100 % loss in India. Mango Leaf hoppers are most serious and widespread monophagous pests on mango, Mangifera indica L. throughout India. The hopper species viz., Amritodus atkinsoni (Lethierry), Idioscopus nitidulus (Walker), I. nagpurensis, I. clypealis (Lethierry) (Homopetera: Cicadellidae) are prevalent in different mango

growing belts viz., Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh.

This is a serious and regular and monophagous pest on mango. It appears during flowering stage of the crop and remaining period occurs in small number on bark and leaves. The heavy infestation usually occurs periodically after every three or four years and that is why the pest is known as the periodic insect. Pest attack starts from end of March and continues till the end of June. High humidity in orchards due to water logging, shading and overcrowding of tree favors the pest emergence. Warm, humid and cloudy climate is the most congenial for development of hopper population. Hoppers hibernate in the crevices of the barks on the tree.

Life Cycle of Mango Hopper

Nymph - pale yellow colour, very active and hide in lower shoots or in cracks in the trees bark.

Adults

Amritodes atkinsoni is the bigger in size, two spots on the scutellum. No bands on the wings and no spots on the vertex.

Idioscopus niveosparsus is medium in size, three spots on the scutellum. White bands on the wings and no spots on the vertex.

clypealis is small in size, two spots on the scutellum, no bands on the wings and two spots on the vertex.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Life Cycle

Leafhoppers can breed all year round if tender flush is available in mango tree. The female hoppers insert 100-200 eggs on mid rib of tender leaves, buds and inflorescence stalks. Incubation period ranges from 4-7 days. Eggs hatch after or on 4-7 days and nymphs development period take 12 to 20 days. The nymphs develop faster during the flowering and fruiting season. The total life cycle occupies 2-3 weeks. They complete their 2-3 generations in flowering period itself.

Nature of Damage

Damaging stages are both nymphs and adults which aggregate on the underside of leaves and suck the sap of tender shoots, young leaves and inflorescence results in heavy puncturing and continuous draining of the sap causes curling and drying of the infected tissues.

Females lay eggs on inflorescence and cause ovipositional damage to stalks.

Both adult and nymph secrete honey dew.

Damage Symptoms

Piercing and sap sucking of tender parts by nymphs and adults causing reduction of plant vigor that cause withering and shedding of flower buds, flowers and young fruits leading huge loss of crop.

Oviposition by hoppers on inflorescence cause drying up of inflorescence.

The infested florets turn into brown colour and dry up which adversely affects fruit setting.

Development of sooty mould due to honey dew secretion on leaves affects photosynthesis and gives blackish appearance photosynthesis and also stains the fruits which reduce market value.

During higher infestation, clicking sounds of leaf hoppers can be heard in mango orchard.

These hoppers cause heavy damage to mango crop during flowering season resulting in 25-60% yield loss. Usually these hoppers found colonized during both vegetative (on newly emerging leaves) and reproductive (on inflorescence) phases.

Following integrated management practices have been described for hopper population management in mango orchard:

Use of Sticky Traps

Yellow colored sticky traps are used for monitoring of insect pests in the agricultural fields. In pest management programs, sticky traps can be used for monitoring of insect pests. Therefore, yellow and blue colored sticky traps can also be used for monitoring of mango hoppers in mango orchard. The main objective of this method is to determine the attractiveness of I. clypealis to colored sticky traps and monitor their activity in the mango orchard throughout the investigation period. It is found that the mean

number of adult mango hopper (I. clypealis) trapped on sticky colored traps were ranged from 0.76 to 12/trap. Yellow sticky traps were found most effective in trapping a considerably higher number of hoppers throughout the investigation period with maximum number of adults (20.00/trap) during 18-March to 15-May. Whereas lowest numbers of adults were recorded during 22-February to 17-March and blue color was found least attractive to adult mango hoppers with maximum number of adults (8.00/trap) and minimum number of adults (2.00/trap). The sticky traps are hung vertically approximately 2 meters from the ground level with the branch/ twig by rope under the canopy of mango trees. The advantages of the traps are: Ready to use; Non-toxic; Long-lasting; Pesticide free; Grids on both sides for easy reading; Moisture resistant.

Use of Biorational Insecticides

Term “biorational” has been recently proposed to describe those types of insecticides that are effective against the target pest but are less detrimental to natural enemies. It has been used to describe only those products which are derived from natural sources, i.e. plant extracts, insect pathogens, etc. However, a biorational pesticides can defined “any type of insecticide, active against pest populations, but relatively innocuous to non- target organisms and therefore, non-disruptive to biological control.” An insecticide can be “innocuous” by having low or no direct toxicity, or by having systemic or rapid translaminar activity or short field residual, thereby minimizing exposure of natural enemies to the insecticide.

Use of Plant Oil

It has been found that different types of plant oils such as spearmint oil, lemon grass oil, neem oil, palmarosa oil, and citronella oil be can be use @ 3ml/lt for the controlling the hopper population through the repellent action.

Entomopathogenic Fungal based Formulations

While, three entomopathogenic fungal based formulations viz., Daman (Beauveria bassiana), Metarrhizium anisopliae and Vertiguard (Verticillium lecanii) alone 5g/L can be use for check their efficacy against mango hoppers (Amritodus atkinsoni and Idioscopus clypealis) on mango. Infected mango hoppers show three stages of symptoms under field conditions:

White mycelia growth around the body of adult mango hoppers;

The white mycelia changed color to orange—light yellow and finally brown; and

Mycelia attached the dead adult hoppers to leaves. Thus, use of mixed and sole application of these biorational insecticides and plant oils has been suggested for effective management of the hopper menace and better for the surrounding environment conditions.

Use of Insecticides

Different insecticides can be use for hopper

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



management: inorganic and organic insecticides viz., imidacloprid 17.8 SL (Confidor) 0.03 ml/lt, thiamethoxam0.008% 25WG (Actara) (@ 0.32g/lt, lambda-cyhalothrin 5% EC (Karate), spinosad 45% SC (Tracer) (0.004%) @ 0.25ml/lt, Buprofezin 25SC (Applaud) @ 1-2ml/lt.

Conclusion: It could be concluded that use of

these integrated practices; we can manage the hopper population in the mango orchard without indiscrimination use of insecticides. These integrated management practices have not any negative impact on non-target organism and it is also safe for the environment.


Means to Protect the Honey Bee Losses from Pesticides 1*Gaurava Kumar, 1Ajaykumara K. M. and 2Neha Kunjwal

1Ph.D. Scholar, 2PDF, Department of Entomology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, U.S. Nagar- 263 145


INTRODUCTION: The honey bee, Apis mellifera, is arguably the most important pollinator of agricultural crops. Honey bees ensure the pollination of many wild flowers, and thus contributing to plant biodiversity. Global pollinator declines have been attributed to habitat destruction, pesticide use, climate change and many other factors, but the injudicious use of highly toxic pesticides is the major reason for such a drastic loss of this agriculturally as well as commercially important insect. In order to fulfil the anticipated demand of pollinators for a better yield in our crops, we will have to find a way to protect the honey bees from such hazards. The bee death due to pesticide poisoning can be minimized by following these measures.

Need based application of Insecticides: Application of insecticides should be done only when the pest population has increased above the ETL level. It is also a good idea to check the field to be treated for populations of both harmful and beneficial insects.

Avoidance of water contamination: Honey bees cool the hive and feed the brood with water as well so contamination of standing water near the apiary, with pesticides or drainage of spray tanks should strictly be avoided.

Use of less toxic formulations: By choosing the appropriate formulation, honey bee pesticide kills can be avoided.

Repellants may be used to discourage bees from foraging on the treated crops.

1. Spray applications produced from wettable powders (WP) are often more dangerous to bees than other formulations like emulsifiable or water soluble concentrate.

2. Aerial sprays are more hazardous than ground applications during day time spray.

3. As it drifts through the wind, the dust formulation is more hazardous than liquid formulations.

4. Granular formulations are the safest for bees. Granules are similar to dusts but are larger in particle size. They are applied into the soil or

broadcast on the surface of the ground, so they are more safer formulations than others

5. New microencapsulated insecticides are much more toxic to honey bees.

6. Adding a solvent or an oily substance tends to make the spray safer for bees.

7. Insecticide formulations are classified in order of toxicity to the honey bees as: dust > wettable powder > liquid suspensions > emulsifiable concentrate or soluble powder or liquid solution > granular formulations.

Cooperation between farmers and beekeepers: In order to adequately protect honey bees from pesticides, there must be a good deal of cooperation between applicators, growers and beekeepers. Beekeepers should be notified well in advance of an intention to spray toxic chemicals on crops where, bees are foraging. This enables the hives to be moved or covered until the pesticides become less hazardous to bees.

Time of Application

1. Bees are most active from 8 am to 5 pm. Always check field for bee activity immediately before application.

2. Insecticide should be applied only while target plants are in the bud stage or just after the petals have dropped. If at all possible do not spray blooms directly with pesticides. If the bloom needs to be sprayed, apply the pesticides in the evening hours when there is minimal bee activity. Thus, spraying pesticides in the evening hours can greatly reduce honey bee mortality because the bees are not in the fields.

3. Before treating a field with pesticides, it is a good idea to check for the presence of other blooming plants and weeds which might attract bees.

4. Contact bee keepers (persons having apiary with hives near the crop) and ask them to remove their hives for the danger period or to confine the bees to their hives.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m




Role of Genetic Engineering in Improvement of Natural Enemies for Insects Control

Kamal Ravi Sharma*1 and Sudeshna Thakur2

1Department of Entomology & Agricultural Zoology, Institute of Agricultural Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005; 2Department of Entomology, PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab-141004


Insect pest is one of the major constraint for crop production in agriculture commodities have shown a considerable shift during first decade of twenty-first century due to ecosystem and technological changes. In India, the crop losses have declined from 23.3 per cent in post-green revolution era to about 15 per cent at present. Integrated pest management with biological control has been accepted as an effective, environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable method of pest management and it may control about 99 per cent of all the potential pest population. It targets suppression of insect pests of crops or other harmful organisms by using their natural enemies viz., parasites, predators and pathogens. It constitutes a deliberate attempt to use natural enemies, either by introducing new species or by increasing the effectiveness of the same those present already in the environment. The first successful introduction of a natural enemy against an insect pest control was the coccinellid beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Muls.) which is import from Australia in 1898 and released against coffee green scale, Coccus viridis (Green). During 21th century the indiscriminate use of different synthetic pesticides causes the adverse effect on environment, it may also depress populations of beneficial insects as well as target pests. Recent research of molecular biology has emphasis on genetically engineered for natural enemies improvement which may play significance role in IPM programs and the reduction use of synthetic pesticide. Genetic manipulation of natural enemies of insect pests offers promise of enhancing their efficacy in agricultural cropping systems. Genetic improvement natural enemies of insects have been oversee for improved climatic tolerances, improved host finding ability, changes in host preference, improved synchronization with the host, insecticide resistance, non-diapause and induction of thelytokous reproduction.

Genetic Engineering in Bacillus thuringiensis

Bacillus thuringiensis show poor persistence under field conditions, which results in the need for regular spray application, and the dissemination of large numbers of spores. Two approaches have been taken to address these two factors concurrently, both of which involve engineering a bacterium that is not normally

pathogenic to insects. In the first case ICP genes were cloned into a nonpathogenic strain of Pseudomonas fluorescent. The bacteria were killed, resulting in encapsulated ICPs that had enhanced residual properties in the field and no Bt spores. The EPA approved small-scale field trials of this product in 1985, making it the first recombinant Bt product to be approved for outdoor testing. In the second case, a spoOA mutant strain of B. subtilis was engineered to express CryIIIA, which is active against Coleoptera. The gene spoOA is involved in initiation of sporulation, and disruption of this gene prevents sporulation. The result of this procedure is that the mutant strain can be cultured continuously, no spores are produced, and the insecticidal toxin is encapsulated within a cell and partially protected. Both of these novel formulations provide environmentally

Genetic Engineering in Entomopathogenic Fungi

Genetic engineering has made it possible to significantly improve the virulence of fungi and their tolerance to adverse conditions. Virulence enhancement has been achieved by engineering fungi to express insect proteins and insecticidal proteins/peptides from insect predators and other insect pathogens, or by over-expressing the pathogen’s own genes. Importantly, protein engineering can be used to mix and match functional domains from diverse genes sourced from entomopathogenic fungi and other organisms, producing insecticidal proteins with novel characteristics. Fungal tolerance to abiotic stresses, especially UV radiation, has been greatly improved by introducing into entomopathogens a photoreactivation system from an archaean and pigment synthesis pathways from non entomopathogenic fungi. Coupled with their natural insect specificity, safety concerns can also be mitigated by using safe effector proteins with selection marker genes removed after transformation. Genetically engineered Metarhizium anisopliae, various genes relating to the formation of appresorium, virulence, and nutritional stress have been cloned from M. anisopliae. In order to enhance insecticidal efficacy, additional copies of the prl gene in M. anisopliae, which encodes a subtilin like protease involved in host cuticle penetration, were engineered to the genome of M. anisopliae.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Genetic Engineering in Entomopathogenic Nematodes

Research are ongoing efforts to improve entomopathogenic nematode beneficial traits or eliminate weaknesses by means of genetic manipulation in the areas of increased environmental tolerance, target specificity, enhanced host finding, mass production and increased storage-life of Entomopathogenic nematodes (steinernematids and heterorhabditids). Entomopathogenic nematodes have a symbiotic association with bacteria in the genus Xenorhabdus (family: Enterobacteridae). The symbiosis is specific in that each nematode species carries its own unique species of bacterium. There is natural variation among nematode strains in virulence, dessication tolerance, host finding ability, and activity at low temperature, and hence classical selection can be used to optimize these parameters.

Genetic Engineering in Entomopathogenic Virus

Recombinant DNA technology and advances in genomic mapping have been combined to improve the insecticidal qualities of naturally occurring baculoviruses. Host specificity of wild-type baculoviruses has make them ideal components of integrated pest management (IPM) programs but their usage in pest suppression has been limited to plants able to tolerate moderate levels of feeding damage while viral infection slowly kills the pests.

Recently, the lengthy infection cycle has been significantly shortened by incorporating insecticidal toxin genes into the viral genomes. Genes coding for diuretic hormone, juvenile hormone esterase, maize mitochondrial protein mite neurotoxin), and insect-specific scorpion neurotoxins have been successfully incorporated to produce recombinant baculoviruses able to cause lethal infections and terminate feeding in their respective host larvae more rapidly than their wild-type progenitor viruses.

Limitations of Genetic Improvement of Natural Enemies

The factors limiting the efficacy of the natural enemy must be identified. A great deal must be known about the biology, ecology, and behaviour of the natural enemy. Improper identification of the trait needing improvement could lead to an expensive and time-consuming

Genetic variability must be available upon which one can select if using artificial selection. If such variability does not occur in natural populations, it must be provided for through mutagenesis or, perhaps, through recombinant DNA methods.

Improved natural enemy must be documented to be effective in the field.

86. ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY 16832

Controller Area Network (CAN) Technology in Agricultural Machines

Siddesh Marihonnappanavara1 and Mareppa Hirekurubaru2 1Ph.D. Scholars, Dept. of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering; 2Assistant Professor, Dept. of Farm

Machinery and Power Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, UAS, Raichur (Karnataka)

INTRODUCTION: Controller Area Network (CAN) was initially developed by Robert Bosch Company in Germany in the mid-1980s for automotive applications as a method to enable robust and cost-effective serial communication (Bosch, 2000; Darr et al., 2005). In modern agriculture, electronic control technologies have been employed in various ways in tractors and equipments to increase their productivity and efficiency. However, all components in the system need to be compatible with each other. Agricultural equipments and tractors produced as non-standard by different manufactures give rise to a heterogeneous structure in integration of all system. (Speckman & Jahns 1999, Scarlett 2001). Standardization necessitates for solving these problems. The efforts about this subject started in Germany in late 1980’s. The first CAN-based standard (DIN 9684) for an integrated agricultural machines system was presented in Germany in 1993 (DIN, 1993). Then, similar efforts were carried out for J1939 standard organized by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) in the

United States (Stone et al., 1999). The network structure is organized according to a layered approach, which enables the coordination of products of different manufacturers. ISO (International Standardization Organization) has used Open System Interconnection (OSI) model as a reference model.

Bit representation

The CAN uses the terms recessive and dominant to describe the signal states of the bus. According to the CAN protocol, dominant and recessive bus states correspond to logic 0 and logic 1, respectively. However, it is important to know the distinction between “1”s and “0”s and recessive and dominant bus states. “1”s and “0”s are useful in the binary number system to represent data, but they do not inform anything about the state of the bus.

CAN Terminology

CAN devices send data across the CAN network in packets called frames. A CAN frame consists of

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



the following sections. CAN Frame: an entire CAN transmission:

arbitration ID, data bytes, acknowledge bit, and so on. Frames also are referred to as messages.

SOF (start-of-frame) bit: indicates the beginning of a message with a dominant (logic 0) bit.

Arbitration ID: identifies the message and indicates the message's priority. Frames come in two formats -- standard, which uses an 11-bit arbitration ID, and extended, which uses a 29-bit arbitration ID.

IDE (identifier extension) bit: allows differentiation between standard and extended frames.

RTR (remote transmission request) bit: serves to differentiate a remote frame from a data frame. A dominant (logic 0) RTR bit indicates a data frame. A recessive (logic 1) RTR bit indicates a remote frame.

DLC (data length code): indicates the number of bytes the data field contains.

Data Field: contains 0 to 8 bytes of data. CRC (cyclic redundancy check): contains 15-

bit cyclic redundancy check code and a recessive delimiter bit. The CRC field is used for error detection.

ACK (Acknowledgement) slot: any CAN controller that correctly receives the message sends an ACK bit at the end of the message.

CAN Signal: an individual piece of data contained within the CAN frame data field.

CAN Applications

CAN was first created for automotive use, so its most common application is in-vehicle electronic networking. However, as other industries have realized the dependability and advantages of CAN over the past 20 years, they have adopted the bus for a wide variety of applications. Railway applications such as streetcars, trams, undergrounds, light railways, and long-distance trains incorporate CAN. You can find CAN on different levels of the multiple networks within these vehicles – for example, in linking the door units or brake controllers, passenger counting units, and more. CAN also have applications in aircraft with flight state sensors, navigation systems, and research PCs in the cockpit. In

addition, you can find CAN buses in many aerospace applications, ranging from in-flight data analysis to aircraft engine control systems such as fuel systems, pumps, and linear actuators.

Medical equipment manufacturer’s use CAN as an embedded network in medical devices. In fact, some hospitals use CAN to manage complete operating rooms. Hospitals control operating room components such as lights, tables, cameras, X-ray machines, and patient beds with CAN-based systems. Lifts and escalators use embedded CAN networks, and hospitals use the CANopen protocol to link lift devices, such as panels, controllers, doors, and light barriers, to each other and control them. CANopen also is used in nonindustrial applications such as laboratory equipment, sports cameras, telescopes, automatic doors, and even coffee machines.

References Bosch, R., 1991. CAN Specification Version 2.0,

Robert Bosch GmbH, Germany. Darr, M. J., Stombaugh, T. S and Shearer, S. A., 2005.

Controller Area Network based Distributed control for Autonomous Vehicles. Transactions of the ASAE, 48(2): 479-490.

DIN, 1993. DIN 9684 Standard, Agricultural Tractors and Machinery; Interfaces for Signal Transfer. Berlin, Germany.

ISO. 1998. ISO 11783, Tractors and machinery for agriculture and forestry – Serial control and communications data network, Part 1-13. Geneva, Switzerland.

Speckmann, H., G. Jahns. 1999. Development and application of an agricultural BUS for data transfer. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 23: 219 – 237.

Stone, M. L., Kee, D. M., Formwalt, C. W and Benneweis, R. K., 1999. ISO 11783: An electronic communications protocol for agricultural equipment. ASAE Distributed Lecture Series No: 23, pp: 5-17.

Scarlett, A. J., 2001. Integrated control of agricultural tractors and implements: a review of potential opportunities relating to cultivation and crop establishment machinery. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 30: 167–191.

Lawrenz, W., 1997. CAN System Engineering: From Theory to Practical Applications, p. 289, Springer-Verlag, U.S.A.


Effect of Soil Compaction on Crop Productivity: Causes, Effects and Control

Mareppa Hirekurubaru1and Siddesh Marihonnappanavara2 1Assistant Professor, Dept. of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering; 2Ph.D. Scholars, Dept. of Farm

Machinery and Power Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, UAS, Raichur (Karnataka)

INTRODUCTION: Soil compaction is a form of physical degradation resulting in densification and distortion of the soil where biological activity, porosity and permeability are reduced, strength is

increased and soil structure partly destroyed. Soil compaction refers to the packing effect of a mechanical force on the soil. This packing effect decreases the volume occupied by pores and

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



increases the density and strength of the soil mass. Bulk density and water infiltration are the indices of soil compaction. Soil compaction can be associated with a majority of field operations that are often performed when soils are wet and more susceptible to compaction. Heavy equipment and tillage implements can cause damage to the soil structure. Soil structure is important because it determines the ability of a soil to hold and conduct water, nutrients, and air necessary for plant root activity. Soil compaction occurs when soil particles are pressed together, leading to increased density and reduction in soil pore space. Thus, physical structure of the soil finds it difficult to support and applied mechanical stress leading to lost of soil structural units, decrease in soil volume, increase in bulk density, decrease in porosity and reduction in hydraulic conductivity of the soil (as shown in figure 1).

Figure 1. Effects of compaction on pore space.

Compacted soils have reduced available water capacity. The change in pore space restricts root growth, and the gas exchange necessary for plant growth. Compaction restricts infiltration of water, increasing runoff and erosion, leading to the loss of valuable nutrients. Soil strength, cone index, bulk density, porosity, moisture content, erosion and runoff, poor plant growth and yields are the major parameters used as indicators of soil compaction. The problems of soil compaction are a global concern. As farmers continue to till the soil for the purpose of food and fibre production to meet the need of growing world population; prevention and alleviation practices should be taken into consideration to avoid the negative effects of soil compaction.

Types of Soil Compaction

1. Surface soil compaction: Surface soil compaction which occurs at a depth of 0-15 cm due to normal tillage operations

2. Sub surface soil compaction: Sub surface soil compaction which occurs at a depth of more than 15 cm.’

The Major Influencing Parameters to Cause of Soil Compaction as Follows

1. Compaction is caused by wheel or foot traffic on the soil and by soil tillage

2. Tire size, inflation pressure and wheel alignment

3. Tillage operations at wet condition and

Continuous tillage at the same depth 4. Heavy machines and Machine traffic 5. Minimal crop rotation and Pasture grazing

Effects of Soil Compaction

Compacted soils occur when the stress on the soil from farm equipment exceeds the ability of the soil to support that stress. The soil is “squeezed” into a smaller volume (i.e. compacted) at the expense of the larger soil pores. There are a number of symptoms that indicate hardpan soils viz., water ponding in the field following rainfall, uneven crop growth, and poor penetration of tillage implements and / or high draft (horsepower) requirement and plant roots growing sideways after they reach a certain depth in the soil.

Compaction causes unfavourable changes in soil bulk density, porosity and penetration resistance

Adverse effects of compacted soil horizons on plant root growth and concomitant poor plant growth.

Excessive soil compaction impedes root growth and plants, thus cannot explore the entire soil volume to meet their demand of soil moisture.

Compacted soil is a harsher environment for soil organisms (especially earthworms) to live in.

Phosphorus and potassium uptake can be reduced if root growth is inhibited.

Tillage equipment pulls much harder Decreased water storage which intern reduces

yield Decreased infiltration

Management for Reducing Soil Compaction

Use direct seeding practices to increase soil organic matter content, which will optimize soil structure.

Soil compaction increases soil density, reduces porosity and leads to increased penetration resistance and a degradation of soil structure.

Only traffic when soil moisture is low. Decrease contact pressure by using flotation

tires, doubles, or tracks. Decrease trafficked area by increasing swath

and vehicle width or by decreasing number of trips.

increase soil organic matter improve soil structure, improve water

infiltration and penetration into soil promote biological diversity Minimize inflation pressure in radial tires. Use radial tires

Conclusions: Keep protective residue covers on the soil surface to reduce the negative effects of rain or irrigation water causing soil crusting.

Reduce the wheel traffic load on the soil, which can be done by keeping axel loads to a

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



minimum. Minimize the field traffic areas on fields. Improve soil organic matter and soil structure,

and increase biological activity in soil by using best agronomic management practices.

Select appropriate tire and Use proper tire pressure.

Proper alignment of wheels and Reduce traffic of large equipment.

Use the flotation tires or tracks, or reduce tire inflation pressure.

Practice crop rotation to include forages with deep root.

References Prathuang Usaborisut and Tanya Niyamapa., (2010),

Effects of Machine induced soil compaction on growth and yield of sugarcane, at Location: Nakhonpathom, Thailand.

Mari. G. and Changying. (2008), Influence of agricultural machinery traffic on soil compaction pattern, Root development and Plant growth at location: NAU, China

Sanjay (2010), Effect of sub surface soil compaction on growth and yield of wheat crop Location: IARI New Delhi.

Voorhees, W.B., R.A. Young, and Leon Lyles., 1979, Wheel traffic considerations in erosion research. Trans. Am. Soc. Agri. Engg. 22:786-790.


Software Tools Used for Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems Siddesh Marihonnappanavara1* and Mareppa Hirekurubar2

1Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur; 2Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering,

UAS, Raichur – 584104.

INTRODUCTION: Presently, most of the energy worldwide is mainly supplied by fossil fuels. Nations worldwide are facing the problem of increasing energy demands and decreasing fossil fuel supplies. Researchers need to target new sustainable concepts of energy conversion considering both resources and machinery (Torsten et al., 2014). Many nations count on fossil fuels to meet most of their energy needs, but reliance on these fuels presents a challenge in the coming future, as fossil fuels are finite resources. Renewable energy resources, such as wind, solar and hydropower, offer clean alternatives to fossil fuels (Rehman et al., 2015).

Fig. 1. Representation of hybrid renewable energy system (HRES).

The hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) are usually comprised of two or more renewable and conventional energy sources (Ismail et al., 2013). These days, HRES have become popular to supply power for different types of grids connected or isolated applications. The increased reliability and environmental protection are some

of the important benefits of these hybrid systems. The use of PV hybrid systems to supply telecommunication stations is very popular due to the fact that numerous stations are located in rural areas and mountainous regions (Genwa and Sagar, 2013). The various available sources viz., wind energy has been adopted by industries and accommodated by individual users due to its availability, ease of maintenance, low cost of operation and maintenance (Fulzele and subrato 2012).

Types of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems

Photo Voltaic (PV) /Wind Hybrid System Photo voltaic /Hydro Hybrid System Biomass-PV-Diesel Hybrid System PV/Solar thermal/grid-connected hybrid

System

But, in most cases due to lack of optimum designing or proper sizing, HRES is over-sized or not properly planned or designed, which makes installation cost high. The technical and economical analysis of a hybrid system is essential for the efficient utilization of renewable energy resources. Due to multiple generation systems, hybrid system solution is complex and requires to be analyzed thoroughly. This requires software tools and models which can be used for the design, analysis, optimization and economical planning. Many numbers of softwares have been developed to assess the technical and economical potential of various hybrid renewable technologies to simplify the HRES design process and maximize the use of the renewable resources (Connolly et al., 2010).

Software Tools used for Hybrid Renewable Energy System Analysis

HOMER, Hybrid2, RETScreen, iHOGA,

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



INSEL, TRNSYS, iGRHYSO, HYBRIDS RAPSIM, SOMES, SOLSTOR, HySim,

HybSim, IPSYS, HySys, Dymola/Mode- lica ARES, SOLSIM, Hybrid Designer.

Advantages

Rural electrification where grid extension is not possible or uneconomic

More flexibility for future extension and growth

Number of generation units can be increased with demand so as to assure consistent operation with existing system

If there is excess generation than demand, it can be feed in to grid which leads to revenue generation

Higher reliability Since many sources are involved in power generation, its stability, reliability and efficiency will be high

Cost of thermal plant and atomic plant is high Majority of the renewable source based

electricity generation has minimum running cost and it is also abundantly available in nature

Reduced energy storage capacity especially where different sources have complementary behavior

Minimum levelized life-cycle electricity generation cost, when optimum design technique is used.

Limitations

Extracting maximum power is difficult for a constant load

Stochastic Nature of sources There is no unique viable method which is

used for conversion and utilization in some cases. Conclusion: Economic planning as well as

load management can be done with a greater

accuracy by using software tools. Homer software was found to be the best and most widely used tool for optimization of hybrid energy system. Under and over sizing of energy systems can be avoided with the help of software tools. Economic viability of different types of energy systems can be evaluated for a particular site.

References Connolly D., Lund H., Mathiesen B.V. and Leahy M.,

2010. A review of computer tools for analyzing the integration of renewable energy into various energy systems, Appl Energy., 87:1059–82.

Fulzele J. B and Subroto D., 2012. Optimum Planning of Hybrid Renewable Energy System Using HOMER, Int. J. Electrical and Computer Engineering (IJECE)., 2(1):68-74.

Genwa K. R and Sagar C. P., 2013. Energy efficiency, solar energy conversion and storage in photogalvanic cell. Energy Conversion & Management., 66:121-126.

Ismail M. S., Moghavvemi M and Mahlia T. M. I., 2013. Analysis and evaluation of various aspects of solar radiation in the Palestinian Territories. Energy Conversion and Management., 73:57-68.

Pragya N., Nema R. K and Saroj R., 2010. PV-solar or wind hybrid energy system for GSM or CDMA type mobile telephony base station, Int. J. Energy and Environment., 1(2):359-366.

Rehman S and El-Amin I., 2015. Study of a solar pv/wind/diesel hybrid power system for a remotely located population, Saudi Arabia, Energy Exploration & Exploitation., 33(4):591–620.

Torsten M., Nina A., Thilo H., Michael S., Norman P., Marina B., Heiko D., Brigitte K., Gerard K., Ursula S., Yasemin S., Antje W., Thomas H., Uwe R., Gunter S., 2014. Power generation based on biomass by combined fermentation and gasification. Bioresource Technology., 169:510–517.


Electronic Noses in Food Quality Assessment Manasa M and Shrinivas Deshpande

College of Agricultural Engineering, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka, India *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Currently there is a great interest in developing new techniques for food quality assessment. Food quality is a combination of attributes or characteristic data of a product, which have significance in determining the degree of acceptability of the product by the user”. At present there are great efforts in developing new techniques for assessing food quality. Quality control of product fragrance and flavour is based on the comparison of sensory, instrumental, analytical, and if necessary microbiological data, with standards and specifications. The “aroma” of a foodstuff is a complex mixture consisting of thousands of different chemical volatile species (chemical patterns). Analytical techniques allow

chemical patterns to be separated and the individual components identified and quantified. However, these techniques are complex, expensive, time consuming and they require a well-equipped analytical laboratory and a skilled staff. Chromatographic and spectroscopic analytical techniques (and their combination such as GC-MS) and sensory analysis are commonly used for quality assessment of food. On the other hand, sensory analysis provides the evaluation of foodstuff as a whole as deriving from the impact of its odours/flavours on human senses. Again, it’s very costly to maintain a skilled sensory panel, and there is a limit to the number of replicate samples which can be evaluated due to olfactory

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



adaptation to odours. Electronic nose is considered an attractive technique for evaluating food aroma.

An Electronic Nose (e-nose): The electronic nose is an intelligent sensing device that uses an array of gas sensors which are overlapping selectively along with a pattern reorganization component. The electronic nose identifies the specific components of an odour and analyzes its chemical makeup to identify it. An e-nose detects the smell more effectively than the human sense of smell. It consists of a mechanism for chemical detection. Now a days the electronic noses have provided external benefits to a verity of commercial industries, agriculture, biomedical, cosmetics, environmental, food, water and various scientific research fields. The electronic nose detects the hazardous or poisonous gas which is not possible to human sniffers.

Photo 1: Image of the portable Electronic Nose developed at IMM-CNR - Lecce (Italy)

Working of an electronic nose: An electronic nose consists of a mechanism for chemical detection, such as an array of electronic sensors, and a mechanism for pattern recognition, such as a neural network. With the term Electronic Nose is understood an array of chemical gas sensors with a broad and partly overlapping selectivity for measurement of volatile compounds within the: over a sample combined with computerized multivariate statistical data processing tools. The electronic nose has derived its name because in several aspects it tries to resemble the human nose. Human olfactory perception is based on chemical interaction between volatile odour compounds and the olfactory receptors (primary neurons) in the nasal cavity. The signals generated are transferred to the brain through synapses and secondary neurons and further led to the limbic system in the cortex where identification of odour takes place based on neural network pattern recognition. In principle, the primary neurons correspond to the chemical sensors of the electronic nose with different sensitivity to different odorous. The smells are composed of molecules, which has a specific size and shape. Each of these molecules has a corresponding sized and shaped receptor in the human nose. When a specific receptor receives a molecule it sends a signal to the brain and brain identifies the smell

associated with the particular molecule. The electronic noses work in a similar manner of human. The electronic nose uses sensors as the receptor. When a specific sensor receives the molecules, it transmits the signal to a program for processing, rather than to the brain.

Fig 1: Electronic nose block diagram

By chemical interaction between odour compounds and the gas sensors the chemical state of the sensors is altered giving rise to electrical signals which are registered by the instrument analogue with the secondary neurons. In this way the signals from the individual sensors represent a pattern which is unique for the gas mixture measured and is interpreted by multivariate pattern recognition techniques like artificial neural network, the brain of the instrument. Samples with similar odorous generally give rise to similar sensor response patterns and samples with different odorous show differences in their patterns. When the sensor patterns for a series samples are compared, differences can be correlated with the perceived sample odour. The sensor array of an electronic nose has a very large information potential and will give a unique overall pattern of the volatile components. In principle, both the electronic and the human nose operate by sensing simultaneously a high number of components giving rise to a specific response pattern. However, there are two basic differences between the human and the electronic nose that should be kept in mind. The electronic nose has both large differences in sensitivity and selectivity from the human nose. The sensors of an electronic nose respond to both odorous and odorless volatile compounds. Taking these constraints into consideration in the choice of sensors used for these instruments it is possible to design an electronic nose with a response similar to the human nose for specific compounds. Still, the mechanisms involved will be fundamentally different. In principle, the electronic nose can be applied to any product that gives off volatiles with or without smell provided that this occurs within the sensitivity range of the sensors.

Applications of E-Nose in Various Fields

Medical diagnostics and health monitoring Environmental monitoring Application in food industry

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Detection of explosive Space applications (NASA) Research and development industries Quality control laboratories

Process and production departments Detection of drug smells Detection of harmful bacteria


Safety Aspects in Agricultural Tractors *P K Mishra and Sunny Sharma

Assistant Professor, College of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Tractors are frequently involved in accidents leading to major physical injuries and even death. The tractor and trailers related accidents can be reduced by installing safety gadgets and by following safety guidelines during use.

1. Slow Moving Vehicle Emblems (SMVE): It is a fluorescent orange equilateral triangle with a red reflective border. It is to be fitted on rear side of tractor seat and on left and right rear side of trailer. The orange colour is visible in sunlight; whereas, red border reflects light when headlight of vehicle coming from rear side falls on it. The length of each sides of SMVE should be 44.5 cm but not less than 20.0 cm, if need be. Due to Government regulation all of new tractors being sold in India are fitted with SMVE.

2. Roll over Protective Structure (ROPS): A tractor with Roll over Protection Structure (ROPS) provides the safety to operator against being crushed under the tractor in case of accidental overturning. The ROPS have sufficient strength to bear safely the load of tractor in case of overturning. However, the driver must wear seatbelt to get benefit of ROPS.

3. Brakes: The tractor brakes should be in a good condition to stop it within desired distance. If the tractor is to be frequently operated with a loaded trailer, hydraulic brakes can be fitted on trailer too. The hydraulic brakes of trailer are coupled with tractor near the PTO link. The brake pedal of tractor, when pressed, activates the brakes of tractor as well as trailer.

Hydraulic pumb Trolley fitted with safety feature

Brake drum

4. Lights: The tractor should have all lights in full operational conditions. These lights include headlights, tail-lights, brake lights, reversing lights and turning indicators. The trailer should also have lights fitted on the rear side. These lights can be coupled with tractor in such a way that control switches provided on the tractor operates the tractor as well the trailer lights.

5. Safety guidelines during tractor trolley use: i) Don’t use intoxicants like liquor,

opium, etc. while operating. ii) Don’t make adjustments when tractor

is in operation. iii) Don’t put or take off belt while pulley

is running. iv) Don’t sit or stand at unsafe places

such as drawbar, mudguard, load, etc. when tractor is moving.

v) No person should mount or dismount from a tractor while it is in motion, except in an emergency.

vi) Don’t wear loose clothes, shoes, etc. vii) Put the gear, PTO to neutral and

lower the attached implements to ground before leaving the stopped tractor.

viii) Lock the brake pedals together when traveling on public roads.

ix) Stop at all unguarded railway crossings and make sure that no train is coming.

x) Operator should use a seat belt when operating tractor fitted with ROPS or cabin. It is strongly recommended that no seat belt be used if ROPS or cabin is not provided.

xi) To avoid sideway overturning of tractor, special care should be taken during driving at sharp slope, uneven, soft or slippery ground, alongside ditches or banks, during turning or

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



reversing. xii) To avoid tipping backward, special

care should be taken while driving heavy loads on a slope, soft ground, ditches or uneven ground. If necessary, front of tractor should be fitted with dead weights.

xiii) When traveling on public roads, keep

on the correct side of the road. Use light signals with intention to turn, stop or slow down.

xiv) While transporting farm produce, trailer should not be overfilled or over loaded.

xv) Use rear view mirror in properly adjusted angle.

91. POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT 17271

Value Addition of Walnut Kernels Poonam Sharma

Associate Professor, Division of Food Science & Technology, Sher-e Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar-191125


Jammu and Kashmir produces some 3.5 lacs quintals of walnut every year thus contributing around 98 percent of the total walnut output in India. Of this, The Kashmir valley alone produces 95 percent and the rest is grown in Doda and Kishtwar districts of the Jammu region.

Globalization has changed the economic, political, social and cultural system of nations across the globe. Phenomenon like urbanization, growing middle class, westernization, working parents etc. has contributed to the fast growth of walnut processing industry. There is a lot of interest in nuts globally and demand for walnut kernels is increasing and a lot more potential for value added products Presently in Jammu and Kashmir walnuts are mostly consumed as fresh in the form of walnut kernels and some broken kernels are being used by baking industry for development of walnut pastry, a novel product of Kashmir.

Walnuts are commonly referred as AKHROT in India and we consume walnuts in daily life.

Eating just one ounce of walnuts a day (that’s about 7 shelled walnuts) may be all it takes advantage of their beneficial properties.

Make Walnuts contain a number of neuroprotective compounds including vitamin E, folate, omega3 fats and antioxidants that support brain health, protects heart and improves digestive system.

Walnut kernels can be added from nourishing salads to delicious desserts.

Good quality dark chocolate packed with lots of chopped nuts, seeds and dries fruit make these a nutritious energizing snack bar.

Conversion of crop into value added product will improve economic returns of both grower and processor. Farming community as well as food processors will be benefitted by value added walnut products development technologies leading in reduction of wastage in walnut processing industry.

92. FOOD TECHNOLOGY 17270

Low Cost Food Warmer for Rural Use Poonam Sharma

Associate Professor, Division of Food Science & Technology, Sher-e Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar-191125


Kitchen is considered a heart of the home and on average Indian women spends 5-6 hours in kitchen which accounts for approximately on fourth of her lifespan. Her work in kitchen demands a high degree of physical efforts leading to over exhaustion and stress.

Rural women of all ages spend much of their day engagement in domestic chores including collecting water, firewood, processing and preparing food, travelling, transporting and care giving. The kitchen work is mainly performed with age old tools in adduces posture causing a lot

of drudgery and stress which not only impairs health of women but also affects the quality of life and work performance. Conveniently designed work areas along with the use of time and labour saving devices exerts minimum stress on homemaker and maximizes the efforts leading to increased productivity, improved work, worker and work place interaction with intervention of drudgery reducing devices in home is very crucial.

Since in Kashmir winter adds to the miseries and hardships of women by repeatedly heating up the food items to serve at different intervals of

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



time during the day as food items do not remain warm which is again a challenging job for her. A low cost food warmer is a new innovation to keep the foods ready to serve and for quick curdling which can prove beneficial for both rural and urban areas. A cheap and innovative warm cover using locally available material has been developed to keep the food warm up to 8 hours at room temperature. Process of making curd is a day long process and even hard especially during winter. Development of the technology was very much need of the hour to replace the old age tradition of covering the hot pot with warm blankets / woollen clothes. In winter food warmer has advantage of making the curd 3-4 hrs.

Food warmer is definitely one of the best options that we can think about and this low cost food warmer is not only easy to use but also very convenient to maintain. And we want to transport a readymade hot dish or keep food warm for a longer time without an oven, micro wave or stove we will need to use a food warmer to keep and serve food ready this low cost food warmer keeps food warm through insulated layers and will work to several hours. It can hold food at safe temperature for human consumption.

Material required: Sewing scissors, fabric weights, pencil, a ruler, warm cloth, polystyrene sheets (low cost food warmer filler) zipper and thread

Process: The dimension of the pattern pieces needed as desired by the consumer depending on the pot size is marked on the cardboard using the ruler and protractor and create a full size copy of

each piece. Accordingly warm cloth and insulating material of polystyrene sheets and cutting and sewing of the box is done. The small piece is the lid and the larger pieces are the body of the box. The low cost food warmer works on the principle of thermal mass and heat conduction through insulated layers and the food items remain warm up to 8 hours. During winter season curd making is a day long process and it takes only 2-3 hours for curdling in this developed low cost technology for rural women.

The developed innovation reduces time and drudgery of women and is hygienic, appealing, space saving easy to handle and manage. The low cost food warmer was designed for the rural women in Kashmir to save additional fuel for heating the food and this would be useful if there was no electricity. Once a dish is hot it can be moved to the food warmer for about 8 hours later with no additional fuel expended and the meal remains hot. The advantage of the technology in terms of utility was assessed through discussion with rural women and maximum number of respondents found beneficial. Women were trained in low cost food warmer making in order to start their own manufacturing unit. This low cost food warmer is gaining wider consumer acceptance and is in high demand in the market for daily use and thereby opening avenues for entrepreneurship development. These products have good demand and wider consumer acceptance and can become a remunerative enterprise for rural youth in Kashmir.

93. FOOD TECHNOLOGY 17353

Use of Acoustics as Non-Destructive Technique for Food Quality Assessment

Shrinivas Deshpande* and Manasa M.

College of Agricultural Engineering, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: The quality is comparative degree of excellence of a particular product. Quality is the combination both internal variables (firmness, sugar content, acid content and internal defects) and external variables (shape, size, external defects and damage) of the product. Increasing consumer demand for high-quality product has led to the development of novel technologies for quality assessment like optical, acoustic and mechanical sensors.

Presently these quality variables are assessed by destructive method in which the entire product sample is disturbed. Due adoption of destructive method of quality assessment, the loss of product quantity may takes. These traditional processes involve lot of chemical analysis, calculations and mainly time consuming. But processors are needed to measure these quality variables in a non-destructive manner to retain its inherent

characteristics. This problem initiates the researchers and manufacturers to develop non-destructive techniques.

Due to the technological advances over the past few decades have led to the evolution of several non-destructive techniques like image processing, visible and infrared light inspection, acoustic vibration technique, NMR technique and mechanical simulation capable of measuring product internal variables. Initially, these were developed to utilize in the laboratory, but have been fitted for on-line use. This article describes applications of acoustic vibration technique to measure or assess the quality of the food products.

Acoustic Vibration Technique

When an acoustic wave reaches a food product, the reflected or transmitted acoustic wave depends on the characteristics of the product.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Acoustic technology is often used to estimate product firmness along with other quality parameters. Acoustic firmness index is based on the relationship between modulus of elasticity and the resonant frequencies of vibration of the fruit. The acoustic vibration technique further classified according to sensors for vibration detection and excitation methods (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Classification of Acoustic vibration technique

There are two kinds of sensors: contact and noncontact sensors. Contact sensors are directly attached to the surface of the sample under examination. Such sensors that are commonly used include acceleration pickups and piezoelectric sensors. Noncontact sensors include microphones and optical sensors such as laser Doppler vibrometers (LDVs) and laser interferometers. The advantages of noncontact sensors are that they are totally non-destructive and exert no physical or mechanical influence; therefore, they do not damage the surface of a sample. The acoustic response technique for measuring fruit firmness has been studied with two different approaches: involving values within the audible spectrum (sonic) or using ultrasound.

The sound velocity of the vibration produced by the fruit hit by a plastic plunger, detected by two unidirectional microphones, was demonstrated to non-destructively assess the ripening stage of banana, mango and peach fruits, although it does not measure the same property as the penetrometer whereas the vibrational response of pear and persimmon fruits was sensed by means of a laser Doppler vibrometer and an acceleration pickup and the Elasticity Index, determined by using both signals, highly correlated with the results of a sensory test. The several studies reveal that the Acoustic Vibration Technique can be useful for predicting the optimum ripeness for edibility of these fruits but that the difference in texture attributes is explainable only in part by the frequency bands.

Components of the Acoustic Vibration Equipment

Basically the experimental setup consists of a platform over which the sample was placed. Sensitive sensors (contact type or non-contact type) like Microphone, piezoelectric sensors, Laser Doppler Vibrometer or any other sensors were placed either attached to the product or in

other indirect form to sense the vibration or frequency after applying the little force to the product. Force required to generate the vibration can be applied with the help of pendulum arrangement consisting of either ball or small probe. Then the quality parameters of the product can be determined by analyzing the frequency or vibration with the help of Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) analyzer. Typical experimental setup of Acoustic vibration equipment and all its components are shown in the Figure 2.

Figure 2. Experimental setup for excitation by impact and detection by piezoelectric sensor based acoustic vibration technique Applications of the acoustic vibration technique in quality

Conclusion: The development of cost-effective and practically well adapted non-destructive techniques for evaluating the perishable agriculture goods. Another approach is to gain a theoretically in-depth understanding of the acoustic vibrations of agricultural products. Although there have been studies on the vibrational modes of different shapes for instance, the vibrational characteristics of agricultural products, such as watermelons, that consist of two-layered spherical shells have not been fully analyzed. Understanding such dynamics would help in developing a methodology for obtaining inner quality information on agricultural products. The AVT used for quality estimation are simple, cheap and acceptable results were obtained, but non-destructive techniques do not necessarily measure the same quality attribute as their destructive counterparts. Moreover, the authors often observed poor relationships between acoustic firmness and non-destructive impact measurements were found to be highly sensitive to change in turgidity but less able to follow changes in ripening. Future studies should focus on the simultaneous use of different ND techniques. In such a way the resulting information is more complete and accurate than that obtained when an individual technique has been used.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



94. HUMAN HEALTH 17288

Why do I Feel Sick in Morning? Kirti M. Tripathi

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bulandshahr, SVPUAT, Meerut, UP

People usually understand the term morning sickness in terms of pregnancy induced nusea, tiredness, unpleasant feeling, palpitations and giddiness etc. But this is one side of the coin and it need to be analysed further for health purposes. Many a times most of us when, get up in the morning feel weakness, stiffness in body, heaviness in head and blurred vision etc. Now, here comes the point of attention, Many other reasons could be responsible for these conditions. As, The day progresses these symptoms start vanishing (sometimes persist also) by afternoon when body acquires a kind of relieved state.

Responsible Reasons for Morning Sickness

1. Anaemia- In anaemia, body doesn’t have required haemoglobin or fewer red blood cells. These are actually responsible to carry oxygen to every organ of body. Oxygen supply gets inhibited in such condition, which creates a feeling of lethargy to body. This mostly happens when body is released from the state of rest.

2. Hypothyroidism: When enough thyroid hormone is not produced by body it enters the state of hypothyroidism. This hormone is also known to control the metabolism. So, if low, symptoms of morning sickness may occur.

3. Heart Diseases: Due to any condition, if heart is not able to pump oxygenated blood to muscles and all the tissues of body symptoms like palpitations, dizziness and tiredness can occur.

4. Sleep Apnea: It can occur in day time as well as night. It can be considered as chronic condition in which there are pauses in breathing process. The person once enter this state takes seconds to get back into normal breathing rhythms. This can be disruptive to one’s sleep. Due to irregular breathing patterns, brain suffers from the insufficient supply of oxygen. Symptoms occur are morning headaches, irritability and anxiety etc.

5. Diabetes: Night is along fasting duration for a diabetic person. Insulin levels (which are insufficient) go remarkably down during night. Insulin helps glucose get into the body’s cells to be used for energy production. Insufficient insulin may cause the symptoms

of dizziness, tiredness, weakness and many a times nausea too.

6. Depression/ Anxiety: This state may cause abnormality in mind regulating chemicals called neurotransmitters in the brain. It tends to cause sleeplessness, mind swings and chronic deviations of minds which can cause sluggishness when wake up in morning. Also the digestion process gets disturb due to excessive anxiety. The anxiety in the other way restricts brain to send proper signals to body regarding secretion of digestive juices, thus the issues of morning sickness occurs.

7. Consumption of unhealthy fats and high sodium foods in night: Water retention is the major problem that body faces in such conditions. The water is hold by each and every cell when high sodium food is taken. That is why we sometimes realised that we are often thirsty after having oily and spicy meal. The after effects come as dizziness, heaviness in head etc.

Nutrients Responsible for Stress

Vitamin B5 supports the adrenal gland which reduces stress and anxiety levels. The sources of Vitamin B5 are meat, pork, chicken, fish, whole grains, dairy products, egg yolk, lentils, split peas, soybean, mushrooms, sweet potato, corn, cauliflower, kale and tomatoes.

Vitamin B9 (folate or folic acid) and Vitamin B12 are important in balancing out depressive moods. The food sources of Vitamin B9 are millets, sunflower seeds, almonds, leafy vegetables, citrus fruits and bananas.

Vitamin B1 is important for balancing blood sugar levels which are significant factors in anxiety levels. The food sources are all non-veg foods, peanuts, brown rice, whole wheat, mushroom, green peas and potatoes etc.

Magnesium has calming properties in the nervous system. It also relaxes the tight and overworked muscles. Leafy greens, seeds, nuts flaxseeds are some good sources of magnesium.

Vitamin D is extremely important for overall health and the deficiency is too much prevalent now a days. All the non-vegetarian foods, cheese, egg yolks, dairy products and orange juices are the sources.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



95. EXTENSION EDUCATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT 17201

Market-Led Extension: A Boon for Farmers Akanchha Singh* and Debashis Dash and Rupan Raghuvanshi

PhD Scholar, Department of Agricultural Communication, GBPU&T, Pantnagar *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Market-led-extension is an approach, through which extension system will reach to the clientele on an end to end basis, beginning from ‘package of practices’ for production to selling of produce to consumers’ door so that farmers can get remunerative prices for their produce (Mondal, 2013). This approach helps farmers in shifting from subsistence to profit mode and changing their role from being producer of crops to agripreneur of an enterprise.

Need of Market-Led-Extension

It is due to globalization and liberalization the demand of quality product gets enhanced and a change is observed in agriculture. The demand of quality product gets satisfied when farmers get inputs and resources according to their farming situation. A good extension system that is oriented toward marketing can fulfill the above said demand and help farmers from production to marketing of produce. This leads to the emergence of market-led-extension.

How Market –Led Extension is different from Producer-Led Extension

Market led extension is different from producer led extension in different aspects:

1. During initial approaches of extension farmers are considered as passive recipient of information and they are treated as ignorant. They are considered to have the responsibility of producing commodities and selling to consumer while market led extension visualize farmers as agripreneurs who can generate profit and pave path for others. Thus more respect is given to farmers through market-led extension approach.

2. The emphasis of production –led extension is on transfer of technologies to increase production whereas the focus of market-led-extension is to make farmers enable to get higher returns.

3. Production-led extension prefers same package of practice to an agro-climatic zone whereas market-led-extension prefers diverse package of practices suitable to different farming situations considering consumer preferences and needs.

4. While production-led-extension confine themselves to individual and progressive farmers, market-led-extension helps group of farmers in form of cooperatives, commodity interest group and SHGs.

5. The role of extension agent in production-led-extension is to transfer technologies and give

feedback to research stations whereas in market-led extension they are enriched with market intelligence and market news.

Role of Extension Professional in Market-Led-Extension

1. An extension professional do SWOT analysis of market and based on this he/she provides the consumer preferences details to the farmers as well as pros and cons of producing a crop.

2. Organization of farmers in groups in form of commodity interest group, cooperatives as well self-help groups are also functions of extension professionals.

3. An extension professional also motivate farmers to start their entrepreneurial venture and thus empower themselves.

4. An extension –professional establishes marketing and agro-processing linkage between farmers groups.

Advantages of Market Led Extension

Market-led-extension promotes elimination of middleman and thus indirectly reduces the exploitation of farmers. A large number of quality products considering consumer preferences and needs are possible because of market-led-extension. It also promotes group efforts in form of cooperatives, SHGs and commodity interest group for making farmers able to get higher returns. It is because of market-led-extension, extension professional get enriched with marketing knowledge and news.

Initiatives

Apni Mandi: The concept Apni Mandi came in 1987 in Punjab due to efforts of Punjab Mandi Board. Apni Mandi is a kind of direct marketing where consumers and farmers meet face to face and get mutual benefit by selling and buying product. This initiative is basically to eliminate middle man exploitation, and promote mutual benefit to both consumers as well as farmers.

e- NAM: This initiative came in 14 April, 2016 by Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India. National Agriculture Market (NAM) is a pan-India electronic trading portal which networks the existing APMC mandis to create a unified national market for agricultural commodities. The NAM Portal provides a single window service for all APMC related information and services. This includes commodity arrivals & prices, buy & sell trade offers, provision to respond to trade offers, among other services. While material flow (agriculture produce) continue to happen through

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



mandis, an online market reduces transaction costs and information asymmetry (https://enam.gov.in/NAM/home/about_nam.html#)

References https://enam.gov.in/NAM/home/about_nam.html# Mondal., S. (2013). Textbook of Agricultural

Extension with Global Innovations. New Delhi. Kalyani publishers


Farming Systems: Present and Future Scenario of in India I. Venkata Reddy

Ph.D., Scholar, Department of Agricultural Extension, ANGRAU

INTRODUCTION: World population has been increasing be leaps and bounds. India’s population is expected to reach 1370 and 1660m in 2030 and 2050 AD, respectively. The country’s food production has reached an all-time high of 204 m.t during 2000. Unlike the population spurt and corresponding food need for 2050, there is every chance that the land area under cultivation will decrease due to diversion of some of the cultivable area to buildings and industrial purposes. It is anticipated that the land area available for cultivation in 2050 would be 137 m. ha. So it becomes necessary to increase the productivity almost to double of what we are producing today.

By adopting the time concepts of farming system the productivity per unit area per unit time can be substantially enhanced. Farming system approach is one of the approaches wherein the risk in dealing with single component can be minimized, and at the same time increase the productivity through effective recycling.

The Indian economy is predominantly rural and agriculture oriented. In agriculture, 85% of the holdings are less than two hectares and the declining trend in the average size of the farm holdings, poses a serious problem. Majority of them are dry lands which depend on erratic monsoon rains. The rest of the area is cultivated with supplemental irrigation. The farmers concentrate mainly on crop production which is invariably subjected to a high degree of uncertainty in income and employment. To sustain the income and productivity, the farmer has to integrate ancillary propositions with crop production.

Present and Future Scenario of Farming System in India

Past experiences and present trends form a strong base for strategic planning for future. Indian agriculture has the responsibility of providing household food and nutritional security to its billion plus population. The declining trend of per capita land availability and shrinking operational holding sizes, however, pose serious challenges to the sustainability and profitability of our faring systems. The production system adopted during the Green Revolution era has subjected the natural resources to immense pressure. It requires a paradigm shift in our research agenda to

transform the “commodity centric” production system to resource conservation oriented system. Integrating locally available farm resources along with restoration of environment will be the key tenets of such a system. The farming systems approach (FSR) to agricultural research and development will accelerate agricultural growth and thereby provide leverage for transforming the poverty-prone rural India into a prosperous country.

By 2050, the world’s population will reach 9.1 billion, 34% higher than today and India will be the most populous country (1.6 billion) on the earth. Urbanization will continue at an accelerated pace (2.4%) and about 50% of the India’s population will be urban as compared to present 29.5%. In order to feed this large population, food production must increase by 48%. India ranks second worldwide in farm output but the economic contribution of agriculture to India’s GDP is steadily declining with the country’s broad-based economic growth. The contribution of this important sector to the national GDP is declining (14.6%. Still, agriculture is demographically the broadest economic sector and plays a significant role in the overall socio-economic fabric of India.

Declining Size of Operational Farm Holdings

Declining size of holdings without any alternate source of income has resulted in fall of farm income, thus causing agrarian distress. A large number of smallholders have to move to non-farm activities to augment their incomes. Under the changing scenario, a paradigm shift in research is inevitable with more focus towards small and marginal holders in Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) perspective.

In India, the average holding size is estimated to be 0.32 and 0.24 ha in 2030 and 2050 respectively. At present, 63 percent holdings are below 1 ha accounting for 19 percent of the operated area while over 86 percent of holdings are less than 2 ha account for nearly 40 percent of the area (APCAS, 2010). As per estimates, more than 95 % of the holdings will be under the category of small and marginal holders in 2050.

The small land holders are better contributors to the total production (78%) but weak in terms of generating adequate income and sustaining their

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



own livelihood. Small holdings (below 0.8 ha) does not generate enough income to keep a farm family out of poverty despite high productivity (Chand et al., 2011).

Small holders (<2 ha) contribute 49, 40, 29 and 27 percent of rice, wheat, coarse, cereals and pulses production respectively in the country which constitutes about 40 percent of food production (Fig. 1). Similarly, 28% of oil seeds, 46% of sugarcane, 51% of fruits and vegetables, 20% of cotton and 65% of jute are produced by small holders (Singh et al., 2002). The monthly consumption and income of marginal farmers has been estimated as Rs.2482 and Rs.1659 respectively whereas Rs.6418 and Rs.9667 for large farmers (Fig. 2). However, recent estimates indicate that 1.2 billion people live below the poverty line (earning about 1.25 dollars/day) in the world out of which one third live in India.

India is the second largest producer of wheat and rice and third largest producer of pulses, sugarcane, roots and tuber crops, vegetables, coconut, dry fruits, agriculture based textile raw materials, inland fish and eggs. The country has produced 258 million tonnes (MT) of food grains during 2011-12 surpassing all earlier records. Record production has been achieved in the case of rice (104.3 MT), wheat (93.9 MT), cotton (35.2 million bales), and sugarcane (357.7 MT) (MOA, 2012). The projected food demand in 2050 will be around 382 million tonnes to feed the projected population (Fig. 3). Hence, in the next 35 years, production of food grains needs to be increased at the rate of 8 million tonnes annually.

Fig. 1. Share of different farm holder in agricultural produce (Dev, 2012)

Fig. 2. Value of output from unit area at various farm holders (Dev, 2012) Present and projected food requirement

References APCAS. 2010. Asia and Pacific Commission on

Agricultural Statistics, 23rd Session (APCAS 10-28), 26-30 April 2010, Siem Reap, Cambodia.

Chand, R., Prasanna, P. A. L. and A. Singh. 2011. Farm size and productivity: Understanding the strengths of smallholders and improving their livelihoods, Economic and Political Weekly, 46(26 & 27).

Lal, R. and Miller, F.P. 1990. Sustainable farming for tropics. In: Sustainable agriculture: Issues and prospective. Vol. 1. (Ed) R. P. Singh. pp. 69-89, Indian Society of Agronomy, IARI., New Delhi.

Panda, S. C.; Leewrik, D. M. and Mahapayra, I. C. 1972. Production Potential and economic of Ten High Intensity one-year Crop Rotation in Sambalpur. Multiple Cropping: 102-108.

Panda, S. C. 2004. Cropping and farming Systems. Agrobios (India), Jodhpur. India.

Rangaswamy, A., Venkidusamy, R.; Jauanthi, C.; Purushothaman, S. and Palaniappan, S. P 1995. Integrated farming system for rice based ecosystem. Madras Agric. J 83:287-290.

Singh, R. B., Kumar, P. and T. Woodhead. 2002. Smallholder farmers in India: Food security and Agricultural policy. Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, Thailand RAP publication: 2002/03.

(http://bionica.org/classes- library/bio-intensive-method/).

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m




Market Led Extension: Enhanced Role of Agricultural Extension Personnel

K. Sindhu

Senior Research Fellow, CRIDA, Hyderabad *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Market Led Extension: The Need of the Hour

The paradigm shift of present Agriculture scenario especially in Indian context as well as globally spurs for all hands to be on desk to transform Agriculture sector to into worthwhile and profit oriented business through the intervention of Market Led Extension

Prospects of Market Led Extension

Market Led Extension has a great potential in paving way for optimum production on a sustainable basis considering the current trend of challenges in the process of food production globally. Over the years ‘lab to land’ had been much emphasized in our country now it is time to focus on farm to fork. Due to WTO, the countries around the world are no longer confined to domestic production alone. The countries with competitive advantages are looking forward to dump their output anywhere in world. However, with the new functionary role of extension personnel under Market Led Extension, future success can be guaranteed for Indian Agricultural Development. The following are some of the expected functionary roles of extension personnel in Market led extension.

1. SWOT analysis of the market: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats need to be analyzed about the markets. Accordingly, the farmers need to be made aware of this analysis for planning production and marketing

2. Supporting and enhancing the capacities of locally established groups under various schemes / programmes like watershed committees, users groups, SHGs, water users’ associations, thrift and credit groups. These groups need to be educated on the importance, utility and benefit of self-help action.

3. Organization of Farmers’ Interest Groups (FIGs) on commodity basis and building their capabilities with regard to management of their farm enterprise.

4. Establishing marketing and agro-processing linkages between farmers’ groups, markets and private processors

5. Enhancing the interactive and communication skills of the farmers to exchange their views with customers and other market forces for getting feedback and gain the bargaining during direct marketing

6. Advice on product planning: selection of crops

to be grown and varieties suiting the land holding and marketability of produce will be the starting point of agri-enterprise. Extension system plays an important role in providing information in this regard

7. Direct marketing: farmers need to be informed about the benefits of direct marketing.

8. Capacity building of FIGs in terms of improved production, post-harvest operations, storage and transport and marketing.

9. Regular usage of internet facility through computers to get updated information on market intelligence.

10. Organization of study tours of FIGS: to the successful farmers/ FIGs for various operations with similar socio-economic and farming systems as the farmers learn more from each other.

11. Production of video films of success stories of commodity specific farmers.

12. Publication of agricultural market information in newspapers, radio and Television besides internet

Therefore the above measures will empower farmers in both production and market oriented knowledge which is the sole responsibility of Extension functionaries through Market Led Extension

Challenges in Market Led Extension

Extension system is gigantic in size and is heavily burdened with multifarious activities. Adding to it is the gap in communication between the researcher and the farmer. Developing good market intelligence/ information is yet another challenge. Good market intelligence should be comprehensive, accurate, relevant, confidential, trustworthy, and equally accessible and timeliness. Agricultural goods are quite different from marketing goods. The main difference is they are perishable in nature. Supply is not regular because of seasonality in production. Farmers here have small land holding which gives scattered production and variability in quality of the products. Besides the factor that our is not in a position to reap the benefits of WTO through export, also one major threat our country is faces is unrealized opportunity in agricultural marketing, imports by our country, underexplored export opportunities for Indian products and distortion in domestic market.

Extension functionaries need to work more on

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



the area of marketing through the use of extension strategies in other to disseminate not only production but essentially marketing related information for holistic sustainable Agricultural development. Farmers should be sensitized on various aspects on quality, consumer’s preference, market intelligence, processing and value addition and other marketing information. This will help the farming community to realize high returns for the produce, minimize the production costs, and improve the product value and marketability.

Fig: The flow chart of Market Led Extension


Smart Phone App in Agriculture Vikas Kumar

M.Sc. Agricultural Statistics & Social Science, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya Raipur, Chhattisgarh, 492012, India.


Agriculture experts have brought smart farming technology than enable them to reduce costs, maximize, yields and increase profits. And there is perhaps a no better example of smart farming than with the “mobile app”. The use of information and communication technology (ICT) it support the transmission of localized information and services making farming socially economically and environment sustainable and contributing to the delivery of nutritious this comprise digital agriculture.

Smart Phone App:-

1. Data Logging and Management

Apps under this category assist farmers in maintaining data records associated with farm activities

This app generate various views and statistics to review organized data records

Some Relative’s App are:

a. Manure Monitor

This application assists a farmer in managing and logging data regarding manure

The great feature is that to create emergency plans and staring

b. Wireless Monitor

Crop monitoring tasks by regular data logging are provided

Information regarding pesticide spray, planting, ground preparation etc. Can be stored in the app and then reviewed categorically.

2. Agriculture Specific Calculation App

It contain prefer data and values according to which calculations are performed regarding agriculture information

This app highlight use of numerical input and

not much text information which helps to manage problem

3. News and Information Specific

This app provides news and information are highly useful and popular among users.

It provides seed price, equipment price, weathering forecast and additional knowledge.

4. Crop Doctor

It is an android based mobile application for the farmers in national level.

The objectives of this application is to wider reach and easy accessibility of crop information and service among farmers.

5. Vegetable Doctor

The vegetable doctor app keeps growers updated on Georgian disease of cucurbits.

The app lists the different types of disease, description, images and explain the proper way treat it.

6. Kisan Suvidha

Launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2016.

It provides information on current weather and also the forecast for next 5 days, market price of crop in nearest town, knowledge of fertilizers seeds machinery etc.

7. Pusa Krishi

The aim of this app is to provide information about new verities of crop which are released by IARI

8. Crop Insurance

The apps provide farmers to calculate insurance premium for notified crops and provides

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Information cutoff date It also use to get details of normal sum

insured extended sum insured premium details and subsidy information.

9. Agri Market

By this app farmers can get information related to price of crope in market within 50km of their own device location using agri market app.

10. Uzhavan App

This app provides a types of services about crop insurance on farm subsidies book farm equipment and related infrastructure and weather forecast for the next four days.

11. CC-Mobile App

It this app user can read environment metrics like temperature, humidity, wind, velocity,

and moisture remotely. The sensor reading is available through

SMS/Email alerts graphical and historical data.

12. Spray Guide

This app calculate everything amount of solute, amount of solvent, mixing time and spray areas.

13. IIFCO Kishan

It gives advice from agriculture experts, scientist and explore its library to know about crops, agriculture, cycle, agriculture field preparation, water management, disease control.

14. AG Mobile

This app designed to provide commodity market reports and agri news for farmers.


Role of Extension in Eradication of Malnutrition in India Pavan M K1 and Devegowda S R2

1M.Sc. Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Extension, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005; 2PhD Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Economics, Banaras Hindu University,

Varanasi-221005; *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

After the Independence, India was in greatest threat of feed the population and it highly depends on imports of food grain, so it was called as “ship to mouth”. After 1960 Government of India implemented several programs like for self-sufficiency but there is need for “Nutritional revolution” to eradicate malnutrition in India from root level.

Nutrition is the energy that is obtained by consuming balanced diet it contains six essential nutrients, any cause Malnutrition. Malnutrition has 2 types there are Under-nutrition and Over-nutrition. Under-nutrition includes stunted, wasted and under weighted whereas over-nutrition comprise obesity and over-weight, these malnutrition is harmful for all age people.

Indian Scenario in Malnutrition

Globally, 165 million children under the age of 5 years suffer from chronic malnutrition, or stunting, and Asia contributes to more than half (85 million) of these children. In India, according to the fourth National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4), one-third of Indian children are born with low birth weight, 38 percent of children below three years of age are stunted, 21 percent are wasted, and 36 percent underweight. Today India is one of the most malnourished countries in the world; more than 40% of the World’s under-weight children below five years live in India.

Role of Extension in Eradication of Malnutrition

The main reasons for the malnutrition in India are population of the country suffers from a high protein calorie deficit and there is inadequate

awareness and information. Due to lack of communication, diffusion of new ideas and technologies relating food habits and dietary patterns and high rate of illiteracy among rural people there is need of extension channels and specialists to reach the people at grass root level and motivate and educate them towards reducing malnutrition by fallowing means.

1. Agri-Nutri smart village model: It is started by division of extension education IARI New Delhi. The main components of model is nutri farming system, agri-nutri education, capacity building and SHGs based nutri forums and social learning. It was implemented in Baghpat district of U.P. and Sonipat district of Haryana. It includes awareness campaigns, field demonstration of nutri rich crops, encouraging nutri rich crop cultivation and encouraging processing and preservation of food products.

2. Nutrition Extension: NAAS in 2015 conducted program on “Strengthening Agricultural Extension Research and Education- the way forward” in this they identified nutrition education is major thrust area in order to provide proper awareness and education on nutrition and develop nutri smart villages to eradicate malnutrition from grass root level

3. Nutrition Education and Training: It is non-formal education to reach women and children in rural areas to give training and educate them in acquire knowledge about nutrition and its importance.

4. Training in home scale preservation of fruits

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



and vegetables: Preservation of fruits and vegetables and their consumption throughout the year increases dietary value in daily food and helps to earn additional income to poor people.

5. Mass awareness campaign: Conducting nationwide awareness campaign about nutrition andit’s important through krishi mela, exhibitions, seminars etc.

6. Mass media communications: It is the quickest form of communication to reach wider range of people, so by using mass media advertising nutrition related activates by public heroes and TV series and radio programs regarding nutrition and malnutrition

7. Motivating farmers to grow micronutrient rich crops: diffusion of ideas of growing micronutrient crops, coarse cereals which have high nutritional value.

Conclusion: Poverty is not basic reason for malnourishment percentage of population suffering from malnutrition is exceeding than percentage of below poverty line people. It is more often inadequate knowledge about nutrition and feeding practices of all level of people. So as we know “prevention is better than cure” we need to educate people regarding nutritional security, educating women and girl child to overcome the problems of malnutrition and maintain good health and nutritional status to avoid this malnutrition cycles from one generation to another by encouraging growing and usage of nutri-rich crops and micronutrient rich crops to reduce malnutrition completely.

Reference Vinayak, N. and Shiv, K., 2017, Agriculture and

Extension Policies in India. Indian J. Nutrition. World Health Organization, 2000, Nutrition in South-

East Asia, New Delhi, India.

100. ECONOMICS 17159

Agriculture Price Policy in India Palvi R. A.

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Economics, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Ahmednagar (MS)


INTRODUCTION: Price policy plays a pioneer role in the economic development of a country. It is an important instrument for providing incentives to farmers for motivating them to go in for production oriented investment and technology.

In a developing country like India where majority of the population devotes 2/3 of its expenditure on food alone and where majority of the population is engaged in agricultural sector, prices affect both income and consumption of the cultivators. The Govt. of India announces each year procurement/support prices for major agricultural commodities and organizes purchase operations through public agencies.

Need of Agricultural Price Policy

Undoubtedly, violent fluctuations in agricultural prices have harmful results. For instance, a steep decline in the price of particular crop in few years can inflict heavy losses on the growers of that crop. This will not only reduce the income but also dampen the spirit to cultivate the same crop in the coming year. If this happens to be a staple food item of the people, supply will remain below the demand.

This will force the Govt. to fill the gap by restoring imports (in case of no buffer stock). If, on the other hand, prices of a particular crop increase rapidly in the particular period, them the consumer will definitely suffer. In case, the prices continuously increase for the particular crop, this can have disastrous effect on the sector of the

economy.

Objectives of Agricultural Price Policy

The objectives of agricultural price policy vary from country to country depending upon the place of agriculture in national economy.

i) To Ensure Relation between Prices of Food-grains and Agricultural Goods: The foremost objective of agricultural price policy is to ensure the appropriate relationship between the prices of food grains and nonfood grains and between the agricultural commodities so that the terms of trade between these two sectors of the economy do not change sharply against one another

ii) To Watch Interests of Producers and Consumers: Price policy should keep a close eye the fluctuations within maximum and minimum limits.

iii) Relation between Prices of Crops: The price policy should be such which may sustain the relationship between the prices of competing crops in order to fulfill the production targets in respect of different commodities in accordance of its demand.

iv) To Control Seasonal Fluctuations: Another object of price policy is to control cyclical and seasonal fluctuations of price rise to the minimum extent.

v) Integrate the Price: The agricultural price policy should also aim at to bring the greater integration of price between the various regions in the country so that regular flow of

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



marketable surplus could be maintained and exports of farm products stimulated regularly.

vi) Stabilize the General Price: To stabilize the general price level, it should aim at increasing the public outlay to boost economic development in the country.

vii) Increase in Production: The agricultural price should aim at to raise the production of various commodities in the country. Therefore, it must keep balance between output and input required by the cultivations.

Types of Agricultural Price Policy

1. Negative Price Policy: In the context of the policy of accelerating economic growth, a “negative” agricultural price policy has been practiced by a large number of countries in the early stages of their development.

2. Positive Price Policy: In contrast to the above methods, a number of countries today follow what may be termed as the “positive” price policy which consists of light taxes on the agricultural sector and also assure the farmer of a fair price for his produce.

Such a policy is considered necessary in the context of the realization that unless the agricultural sector attains some critical minimum rate of growth.

Effects of Agricultural Price Policy

1. Incentive to Increase Production: Agricultural price policy has been providing necessary incentive to the farmers for raising their agricultural output through modernization of the sector. The minimum support price is determined effectively by the government which will safeguard the interest of the farmers.

2. Increase in the level of income of Farmers: The agricultural price policy has provided necessary benefit to the farmers by providing necessary encouragement and incentives to raise their output and also by supporting its prices. All these have resulted in an increase in the level of farmers as well as its living standards.

3. Price Stability: The agricultural price policy has stabilized the price of agricultural products to a greater extent. It has successfully checked the undue fluctuation of price of agricultural products. This has created a favorable impact on both the consumers and producers of the country.

4. Change in Cropping Pattern: As a result of agricultural price policy, considerable change in cropping pattern of Indian agriculture is needed. The production of wheat and rice has increased considerably through the adoption of modern techniques by getting necessary support from the Government. But the production of pulses and oilseeds could not achieve any considerable change in the absence of such price support.

5. Benefit to Consumers: The policy has also resulted in considerable benefit to the consumers by supplying the essential agricultural commodities at reasonable price regularly.

6. Benefit to Industrials: The agricultural price policy has also benefited the agro industries, like sugar, cotton textile, vegetable oil etc. By stabilizing the prices of agricultural commodities, the policy has made provision for adequate quantity of raw material for the agro industries of the country at reasonable price.


Agricultural Economics: How Doubling of Farmers’ Income is Possible Even with Small Landholdings

Shivani Dechamma and Shanabhoga M. B.

Ph.D. Scholars, Department of Agricultural Extension, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-65

India’s policy focus recently changed from increasing farmers’ output to their incomes. This is much needed, as farm profitability in India is among the lowest in emerging Asian economies. The strategies proposed for doubling farmers’ income include planting better seed varieties/hybrids, improved production practices, diversification towards high-value crops, development of infrastructure and market linkages, and providing access to institutional credit. However, a major impediment to the success of these strategies is small farm sizes. NITI Aayog member Ramesh Chand, in a 2017 policy paper, advocated collective action for minimising the scale disadvantages faced by small and marginal farmers. The Farmer Producer

Organisation/ Company approach is one way to enable them to improve their bargaining power, by pooling resources and linking them to the market.

The Small Farmers, Large Field (SFLF) model is founded on the same principles of aggregation and achieving economics of scale, through strengthening backward and forward integration along the supply chain and lowering costs by synchronizing key agricultural operations from field preparation to harvest. The SFLF was conceptualized in Vietnam in 2011. SFLF model has taken different forms in Vietnam. Some are formal, with farmers physically pooling their land and setting up companies that operate like private businesses. The shareholders here are farmers

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



themselves. But there are also many informal SFLF entities, wherein farmers have retained their individual holdings and come together only for synchronisation and harmonization of select agricultural operations to improve efficiency and lower costs.

In the 2016/17 rabi season, we piloted an informal version of the SFLF model in Koppal district of Karnataka. Our first exercise was to explain to farmers there the SFLF concept and its benefits. Many of them were not convinced; they felt that it would mean giving up the freedom to do farming on their own. However, some of the progressive farmers helped us in convincing their colleagues of the potential benefits from working together. Finally, 54 of the 90 farmers in the village agreed to participate in the pilot project. These farmers, with a combined landholding of 90 acres, selected an eight-member committee to coordinate with the project team.

The first significant decision the farmers made was to grow a single paddy variety and procure its seeds from a certified producer. In the previous season, they cultivated as many as five varieties and sourced the seeds from diverse entities. That included saved seeds of their own or taken from other farmers, and also fresh material procured from a government-owned agency or research institute.

The second step that the farmers took was setting up mat nurseries to prepare paddy seedlings in nine patches, with the largest one serving 30 acres. It took some effort to assemble the farmers into nine groups, based on their individual field locations, irrigation tube-wells, canals and relationship with one another. Earlier, the 54 farmers were individually raising nurseries on small pieces of land.

We worked with the committee to also line up input suppliers and service providers, to negotiate lower rates. The SFLF group assessed the fertiliser requirement of every farmer and placed a single order with the Indian Farmers’ Fertiliser Cooperative (IFFCO). IFFCO was then induced to supply fertilisers at below its normal retail price and deliver it at the farmers’ doorstep.

Before the season started, we invited local rice millers and explained our pilot project to them. They were willing to pay a premium for the paddy

produced, due to the ease of milling a single variety. We further facilitated a meeting between a combine harvester service provider and the SFLF committee. He agreed to charge Rs 2,000 per acre, as against the Rs 2,500 rate that the same farmers had paid the previous season. The farmers also spent less on nursery bed and land preparation, crop establishment, and purchase of herbicide and pesticide. They incurred more cost only on fertiliser and storage of the harvested paddy. The expense on fertilisers was higher, despite lower prices negotiated with IFFCO, only because farmers believed that the high-yielding ‘Bina 11’ variety being grown by them required additional nutrients. They, therefore, applied more quantity of fertiliser than before. Storage costs, too, went up simply because the average paddy yield was 27 per cent higher, hence requiring more number of bags than earlier!

Before harvest, we contacted the same millers. The SFLF committee chose the one based on both the paddy price he was offering and his reputation. The price they got was Rs 1,300 per tonne higher than the prevailing market price. Based on data from each participating farmer at the end of the season, we estimated their average per acre profit at Rs 24,830, as compared to Rs. 12,130 in the 2015/16 rabi season.

But monetary benefits apart, there was also time and energy savings. The participating farmers were vocal about the time they saved by having group seedbed nurseries and synchronized transplanting. They also mentioned the time and money saved from fertiliser being delivered at their doorstep. In the 2017/18 kharif season, the number of farmers went up from 54 to 77, with many from the nearby hamlet joining the group. The total acreage, too, rose to 171 acres.

The above SFLF model seems an attractive option for small farmers to increase incomes. They are able to achieve scale through harmonizing and synchronizing select farming operations and enhancing their bargaining power in input purchases as well as output sales. But our experience suggests that the scalability of this model is not automatic. Any new group formed will require hand-holding, facilitation and technical support for one or two seasons. But once that is in place, it can sustain for a longer time.


Coordination of Dairy Supply Chain Management Arnab Roy* and Deepa M P M

Ph.D. Scholar. University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: This kind of endurance in such business environment can only be achieved by means of organized supply chain coordination. In this paper, we investigated empirically the major factors affecting supply chain coordination in milk

and dairy industries. Based on an extensive literature review, the study created 15 measured variables and offered a comprehensive model to examine four key constructs.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Table 1: Mean, SD, Corrected item-to-total correlation and Communality for key Coordination indicators.

Variables Mean S.

Deviation total

correlation

Harmonization of conflict

5.43 0.62 0.879

Quantity flexibility 5.33 0.65 0.945

behavioral obstacle 5.23 0.68 0.879

Decentralized decision

5.41 0.56 0.912

New product development

5.35 0.64 0.838

Price fluctuation 5.54 0.59 0.956

Organizational interdependence

5.12 0.54 0.937

For each of the item scales, factor analysis was applied to reduce the total number of items in manageable factor. A principal component analysis is applied to extract factors with an eigenvalue greater than 1. Varimax rotation is employed to facilitate interpretation of the factor matrix. KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin) measure of sampling adequacy also examined to validate factor analysis. The KMO value was estimated around 0.801 which indicates sampling adequacy.

While Commercial urban farm are more attractive and they sell their milk directly to consumers on much more attractive price. Generally in West Bengal processing of milk is handled by formal channel or food processing firms. There are different sorts of processed milk such as pasteurized milk, liquid milk, UHT milk in tetra pack. Similarly there are some other processed milk products i.e. Chees, Ice cream, Yogurt and Butter. Although, informal channel produces Lassi which is very popular in India as well as West Bengal. Beside this informal channel used milk for sweets and khoya etc. This formal and informal channel of milk distribution framework of supply chain depicted in Fig.1.

Where,

MC = Milk Collection Agency Center

DF = Dairy Farmer

PP = Milk Processing Plant

R = Retailer

CO = Consumer

T = Traders Distributor, Retailer

Milk collectors (Gawala) have been playing important rules in collection, marketing and distribution of West Bengal dairy sector supply chain. Milk Collector community has been increasing rapidly and it crossed a million in number. Generally this community has been divided into three classes such as small milk collector that individuals collect about 250-400 kg milk per day from various remote areas of West Bengal.

Concluding Remarks

In previous decades the main and crucial stages of the supply chain such as procurement, production and distribution seem to have been dominantly managed independently. But the accessibility of excess inventories, intense competition, and market globalization were forcing firms to enhance their supply chain capabilities that can promptly respond to consumer preferences.

References Ravi SA, Gundlach GT (1999) Legal and Social

Safeguards against opportunism in Exchange. Journal of Retailing 75: 107-124.

Rajiv PD, SchuL PL (1992) Conflict Resolution Processes in Contractual Channels of Distribution. Journal of Marketing 56: 38-55

National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO). 1992. “Land and Livestock Holding Survey: NSS 48th Round.” NSSO Report 408.


Agriculture NPA Mess in India Devegowda S R*1 and Pavan M K2

1PhD Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Economics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005; 2M.Sc. Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Extension, Banaras Hindu University,

Varanasi-221005. *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

India is sixth largest economy with fastest growing rate in the world. Agriculture having vital role in Indian economy contributing about 54% of population still dependent on agriculture contributes about 17% gross value added to Indian economy. NPA is major problem in agriculture sector according to Reserve bank of India loan which principal installment or interest not paid more than 90 days that loan will be considered as

Non-Performing Asset. This concept was introduced by RBI as per recommendation of the Narashiman Committee in 1992-93. NPA defined in agriculture is that short period crops like jowar, paddy, bajra where installment loan or interest not paid for 2 crop seasons and for long duration crops, above would be 1 crop season from due date will considered as NPA. Recently Reserve Bank India announced about non-performing

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



asset in agriculture raised to 23% in the financial year 2017 which amounted Rs 60,200 crore from Rs 48,800 crore in 2016, this figure is doubled when compare to Rs 24,800 crore in 2012, This shows agriculture facing bad debt.

Reasons for NPA in Agriculture

1. Fragmentation of Agricultural land: Majority of Indian farmers are small and marginal holding, about 23% land held by small, marginal and agriculture labour. Zamindari system and division of land among family members reduce this leads to fragmented land holding among the Indian farmers.

2. High waste due to inadequate storage and marketing: About 7% food grains, 10% seeds and 25% to 40% food and vegetable waste every year due to lack of storage and marketing facility indirectly responsible raise in NPA.

3. Significant dependence on Monsoon: About 75% cultivated area in India still dependent on agriculture, irregular rainfall cause damage to the agricultural production. Traditional method cultivation along with irregular rainfall cause high risk and low productivity cause NPA.

4. Inadequate Extension Services: Unavailability scientific research and new knowledge to farmers through extension reduce production and yield which indirectly responsible for the NPA in agriculture.

5. Government Policies: Government policies like loan weaving due to political interest promote farmers not to pay loan back to bank this cause the NPA in the bank.

6. Mandatory requirements by government: After nationalization mandatory requirement of the banking sector to issue 18% credit to agriculture sector make easily availability of credit availability to the farmers.

Suggestions to Reduce NPA in Agriculture

1. Less wearers and more contributors: Government should avoid loan weaving formula for the purpose political issue need to

focus on real problem of farmers help by channelizing the research and development at present 0.6% to 0.7% of GDP to research and development need to increase his present.

2. Fair price to farmers: Government started integrating marketing through e-NAM in 2016 but implanted and at present situation not changed than the previous. Need to implant this scheme for the purpose of getting fair prices to the farmers.

3. Financing for playhouses: Playhouse farming reduce the crop loss due to irregular and erratic climatic condition which indirectly act as assurance for the crop loss and increase yield to famers, at presently around 50 to 90% subsidy in many states, need to promote this by providing more subsidy.

4. Agriclinics: Agriclinics should setup and provide service to the farmers regarding technology, market trend, clinical service for animal heath, pest and disease management etc. integrated service should provide by these agriclinics make farmer better income by increasing repayment capacity.

5. Documentation and Post-harvest credit: Proper document verification, physical assets and post credit fallow-up and post-harvest credit should be carried by lending bank to deduce non-performing assets.

NPA showing continuously increasing trend recent years, cause mess in the Indian financial sector. Reducing this NPA is necessary for maintain the confidence for saving persons economy for this reason Bank officers, farmers and government should take step to reduce this NPA in Agriculture and overall growth of farmers in sustainable manner.

References Arpita Baijal. High Ratio of Agriculture NPAS In

Priority Sector Lending By Public And Private Banks In India – Reasons, Suggestions And Discussions. International Journal of Science and Research 2013; 4(1): 2319-706.

Financial Express, Newspaper Publication on 10th January 2018.


Goods and Services Tax (GST); Impact on Indian Economy Preethi V. P.1 and Anusree Padmanabhan P. S.2

1Ph.D. Agril. Economics., Department of Agricultural Economics; 2Ph.D. Agril. Entomology, Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University,

*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected], [email protected]

Goods and Services Tax (GST) is a broad based and a single comprehensive tax levied on goods and services consumed in an economy. The main aim of implementing GST is ‘One Nation, One Tax, One Market’. It is basically a tax on final consumption. In simple terms, GST may be defined as a tax on goods and services, which is leviable at each point of sale or provision of

service, in which at the time of sale of goods or providing the services the seller or service provider may claim the input credit of tax which he has paid while purchasing the goods or procuring the service. For transactions within a state, there will be two components of GST – Central GST (CGST) AND State GST (SGST) – levied on the value of goods and services. Both the

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Centre and the States will simultaneously levy GST across the value chain. In the case of inter-State transactions, the centre would levy and collect the Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST). The IGST would be roughly equal to CGST plus SGST.

Impact of GST on Different Sectors

Food Industry: The application of GST to food items will have a significant impact on those who are living under subsistence level. But at the same time, a complete exemption for food items would drastically shrink the tax base. Food includes grains and cereals, meat, fish and poultry, milk and dairy products, fruits and vegetables, candy and confectionary, snacks, prepared meals for home consumption, restaurant meals and beverages. Even if the food is within the scope of GST, such sales would largely remain exempt due to small business registration threshold. Given the exemption of food from CENVAT and 4% VAT on food item, the GST under a single rate would lead to a doubling of tax burden on food.

Housing and Construction Industry: In India, construction and Housing sector need to be included in the GST tax base because construction sector is a significant contributor to the national economy.

FMCG Sector: Despite of the economic slowdown, India's Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) has grown consistently during the past three – four years reaching to $25 billion at retail sales in 2008. Implementation of proposed GST and opening of Foreign Direct Investment (F.D.I.) are expected to fuel the growth and raise industry's size to $95 Billion by 201835.

Rail Sector: There have been suggestions for including the rail sector under the GST umbrella to bring about significant tax gains and widen the tax net so as to keep overall GST rate low. This will have the added benefit of ensuring that all inter – state transportation of goods can be tracked through the proposed Information technology (IT) network.

Financial Services: In most of the countries GST is not charged on the financial services. Example, In New Zealand most of the services covered except financial services as GST. Under the service tax, India has followed the approach of bringing virtually all financial services within the ambit of tax where consideration for them is in the form of an explicit fee. GST also include financial services on the above grounds only.

Information Technology Enabled Services: To be in sync with the best International practices, domestic supply of software should also attract G.S.T. on the basis of mode of transaction. Hence if the software is transferred through electronic form, it should be considered as Intellectual Property and regarded as a service. And if the software is transmitted on media or any other tangible property, then it should be treated as goods and subject to G.S.T. 35 According to a FICCI – Techno park Report. Implementation of GST will also help in uniform, simplified and

single point Taxation and thereby reduced prices. Small Enterprises: There will be three

categories of Small Enterprises in the GST regime. Those below threshold need not register for the GST. Those between the threshold and composition turnovers will have the option to pay a turnover based tax or opt to join the GST regime. Those above threshold limit will need to be within framework of GST Possible downward changes in the threshold in some States consequent to the introduction of GST may result in obligation being created for some dealers. In this case considerable assistance is desired. In respect of Central GST, the position is slightly more complex. Small scale units manufacturing specified goods are allowed exemptions of excise up to Rs. 1.5Crores. These units may be required to register for payment of GST, may see this as an additional cost.

Positive Impacts of GST in India

GST will also help to build a transparent and corruption free tax administration.

GST is backed by the GSTN, which is a fully integrated tax platform to deal with all aspects of GST.

GST also has an optional scheme of lower taxes for small businesses with turnover between INR 20 to 50 lakhs. It is called the composition scheme. It has now been proposed to be increased to 75 lakhs. This will bring respite from tax burdens to many small businesses.

Removing cascading tax effect, simpler online procedure under GST, defined treatment for E-commerce and regulating the unorganised sector.

Negative Impacts of GST

GST Rate Is Higher Than VAT: New proposed GST rates are higher than the previous VAT rates on the goods. The price of some goods and services will be increased after implementation of GST.

Dual Control system: In this new GST system, the dual control system is introduced. According to this system, the GST is divided into two categories that were controlled by the state and central governments.

Some Sectors Will have Negative Impact: Some of the sectors are having benefits of excise duty fee and no tax additions. After GST, such sectors will face negative impacts and will face the loss as GST tax amount.

Conclusion: GST is the most logical steps towards the comprehensive indirect tax reform in our country since independence. GST is leviable on all supply of goods and provision of services as well combination thereof. All sectors of economy whether the industry, business including Govt. departments and service sector shall have to bear impact of GST. All sections of economy viz., big, medium, small scale units, intermediaries, importers, exporters, traders, professionals and

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



consumers shall be directly affected by GST. One of the biggest taxation reforms in India -- the Goods and Service Tax (GST) -- is all set to integrate State economies and boost overall growth. GST will create a single, unified Indian market to make the economy stronger. Experts say that GST is likely to improve tax collections and Boost India’s economic development by breaking tax barriers between States and integrating India through a uniform tax rate. Under GST, the taxation burden will be divided

equitably between manufacturing and services, through a lower tax rate by increasing the tax base and minimizing exemptions.

Reference Kumar, N., 2014. Goods and Services Tax in India: A

way forward. Global Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 3(6).

Lourdunathan, F. and Xavier, P., 2017. A study on implementation of goods and services tax (GST) in India: Prospectus and challenges. International Journal of Applied Research, 3(1), pp.626-629.


Pradhan Mantri Annadata Aay Sanrakshan Abhiyan: A New Umbrella Scheme to Empower Farmers

Arghyadeep Das1* and Shruti Mohapatra2

1PhD Scholar, Dairy Economics Statistics and Management Division, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal; 2PhD Scholer, Department of Agricultural Economics, Orissa University of Agriculture

and Technology *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

On September 12, the Centre announced enhanced crop price support for oilseeds, pulses, wheat & paddy, through the Pradhan Mantri Annadata Aay Sanrakshan Abhiyan (AASHA). The Cabinet has sanctioned Rs 15,053 crore to implement the PM-AASHA in the next two financial years, of which Rs 6,250 crore will be spent this year. The credit line for procurement agencies had been enhanced by providing additional government guarantee of Rs 16,550 crore, taking the total to Rs 45.550 crore. The move follows increasing farmer unrest across the country as prices of many key agricultural commodities have fallen below their minimum support price. The three different components of the scheme will cover gaps in the procurement and compensation mechanism for crops and help boost farmers’ income.

What is it?

The AASHA scheme has three components, and these will complement the existing schemes of the Department of Food and Public Distribution for procurement of paddy, wheat, other cereals, and coarse grains where procurement is at MSP now.

The first part is the Price Support Scheme (PSS). Here, physical procurement of pulses, oilseeds and copra will be done by Central Nodal Agencies. Besides NAFED, Food Cooperation of India will also take up procurement of crops under PSS. The expenditure and losses due to procurement will be borne by the Centre.

The second leg is the Price Deficiency Payment Scheme (PDPS). Under this, the Centre proposes to cover all oilseeds and pay the farmer directly into his bank account the difference between the MSP and his actual selling/modal price. Farmers who sell their

crops in recognised mandis within the notified period can benefit from it. This would be implemented for up to 25% of the oilseeds production in a state. Madhya Pradesh had successfully implemented the PDPS. The government mentioned that the PDPS was on the lines of Madhya Pradesh government’s Bhavantar Bhugtan Yojana (BBY), but will protect oilseeds farmers only.

The third part is the pilot of Private Procurement & Stockiest Scheme (PPSS). In the case of oilseeds, States will have the option to roll out PPSSs in select districts where a private player can procure crops at MSP when market prices drop below MSP. The private player will then be compensated through a service charge that will be up to a maximum of 15% of the MSP of the crop. Direct procurement by private sector should help in improving transparency in price discovery for farmers’ income by increasing competition for their produces and reducing inefficiency by curtailing role of the middlemen.

Why is it important?

Recently, the Centre announced a hike in MSPs for several Kharif crops. It said that it will pay farmers the cost of production (as determined by CACP) plus a 50% profit while procuring farm produce. But not many farmer groups were happy. Except for paddy, wheat, and selected cash crops where there is direct procurement by the industry, government-driven procurement is almost nil in other crops such as oilseeds, with the result that the MSPs remain only on paper.

The AASHA scheme tries to address the gaps in the MSP system and give better returns to farmers. It also promises to plug the holes in

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



the procurement system through PDP. If effectively implemented, the scheme will

result in savings for the Centre. In the current physical procurement, government agencies end up stock-piling food grains, incurring storage costs and significant wastage and leakages as well.

What are the possible benefits?

AASHA points to an innovative, MSP-plus approach to the problem of non-remunerative prices.

The different components would cover the gaps in the procurement and compensation mechanism for crops.

It will also help revive the rural economy by assuring better income to farmers. With better prices across crops, the new scheme may ensure crop diversification and reduce the stress on soil and water.

In the current physical procurement, government agencies end up stock-piling food grains. This results in incurring storage costs and significant wastage and leakages as well. So, if effectively implemented, the AASHA scheme will result in savings for the Centre. As there is no need for going through the hassle of physical procurement, storage and disposal.

What are the challenges and possible ways out?

PDPS - The experience of Madhya Pradesh which implemented the PDPS under the Bhavantar Bhugtan Yojna last year.

Ground level checks revealed that traders plotted with each other and depressed the prices at mandis.

They forced farmers to sell at lower prices and pocketed the compensation from the government.

Many small and marginal farmers are unable to sell their produce under the Bhavantar scheme. They face the double burden of lowered price and no compensation. So the key here will be the implementation as failure to create a system of checks and balances can

derail them.

PSS - The PSS would be easier to implement, with nodal agencies doing the procurement. However, providing funds would be a key challenge for the Centre.

The state governments consider it financially burdensome. If all States apply to NAFED/FCI for procurement of oilseeds or pulses, the agencies will fall short of funds.

The states may also find it hard to implement it from the current kharif marketing season. The Centre needs to figure out how to handle procurement and disposal efficiently.

PPSS - The PPPS may work, but private procurers may be suspicious of the Centre’s delayed payments. To ensure that AASHA works, the Centre first needs to break the trader lobbies at mandis. This could be done by widening the competition by inter-linking mandis. e-NAM promises to do so, but, States need to be proactive in undertaking regulatory reforms.

Why should we care?

Our own food security depends on whether farming remains a remunerative activity for the future. The Centre’s age-old procurement and MSP system needs a relook because of its many shortcomings. Research by NITI Aayog and other research outfits has shown that the reach of the current MSP procurement system is very poor both in terms of geography and the crops covered.

Despite thousands of crores of public money being spent in MSP operations every year, farmers’crisis continues. If implemented well, the new system may help revive the rural economy by assuring better income to farmers. Unlike the current system where farmers repeatedly go for the few crops, such as paddy, wheat and sugarcane, where MSP is effective, the new scheme may ensure crop diversification and reduce the stress on soil and water.

106. VETERINARY 17257

Poultry Farming Under Cold Arid Conditions of Leh-Ladakh: Challenges and Opportunities

Dr. Nazir Ahmad Mir

Subject Matter Specialist (Animal Science), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Leh-Ladakh, SKUAST-K *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Leh-Ladakh is the cold arid region of Jammu and Kashmir State of India with an average altitude of 3500 m ASL. The climatic conditions of the region are very harsh in terms of low rainfall, low humidity and temperature variation from -40 °C to +35 °C. Due to high altitude the environment is

hypobaric with an average 30% less oxygen tension as compared to the sea level. Due to combined effect of high altitude and hypobaric environment, the raising of fast growing broiler birds is not possible yet; however various other strains of poultry can be raised with certain

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



modification in poultry house and raising practices. As the region experiences severe cold during half of the year, the dependence on animal protein source is more, but due to unavailability of locally produced poultry more than 98% of poultry meat and eggs are being imported and hence the cost of poultry meat remains high and at the same time only frozen poultry meat is available.

Establishment of hatchery and thus hatching of chicken eggs is not a profitable venture at high altitude like Leh- Ladakh as various factors affect the hatchability of chicken eggs including:

1. Reduced oxygen (O2) availability or atmospheric O2 tension

2. Excessive loss of carbon dioxide (CO2) 3. Excessive water/weight loss by the incubating

embryos.

So all the day old chicks are being purchased from outside Leh-Ladakh. Currently backyard poultry rearing of some dual varieties is being practiced by some local farmers (Photo.1) and the families of Tibetan refugees (Photo.2)

Photo.1: Backyard Poultry Rearing By Local Farmer of Leh-Ladakh

Photo. 2: Backyard Poultry Rearing By Tibetan refugees

There are very few poultry farms in this region rearing some dual purpose poultry birds for egg and meat purpose, but all farms are small scale (Photo.3). The poultry birds are reared for egg production and at the age of 18 months to 2 years the birds are sold for meat purpose @ Rs 1000 to 1500 per bird irrespective of weight of bird

especially during winter months (Photo.4). This indicates that there is vast scope of poultry farming in Leh- Ladakh region.

Photo. 3: Small scale organized poultry farm owned by local farmer of Leh-Ladakh

Photo.4: Ready to sale poultry bird reared by local farmer of Leh-Ladakh (Approx. cost Rs.1200)

Establishment of solar based hatcheries has been tried by the scientists of Defense Institute of High Altitude Research (DIHAR), Leh- Ladakh. However, hatchability rate is poor and not economic enough for setting hatchery and day-old chick’s production at Ladakh. DIHAR scientists have taken new initiative to establish a pressurized normobaric hatchery having facilities to monitor oxygen, carbon dioxide concentration, relative humidity, and temperature as per the climate of Ladakh. This facility may enhance hatchability at high altitude

Similarly Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) Stakna, Leh-Ladakh has started screening of various dual purpose high altitude strains of poultry to check the feasibility of different high altitude dual strains of poultry under Leh-Ladakh condition along with possible modification in the poultry houses to fulfill the command of local environment.

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m



Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m

Don

nloa

ded

from

: ww

w.a

grob

ioso

nlin

e.co

m

Documents

Donnloaded from: