Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Animal consciousness is still a m a t t e r o f t a b o o i n t h e conventional field. Indeed, the Cambridge Declarat ion of consciousness in animals has not deeply influenced conventional attitudes and accepted welfare protocols. In this edition we focus on why animals really matter. Indeed, theories abound r e l a t i n g t o b e h a v i o r a l -evolutionary concepts of animal behavior. However, very few embrace the idea that animals have true interiority. This requires a mind shift in the s c i e n t i f i c r e a l m f r o m o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n a n d compartmentalization to free observation from an integrated
world view. Indeed, this requires the ability to avoid projections with an expanded understanding of the dynamic in te rp lay between the environment , physiology, mental processes a n d r e s u l t i n g e m o t i o n a l expressions. It is easy for humans to interpret behavior through their own filtered understanding. However, neutral observation for the sake of viewing the animals perspective is largely unaccepted and/or considered soft. This edition will begin to widen and deepen the net of understanding from an integrated and wholistic view.
Chiara Marrapodi
Jour
nal Of
Animal Consciousness
The Journal of Animal Consciousness is edited and produced by Chiara Marrapodi Founder of The Society for Animal Consciousness.
The Journal of Animal Consciousness is produced free to the community. It is the first Journal of its kind and incorporates an integral approach. Providing a blend of scientific and philosophical theses on Animal Consciousness and related topics.2016
The Society for Animal Consciousness™
Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
Table of Contents:
Why Animals Really Matter? - Dr Marc Bekoff, PhD 2
Equine Assisted Psycho-therapy and Learning through Goethean Science - Sarah Reagan 5Dying for your pleasure - Chiara Marrapodi, MA 26
Do Horses Suffer from PTSD-like Symptoms - Chiara Marrapodi, MA 29
Can smiling be bad for you? 45- Sarah Reagan
Editors Note
www.societyforanimalconsciousness.org1
All articles are copyright of the author concerned and reprinting is authorized by the Editor and Author only. © The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016.
Discussions about "Why animals matter" are extremely important even
when we're faced with global climate change and economic and
environmental disasters that strongly impact human well-being. For more
dicsussion please see an interview I just did with Forbes. Here I ask, "Do
nonhuman animals matter because they're conscious or because they're
good for us or because they're both. I don't think either being conscious
or good for us or both should weigh in on why other animals really
matter.
In a recent essay for Psychology Today psychologist Hal Herzog claims
we really don't know if a close relationship with other animals is good for
us. He notes that the results for studies that have focused on the
relationship between living with a companion animal and human health
are confusing and conflicting despite media hype about how good it is for
us. Whether other animals, including wild individuals, really do anything
positive for us remains to be studied and we need conservation
psychologists to weigh in on this although many argue they (animals and
other nature) are good for us (see here) and The Oxford Handbook of
Environmental and Conservation Psychology.
Photographic Credit and copyright www.freedigitalphotos.net Ia
Source: http://fcmconference.org/#talks
Why Animals Really Matter
Dr Marc Bekoff, PhD
Proclamation of the Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness in Non-Human Animals at the Francis Crick
Memorial Conference, Churchill College, University of Cambridge
University, Cambridge 7 July 2012, watch video below.
Revisiting the animal consciousness debate.
The Society for Animal Consciousness™
2016
2
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
Herzog concludes:
"The fact is that many studies of the positive effects of
pets on people do not pass the replication test.
Further, pop science writers (of which I am one) are
often guilty of only covering the good stuff when it
comes to the animals in our lives. For example,
newspapers accounts of the Minnesota study only
reported that cat owners had lower death rates. They
neglected to mention that dog owners and even
present cat owners were no better off than people
without pets. So you might want to dig a little deeper
the next time you read that playing with a poodle will
unclog your arteries and heal a broken heart."
Other researchers clearly disagree with Herzog. For
example, in her recent book Why Animals Matter,
Marian Dawkins concludes that we still don't really
know if other animals are conscious so the reason
they matter is because of what they can do for us. She
writes (p. 184), "We need to rethink our view of those
millions of non-human animals, not just in regard to
what (sic) they are in themselves, but also in how our
own futures are inseparably bound up with
theirs." (Throughout Dawkins refers to animals as
"that", "what", and "which" rather than "who".)
Skepticism and denialism about science
I call Dawkins' militant skepticism and agnosticism
about animal consciousness Dawkins' Dangerous
Idea because her denial about the significance of the
plethora of data that clearly show that nonhuman
animals are conscious can easily be used by those
who choose to harm animals. Indeed, this sort of
denialism about what we already know also shows its
face in discussions about climate change. Why some
people continue to deny or ignore data produced by
solid science baffles me, although it's clear there are
political and other agendas. Some who work to
increase animal welfare are paid by companies that
have strong economic interests in raising animals for
food or using them in other venues and we shouldn't
let animals suffer as a result.
So, why do animals really matter?
Clearly we have a problem brewing in that Hal
Herzog isn't so sure that animals do much good for us
and Marian Dawkins doesn't think we really know
they're conscious. I'm glad I'm not her dog. Currently,
existing information about animal consciousness is
(some may say seems to be) more convincing than
data that show that animals are good for us (although
I'm not as skeptical as Herzog). Skeptics should err on
the side of the animals because the data on
consciousness are so convincing and consistent with
Charles Darwin's ideas about evolutionary continuity
namely, if we have something so do "they" (other
animals).
If we accept Dawkins' claim that we really don't know
if animals are conscious her belief that they matter
because of what they can do for us and that we should
appeal "to people's self-interests" (p. 115), a brand of
(too) strong anthropocentrism, is, according to
Herzog's analysis, weak, and leaves animals out in the 3
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
open for being used and abused. Skeptics and
denialists can then say something like, "Well,
animals may not be conscious and they aren't really
good for us so we can do with them whatever we
choose." We can rest assured that solid science, at
least on animal consciousness, firmly supports our
efforts to offer more protection to the billions of
animals who are abused in myriad ways.
I think it's pretty simple. While some people can
forever ponder if animals are conscious or if they do
anything good for us one fact is undeniable — they
exist. And because they exist they matter regardless
of global climate change and economic and
environmental disasters that strongly impact human
well-being. End of story.
About the Author
Marc Bekoff, PhD
Marc Bekoff, Ph.D., is a former Professor of Ecology
and Evolutionary Biology at the University of
Colorado, Boulder, and co-founder with Jane
Goodall of Ethologists for the Ethical Treatment of
Animals. He has won many awards for his scientific
research including the Exemplar Award from the
Animal Behavior Society and a Guggenheim
Fellowship. Marc has published more than 1000
essays (popular, scientific, and book chapters), 30
books, and has edited three encyclopedias. His books
include the Encyclopedia of Animal Rights and
Animal Welfare, The Ten Trusts (with Jane Goodall),
the Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior, the
Encyclopedia of Human-Animal Relationships,
Minding Animals, Animal Passions and Beastly
Virtues: Reflections on Redecorating Nature, The
Emotional Lives of Animals, Animals Matter,
Animals at Play: Rules of the Game (a children's
book), Wild Justice: The Moral Lives of Animals
(with Jessica Pierce), The Animal Manifesto: Six
Reasons For Increasing Our Compassion Footprint,
Ignoring Nature No More: The Case For
Compassionate Conservation, Jasper's Story: Saving
Moon Bears (with Jill Robinson), Why Dogs Hump
and Bees Get Depressed: The Fascinating Science of
Animal Intelligence, Emotions, Friendship, and
Conservation, and Rewilding Our Hearts: Building
Pathways of Compassion and Coexistence. In 2005
Marc was presented with The Bank One Faculty
Community Service Award for the work he has done
with children, senior citizens, and prisoners. In 2009
he was presented with the St. Francis of Assisi Award
by the New Zealand SPCA. His homepage is
marcbekoff.com and with Jane Goodall http://
www.ethologicalethics.org/.
4
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
Equine Assisted
Psychotherapy and Learning through
Goethean ScienceSarah L. Reagan
Photographic Credit and copyright www.freedigitalphotos.net
5
AbstractThe Equine Assisted Psychotherapy & Learning (EAP/L) profession is a fairly recent development and spans both the equine industry as
well as the mental health (psychology) profession. The Cambridge Declaration of Animal Consciousness was seen as a ‘boost’ in the
profession, validating what many people had been saying regarding sentience and consciousness in animals. However, this has led to
anthropomorphic misunderstanding of the animal. I assert the underlying issue is that mainstream biological science has not completely
come to terms with human consciousness nor can scholars completely agree on a definition of consciousness, so it is paradoxical to assign a
human level of consciousness to a broad range of animals on a comparative basis without first having a concrete definition of consciousness
in humans. Philosophically, the question remains – is it even possible to really know what consciousness is? I do not believe this is
possible within a Cartesian-based science. However if we approach the subject from within Goethean science, a comparative understanding
of consciousness can be initiated ‒ one that is beneficial across species boundaries and one that gives meaning to the term consciousness.
Much as Goethe saw that the whole ‘comes into being through its parts’, this paper is a ‘coming into being’; it has an intentional flow from
beginning to end. I begin with a brief historical and current overview of the state of equine assisted therapy, then re-introduce the horse as a
sentient being from within the basics of Goethean science and a phenomenological understanding of nature. With the ability to see from
within that perspective, the reader is then given new insight into what some potential issues are for both the horse and the human patient/
client as they currently exist within the EAP/L profession. Finally we look at a model of a holistic and phenomenological approach to
equine assisted therapy. This last section will introduce the concept of weak/analytical and strong/synergistic relationships as part of the
phenomenological approach to equine assisted therapy.
This paper is prepared with the intention to provide an overview of several concepts that will be new to many within the profession. It is
acknowledged they are explored at a basic level without fully expanding any particular one.
This paper concentrates on the equine psychotherapy/learning segment (referred to as EAP/L), and not hippotherapy which is defined as
therapeutic riding therapy. Use of the generic term of ‘equine assisted therapy’ generally refers to both psychotherapy and/or coaching
(learning) sessions; it is noted there can be a distinction between the two. This paper will not concentrate on the use of other animals in the
overall Animal Assisted Therapy/Activity field except where needed for clarification.
Keywords: Equine assisted psychotherapy, equine assisted learning, animal assisted therapy, consciousness, animal welfare, phenomenology, Goethean
science, Wolfgang Schad, Rudolf Steiner. Contact: [email protected].
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
Introduction
Consciousness in animals came to the forefront just a few years ago when the Cambridge Declaration of Consciousness (henceforth, ‘Cambridge Declaration’) was signed in July 2012. It proclaims the support of various scientists that non-human animals (from now on referred to as “animals”) have consciousness and awareness to the degree that humans do. The list of animals includes “all mammals, birds, and many other creatures, including octopuses”; these animals were deemed to have a nervous system capable of consciousness (Safina 2015, p. 23). The research upon which this Declaration was based utilized a materialistic approach, primarily examining and measuring responses within the neurobiological substrates of conscious experience in the animals. The irony is that some of the underlying research that led to the conclusions outlined in the Declaration was based upon experiments conducted upon animals held in captivity, including dolphins.1
The Declaration was seen as rather incredulous by many scientists, and lay people alike, as what it was stating had seemed obvious to many for a number of years.2 We come from a recent philosophical history that tells us animals are non-thinking, soul-less creatures – basically automata – so perhaps this was indeed a bit of a surprise to many people. It has only been since the mid-20th century that sentience has been recognized in animals.3 Yet, according to Duncan, a detailed review of history gives us a different story: at least in mammals there has been an acceptance of sentience for centuries among philosophers such as da Vinci, Shakespeare, Francis Bacon, and others (Duncan 2006). On the other hand, Duncan equates Aristotle with René Descartes when he says “there is a clear line of philosophic argument for non-sentience from Aristotle through Thomas Aquinus [sic] and Rene´ Descartes to Immanuel Kant” (Duncan 2006, p. 12). What is not understood here is that Aristotle said “that only humans had rational souls, while the locomotive souls shared by all animals, human and nonhuman, endowed animals with instincts suited to their successful reproduction and survival”. (Allen and Trestman) [emphasis mine]
It was Jeremy Bentham, the English social reformer, who got to the crux of the matter, asking the questions: “The question is not Can they reason? or Can they talk? but Can they suffer?” (Bentham 1823, p. 311) [emphasis original]. Operating on instinct for a significant portion of one’s life does not equate to lack of thinking, feeling, and willing;
any animal that can feel suffering is conscious. This history of animals being automata is primarily rooted in the philosophy of René Descartes (1596-1650). It was during the mid-1600s that he introduced via his masterpiece, Meditations, what has come to be known as ‘dualism’. For Descartes, the world was only knowable through the activity of reason. He saw a dichotomy between consciousness and matter, being essentially two different substances that can only be brought into cohesion externally. This is what has become known as the Cartesian Duality, or the mind/body split problem.4 Descartes denied sentience to animals, effectively rendering them ‘reflex machines’. This philosophy held sway among the majority of scholars until the mid-20th century when Donald Griffin argued that animals are conscious much as human beings are in his book, The Question of Animal Awareness (1976, Rockefeller University Press).
As discussed more thoroughly in the following section, the ‘discovery’ of consciousness in animals has been seen as a boost to the equine assisted therapy profession. The current state of EAP/L concentrates primarily upon the benefit to the human patient/client. In recent years there has been some acknowledgement of the impact upon the horse in human-centered therapy situations. In this paper I maintain that this acknowledgement does not go far enough when we consider the animal from a phenomenological perspective. From that perspective, I will address the impact to the horse as a result of equine assisted therapy for humans. I will also address some of the potentially negative impacts upon the human patient/client as a result of the typical analytical view of the horse. Then I conclude with an outline as to a phenomenological and synergistic approach to equine assisted therapy. To do this, I bring in several concepts that are not normally associated with the horse world in general nor with EAP/L specifically.
The first major one is to view the horse through the lens of Goethean science with regard to both living form and consciousness. In these sections, the reader is introduced to the concept of viewing the organism through the three major processes that organize the body. These processes are distinct, yet they interpenetrate each other. This is the idea that metamorphosis in the animal is expressed spatially through threefoldness of the organism, and that space and time permeate each other in the living form as development occurs. This is the concept that the living form is always presencing, yet changes over time. For an
6
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
understanding of consciousness we can look again at Goethe’s work, and particularly as developed out through Rudolf Steiner and his concept of the four-fold organization. His work showed us that understanding the differences between animal and human consciousness is much more than just neural substrates.
The second major concept is understanding the lifeworld of the horse. Within this concept I introduce five overarching determining factors that we can use to assess the welfare of the horse at any given time, in any given situation. While it is obviously vicarious to completely understand horses’ lifeworld from their perspective, through the foregoing concepts of threefoldness and the four-fold organization, we can come to imaginative perspective in true phenomenological understanding in this regard.
The third overall concept is that of relationalities. For this I briefly introduce the work of Slife, Wiggins, Seamon, et al. Relationships are the framework of psychology and thus equine assisted therapy, and in fact, we could say that is true of all of life. Relationality is generally distinguished into two forms: weak and strong, the terms of which are explained in the closing section of this paper. It should be noted that I use a couple of terms interchangeably: weak and analytical; strong and synergistic. While these terms can mean the same they also may carry slightly different meanings depending upon the context one is speaking within. I stress that the importance within equine assisted therapy is recognizing that any given ‘parts’ (e.g. patient/client and horse) are in actuality identified by the contextual relationship at that given time. This is to recognize the dynamic flow of changing relationships. The further importance of a relational ontology is being able to see how the foregoing two broad aspects of threefoldness and the four-fold organism may mold and shape the relationship as it flows from the horse’s side of the partnership once the therapy session is engaged. Furthermore, the understanding of contextual relationships from these existentially-based phenomenological aspects are important toward understanding how a therapy session may be structured so as to respect both the human’s needs as well as those of the horse. Even though the concept of relationalities is rather restricted in this paper, it is important to understanding what true phenomenological psychology would look like, and I attempt to show that what is commonly referred to as phenomenological psychology is in actuality a weak or analytical relationship. I assert that to continue viewing the horse/human relationship within this analytical understanding of relationality will not allow us to fully engage the dynamics of the human/equine relationship,
and that in fact, the human/equine relationship has traditionally been very much weighted in favor of the human. Understanding the horse and his lifeworld from this phenomenological perspective will allow us a better advantage point with which to discern this and thus incorporate these aspects into the human/equine encounter.
It is acknowledged that none of these concepts are fleshed out in their entirety – to do so would take a rather voluminous book! It is the intent of this paper to introduce these concepts with EAP/L in the effort to open curiosity and further discussion. In many ways this paper is critical of the extant EAP/L profession, however it is not without resolution.
Equine Assisted Therapy – Then and Now
Horses have been a part of human culture and have been used by humans for various functions for thousands of years; numerous recent anthropological findings continue to move the initial horse-human relationship back in time. Equestrian sporting activities have existed since at least ancient Roman and Grecian empires, with horse racing becoming an established professional sport by the mid-17th century. While the initial stages of the industrial revolution actually brought about an increase in work for horses, including even more varied jobs, the machine age eventually caused a decisive shift in the human-equine relationship. No longer were horses needed for mobility purposes and their job as farm workers declined to the point that today we typically only see novel uses of horses working on the farm. After the industrial revolution was firmly established and machines replaced literal horse power humans began to shift their focus, relating to horses as routes for leisure. Thus pleasure riding along with various sporting activities became much more dominant. In recent years, a new segment has emerged, that of using horses in various human therapeutic functions. Various labels are applied: Equine Assisted or Facilitated Psychotherapy (EAP/EFP) is utilized primarily within the psychotherapy field; and Equine Assisted or Facilitated Learning (EAL/EFL) is utilized mainly in the business or personal coaching area. Others may use variations of these names, such as Intermediate Intervention, etc. For the purpose of this paper, I will use the terms ‘Equine Assisted Psychotherapy’ and ‘Equine Assisted Learning’ (EAP/L). Horses are also now being utilized in physical therapy such as with young handicapped children involving short riding sessions, typically with two people in attendance – including at least one physical therapist and (hopefully) someone who is familiar with equine behavior patterns. The use of horses in human therapeutic situations is a part
7
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
of the overall Animal Assisted Therapy/Activity (AAT/A) field which is first credited to child psychologist, Boris Levinson in 1962 in which he used his own dog in therapy sessions (Levinson 1962). Animal assisted therapy gained more popularity in the mid-late 1990s, primarily with dogs first, then horses and other animals becoming popular therapy tools shortly after. AAT/A actually has a longer, undocumented history with the earliest reported use with mentally ill patients being in the late 18th century at the York Retreat in England, led by William Tuke (Wikipedia 2015a). According to one researcher, the Europeans began equine assisted therapy in the 1960s, with it appearing in Italy in the 1970s (Dimitrijević 2009, p. 237); however, the main focus appears to have involved what the Americans termed hippotherapy (i.e. riding therapy).
With the advent of more professionals adding animals to their repertoire of psychotherapy skills, various organizations began to form for the express purpose of establishing safety standards, developing instructor training, and offering certification and/or accreditation. One of the first organizations was the Delta Society – now Pet Partners, formed in 1977 in Portland, Oregon. Initially they were known for canine assisted therapy although this has changed and they take many different species under their umbrella, including horses. In 1996, a branch of the National American Riding for the Handicapped Association (NARHA) called the Equine Facilitated Mental Health Association (EFMHA) was formed.5 Their purpose was to solely use horses in therapy. In 1999, another organization, the Equine Growth and Learning Association (EAGALA) was formed in response to increasing interest in the field. PATH Int’l (part of which was formerly the EFMHA) and EAGALA remain the two most prominent organizations that have developed high standards and professionalism in the field of EAP/L (Frewin and Gardiner 2005). Their scope of membership was initially in North America, primarily the United States, but both organizations now have members worldwide. According to the PATH website, participation of a licensed therapist in sessions “usually” occurs; there is no mention of a two-person team being required (as of this writing).6 The EAGALA model requires both a mental health professional and an equine specialist be present during equine assisted therapy sessions, and no ridden work is to be involved.7
Pet Partners distinguishes between animal assisted ‘therapy’ and ‘activity’, with the latter being defined as a more casual interaction between human and animal with the ability to be provided to a broader range of people than therapy [and not requiring facilitation by a licensed individual]. However these two areas are often conflated,
with studies not providing sufficient information about the way the animal was used, essentially creating a blur between the two (Marino 2012). Therefore, perhaps this distinction between ‘therapy’ and ‘activity’ is more theoretical than empirical, and my own experience would suggest that, particularly within EAP/L. Furthermore, my experience also suggests that the model of a two member therapy team is not always followed as required by EAGALA, with either a licensed individual as the sole facilitator, or – more commonly – a non-licensed person (e.g. a horse owner) being in the business of conducting equine assisted learning sessions on their own.
Many people have used the Cambridge Declaration to affirm what they ‘had already known’ about their animal companions. The animal assisted therapy profession seemed to display a ‘jump on the bandwagon’ approach to the announcement, and given my years in practicing and teaching holistic equine care, the EAP/L segment in particular struck me as using the Declaration as a confirmation for the healing power that horses seemingly have upon humans. The notion is pervasive within EAP/L that horses possess some kind of mystical power with which they can absolve humans of their emotional ills and perceived shortcomings. Now that horses have been declared to possess consciousness by science, this ability is validated as a psychotherapy ‘tool’ almost as much as the traditional counseling session, as is evidenced by ~481,000 hits on a web search for ‘equine assisted therapy’. Historically, the horse/human relationship is rich with healing metaphors (Frewin and Gardiner 2005). We find words attributed to the human interaction with horses such as – mystical, Zen-like, magical, spiritual, ethereal, and so on. There is a persistent romantic idea that just being around a horse can carry a human to a place of healing and nirvana, that horses have this other-worldly ability to ‘cleanse’ us humans emotionally and spiritually. They seem to have this ‘magical’ ability to help us overcome our daily work-related challenges and relieve us of stresses. I would have to say that is a huge responsibility for one being – human or not! The human species, never seemingly satisfied with present conditions, appears to always be striving toward a place of Pleroma – a place of fulfillment. Horses, like all non-human animals, live in the present tense and I think that is one characteristic that gives them the seeming ability to relate to humans in this almost magical way. They are indeed majestic creatures – who can resist the soft muzzle and kind eye of a horse? Who can resist that gentle nicker-greeting when you’ve had a bad day? And perhaps more than anything, their present-ness simply grounds us humans. I, for one, cannot imagine life without horses! But is there a cost to the
8
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
horse from participating in this kind of structured, intentional therapy? This is a question that must be asked.
Many EAP sessions are aimed toward the adult with various emotional/psychological issues, including substance abuse and crime victim rehabilitation; some facilities concentrate solely on these same issues in younger generations – teens and pre-teens. There is also movement within the US prison system to use horses in prisoner rehabilitation. Equine Assisted Learning sessions are generally conducted under the framework of ‘life coaching’, such as in corporate/business coaching. Unless the particular facility is operating under the EAGALA model, they may also utilize riding therapy; a web search shows that most facilities appear to utilize the EAGALA model to some degree even if not certified by that organization. Therefore, a typical equine assisted therapy or coaching session may begin with some structured ground exercises done as a team effort or individually. For example, trying to get a horse to move from point A to point B, or perhaps getting the horse to follow you. Other times, a session may begin with simply being in an enclosed area with the horse and allowing the human to observe the horse and vice-versa with some exploratory questions tendered by the therapist or coach. It is not unusual for a client to have a display of intense emotion during a life-coaching session, and structured psychotherapy sessions can find patients becoming quite emotional.
Language used within this industry is very sensorial and emotive - “mirror”, “reflective”, “discovery”, “experiential”; we are told that the interactions with the horse can present us with metaphors that reflect or put us “in touch” with our “real” daily lives. One of the mantras in equine assisted therapy is that there should be no expectations; the human is coached to “let go”, do not expect anything. Yet the entire profession is built upon the basic expectation that one can use another sentient being to assist a healing process of some kind within the human. So we are essentially interacting with a highly sensitive being within a basic contradiction. Would this not have the potential to cause some amount of conflict in a sensitive, consciously-aware animal from the very beginning? Many people that have participated in equine therapy sessions have been helped in some way by them. These people speak of the “magic” of horses and how they can “take” people to places of enlightenment and absolution; based upon my experiences with my own horses, I do not doubt this. But this “healing” has the distinct potential to come from the taking of something out of or away from another being. It is recognized in the profession that horses should not be “used” in therapy
sessions without at least one day ‘off’ during a given week. That policy in itself speaks volumes.
Equine facilitated sessions are generally done within a restricted area such as an arena, round pen, etc.; many times only one or two horses are used depending upon the situation. Horses are very much a social species and they can form deep attachments with their herd members over time; they can as well form attachments to humans. Even though some patients/clients may become ‘regulars’ in these so-called healing sessions, they typically do not interact enough with any one horse to nurture any kind of lasting inter-species bond. A restricted area is typically utilized for safety purposes; yet the result is that the horse has no escape route unless the handler specifically allows it. In other words, the handler has to be cognizant and empathetic enough to know when to remove the horse from what could become a potentially emotionally stressful situation for them. The reality is that any benefit to the patient/client generally takes precedence in these situations and the horse may be ignored as the attention is turned to resolving the human issues. The result being the horse is subjected to prolonged periods of forced ‘human directed’ therapy in an enclosed area. It is through knowledge of the living form that we can begin to understand the emotional impact upon the horse in any kind of therapy situation.
What is Gothean Science?
The Enlightenment period gave us scientists and philosophers such as Newton, Descartes, Galileo, Bacon, Locke, et al. While they all differed in their individual philosophies to varying degrees, their works shaped and molded our current quantitative, materialistic approach within the sciences. Modern science attempts to understand the world and everything in it through a veil of mathematics breaking it down into parts, quantitatively analyzing each phenomenon in (primarily) artificial settings in attempt to understand cause and effect, with the ultimate purpose of prediction and control. This is a science in which human perception is regarded as untrustworthy. It is one in which the methods to achieve the results have become the ends in themselves rather than a means toward extrinsic value (Robbins 2005, p. 115).
In the century following the birth of the Enlightenment period (~mid-17th century), Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) gave us another approach to scientific investigation – a participative one that makes a distinction between living, growing, developing forms, and dead ones.8 Modern science on the other hand loves to perform scientific investigations by dissecting dead organisms and/
9
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
or by taking things apart. Goethean science does not look at just an interconnected set of actualities but also considers a holistic structure of possibilities. Goethean science is formed out of reciprocity for each phenomenon being studied. Goethe wrote: “Natural objects should be sought and investigated as they are and not to suit observers, but respectfully as if they were divine beings” (Seamon 1998, p. 2). The basis of Goethe’s scientific investigations was direct experiential contact; this was largely ignored by his contemporaries and even criticized outright as being subjective or as a form of philosophical idealism. Our experiencing the world as subjective and objective is an artifact of consciousness, not a fact of the world, and we find that the inextricable dynamic unity of subject and object cannot be quantified within a Cartesian/Newtonian type of disputation. In the modern scientific methodology, the scientist is relegated to a position of ‘objective observer’ (i.e. isolated from becoming ‘involved’ with the object of his research) so as to prevent any prejudice of anthropocentrism and thereby (theoretically) eliminating any arrogation of an exceptional position. The paradox is that this practice places the scientist outside of nature in an exceptional position, and the very anthropocentrism that is shunned has just been reinforced!
It was in the 20th century that Edmund Husserl gave us the conceptual language to be able to better articulate Goethe’s method of science; this is the language of phenomenology as it is “to the things themselves”, allowing the subject of investigation to ‘speak’ for itself (Seamon 1998, pp. 1–2). Unfortunately this, ‘Goethean science’, is still much underused and misunderstood. Conventional scientific methodology tends to separate the student/scientist from that which he is studying (the subjective/objective dichotomy mentioned above) and can lead to arbitrary or inaccurate understandings (Seamon 1998, p. 2). In contrast, Goethean science is a participative, engaging approach which actually becomes therapeutic for the scientist – in the case of equine therapy, for the therapist and the patient/client. Brent Dean Robbins says: “The process of owning up to our obligations is one that can be a healing process, a process of coming home to ourselves; hence it is “therapeutic” (Robbins 2005, p. 114). This process is what Goethe referred to as delicate empiricism; in other words direct, sensorial experience. Every part of nature is always in a process…of being born, growing and developing, and of dying. Understanding of this continual cycle in a holistic manner cannot be reached through mathematical abstractions; it can only be reached through careful observation and perception of the subject itself.
Equine Morphology – A Goethean View of Living Form
An animal is visibly material, but it is also living form, and it expresses soul faculties as well. How are these three things related to each other, and how does this relationship show itself in the bodily form? Such are the questions that arise whenever we observe animals. (Schad 1977, p. 10)
We know from a conventional taxonomical approach that horses are animals within the class of Mammals; furthermore they are of the order Perissodactyl, meaning they are odd-toed (single-toed in the case of horses) ungulates. But that doesn’t give us a feel for the nature of Horse. We can engage in the horse’s organic life form and come to understand how he interacts in his lifeworld9 at a deeper level through Goethean science. When we use this approach and involve an understanding of this kind of morphology, we view the anatomical details always with an eye towards the whole animal.
Conventional taxonomy is based upon the system developed by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), known as the ‘father of taxonomy’; it takes into account phylogeny as well as similar characteristics of a given species. This system gained much significance after the publication of Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species in 1859. Yet taxonomists continue to be puzzled by similarities among disparate groups, typically using convergent evolution to explain these anomalies away, which of course must be based upon the idea that differing species all over the world adapted to their respective environments in very similar ways.10 To accept this, we would have to believe for instance, that the fawn inhabiting North America evolved his pattern of rows of spots as an adaptation to the environment much the same as the tropical forest-dwelling Agouti paca, a large, heavy-bodied rodent whose native habit ranges from Mexico to southern Brazil, as they both carry remarkably similar coat patterns (Riegner 1998, p. 178).
A living alternative to a dead morphological classification was given to us first by Goethe. This was then recapitulated and expanded by the biologist, Wolfgang Schad, more than any single scientist has before or since. Schad incorporated both Goethe’s approach to mammalian science and Rudolf Steiner’s11 understanding of the inherent threefold structure. Indeed, the phenomenological animal sciences base their work upon his seminal book, Man and Mammals, Toward a Biology of Form (English translation - 1977, Waldorf Press). Goethe saw that all living
10
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
processes are active polarities that fluctuate between opposing tendencies; e.g. contraction/expansion, light/dark, diastole/systole, inhalation/exhalation; Steiner saw the inherent threefold structure of the living being (Riegner 1998, p. 179). It was Schad who saw that the active mediation of these polarities is the fundamental process that constitutes every living organism, with threefoldness being one of the universal signs of life. He applied these principles to the study of mammalian diversity, saying: “The threefold approach seeks to derive the living organism from nothing but itself” (Schad 1977, p. 4). This is the essence of Goethean science!
Space and time permeate each other in the living form as development occurs. Metamorphosis in the animal is expressed spatially through threefoldness of the organism, and this threefoldness represents the functional systems of the living body:
The head is the center of the Nerve/Sense (thinking) system; the chest is center of the Respiratory/Circulatory (feeling) system; and the lower abdomen is center of the Metabolic/Limb (willing) system. While we can classify mammals as to typological dominance of one of these systems, they are not absolute to, nor exclusive within each of the three broad mammalian classes; each system is present and their functional processes are found throughout the body.
If we view the concept of threefoldness in the human first, we realize that the three systems are in complete balance with no one system having become perfected in its function, and thus no high degree of specialization obtained. As we move into the animal world, we begin to see specialization of one aspect or another among mammals. From this perspective, the rodents, carnivores, and ungulates rank above the insectivores, primates, and human; the near perfection seen in each of these is only seen in man when taken as a whole (Schad 1977, p. 30)
[emphasis mine]. We can use these three broad taxonomical categories to then see how Schad integrated the threefold approach [see Figure 1].
In these specialized non-human mammals, there are secondary influences that helps us to further correlate threefoldness to conventional taxonomy, as well as helping us to better understand the particular animal as it lives and interacts with other beings. Ungulates are divided between the two orders of odd-toed Perissodactyla and even-toed Artiodactyla. From Figure 1, we see that ungulates in general are primarily Metabolic/Limb, yet most of us can easily see differences between a cow and a horse, not just in the fact that horses are single/odd-toed and that cows are even-toed, but also in their inherent behavior. The cow exists almost in a dream-like state, chewing her cud; the horse has been described over centuries as a ‘flight animal’ and exhibits a palpable degree of excitation by comparison. These differences are the result of the secondary influence: the cow has the M/L system as both primary and secondary influence; the horse has the M/L system as primary influence with the N/S system as secondary influence. It is not that the horse is a reactive ‘fight or flight’ animal; but from the influence of the secondary N/S system, we can see that he can demonstrate fight or flight tendencies just the same as any other animal or human can under the appropriate circumstances. If the N/S system is balanced in a horse, these reactive tendencies are fully balanced to any given situation; unfortunately this is rare in domestic horses and the nerve-sense system tends to stay in a state of excitation. We humans activate this fight or flight tendency by the sheer lack of understanding the animal form resulting in persistent habits and beliefs on the human’s part, and the cycle becomes perpetuating – “a self-fulfilling prophecy” within which the human views this equine behavior as “natural” (deGiorgio and Schoorl 2013, p. 42).
The gravitational center of a mammal is inversely related to the dominant pole in the two extremes while the mammals in the ‘middle’ (the Carnivores) tend towards a balancing of the polarities resulting in their rhythmic being. Horses at rest place about sixty percent of their weight on the anterior portion and we find the Metabolic/Limb system primarily dominating the lower limbic portion as well as the abdominal cavity, including the hind-gut fermentation vat where digesta spends most of its time in the horse. [Please note: Steiner used the term ‘limbic’ to refer to the limb structure of the animal, this is not the definition of ‘paleo mammalian brain’ that is in use today.] The limbic structure in a horse is true to his nature of being a so-called prey animal12 and is consistent with the highly specialized limbs that allow him to engage with his
Figure 1. The Functional Systems of the Body.
11
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
environment in a very active and functional way. When we restrict the limb system of a horse (e.g., stalling) or stress it beyond its capability (e.g. racing as a two-year old), it suffers physiologically. The metabolic system in a horse is true to his biological nature; given an appropriate diet and lifestyle, the horse is able to transmute via a dual digestive process (enzymatic and fermentative) into sustenance that which he finds in nature from foraging and browsing. And yet again, this same metabolic system also makes him susceptible to physiological issues when it is subjected to abnormal stressors (e.g. biologically inappropriate diet and/or inappropriate mental stress). Unfortunately almost all domestic horses experience multiple unnatural stresses. Evolutionary biology approaches the environment and the animal as two separate parts, stating that the animal adapts to his environment and then natural selection takes place. Yet through Goethe’s living biology of meaning, we come to understand that the environment is, in a sense, given to the particular animal form as necessary for him to survive in. In this way, we can begin to see a unity between the two in which the animal and the environment are, at the same time, extensions of each other creating a wholeness of place which is simultaneously expressed expansively overall and focally in the parts (Riegner 1993, p. 204). Schad said: “Each animal is fully viable … since its specialized character is matched and supported by an equally specific environment” (Schad 1977, p. 16). All we have to do is look at various animals removed from their natural habitat and placed in cages (e.g. stalls regarding horses) to understand the truth of this.
Following upon the above discussion of the digestive/metabolic system being dominant in the horse, we can look to the considerable recent research to establish the link between gut microbiome and emotional stress. This research is targeted primarily toward humans but much is applicable to other mammals. It has been strongly suggested that inappropriate changes in the gut microbiome can trigger both physiological as well as emotional stress (Forsythe et al. 2010). While this is certainly a concern in all animals, the significance of this toward horses used in therapy sessions is that, if they are not given a species appropriate diet and/or lifestyle, the gut microbiome can be negatively affected. This has twofold consequences of: 1) the horse unduly suffering during therapy sessions, even though it may not be obvious to most observers; and 2) the response toward the human can be altered from what would normally happen. I suggest that, especially in scenario (2), the entire EAP/L session can become distorted as to the feedback ‘message’ the human patient/client receives during such session. I
further suggest that the emotional welfare of the horse can be negatively affected by the flow of interaction between human and horse in such therapy encounters when the underlying situation is that the horse suffers disruption in their lifeworld. It has been my personal and professional experience that nutrition and lifestyle in domestic horses suffers a high level of discordance with their biological demands. To put this in plain terms: a horse that is suffering from a low level of colic or EGUS is not going to be effective as a therapy horse and the horse’s welfare is compromised; unfortunately, that can cover a very large portion of domestic horses (Reagan 2012, p. 25).
This brief introduction has not done justice to the expansive field of Goethean animal science; there is much more that can be said regarding the threefoldness of mammals, not the least of which are dentition, coat coloring and pattern, quality of food ingested, size, etc. – space here does not permit a more in-depth discussion. For the reader that is interested in further research currently published I would point you to the references listed here for both Wolfgang Schad and Mark Riegner.
Animal Consciousness – a Comparative Psychology
So what about consciousness? Given what we just reviewed concerning the principles of the bodily form derived from Goethe’s and Steiner’s work, it would seem a natural flow to want to attempt similar research into a comparative psychology of animals and human. We find precisely this within the teachings of Steiner and as re-presented by the works of Hermann Popplebaum and Wolfgang Schad. From their writings, we find that higher animals do indeed possess a state of consciousness that shares many functions of that found in human, and which, now many years later, has been ‘officially’ stated via the Declaration. But there are important differences that have the potential to affect the welfare of the horse, or any animal, if they are not understood in context. These are differences that cannot be measured in a laboratory in the way that mainstream science does with neurobiological functions; for this we must go beyond natural science into a science of phenomenology. Recognizing that the organic systems form the basis of the animal’s emotional presence in the world (Schad 1977, p. 228), we can again use the human as a starting point in determining animal consciousness. Steiner described the character of human thought in deliberate contrast to the accepted theory of knowledge:
12
“Human thought does not create an arbitrary order and impose it on the things of the world. It is rather an organ which reaches into the invisible inner structure of the world itself, and, by deriving thence the concepts, reconstitutes-from the unrelated and chaotic detail of pure sense-given perceptions-the original totality. The latter in itself i s f u l l o f i n n e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d connections” (Poppelbaum 1928).
All of us are familiar with what we call the physical body, yet many of us have at least a ‘suspicion’ that something exists beyond this material physicality. After all, what is it that enlivens the body; that gives it personality? Rudolf Steiner understood this and developed out the principle of the ‘four-fold organization’. This principle shows us the different bodies of animal and human: physical, etheric, soul (astral), and ego (ontic). In human, these bodies descend – or accrue so to speak – generally in seven-year stages13: the physical at birth as the body separates from the mother; the etheric at the onset of the dental transition from primary to adult teeth, generally about age 7; the astral or soul body begins to incarnate around the age of puberty; and the ontic/ego beginning at approximately age 21, which is typically the age of ‘majority’ – a coming of age so to speak. It should be obvious that animals incarnate both the physical and etheric bodies as we humans do; beyond that significant differences occur, an understanding of which is important in being able to correctly perceive the animal’s emotional and cognitive states, and therefore assess his wellbeing:
Ø The individual animal species share a group astral/soul body; the soul forces bring in the aspects of thinking, feeling, and willing; in animals this is retained on a group species level, not individualized as it is in human.
Ø In human, the ego consciousness (spirit) accrues into the soul body giving human complete waking consciousness. In animals the ego consciousness is retained at the group level. It is said, at the moment of death the spirit awakens in the individual: “Anything like the beginning of an ego-consciousness comes upon the animal only at the moment of its death” (Schad 1977, p. 288) [quotes original; Schad is quoting Steiner, 1918].
The physical body – human or animal – is a conglomeration of the substances and forces found
within the Earth sphere; the incarnation of the etheric enlivens the physical body with living fluids. Yet with only the physical and etheric bodies, we (including animals) would remain in a sleep state. It is the descending of the soul that awakens the physical and etheric, enabling the organs of activity and perception (Poppelbaum 1931, p. 86). “What we call soul is, to begin with, simply a mysterious inner region where outer happenings become experiences” (Poppelbaum 1931, p. 85); these ‘experiences’ encapsulate the ability toward thinking, feeling, and willing. The soul is the bearer of consciousness, and both human and the various animal groups have the astral/soul body. Steiner enlightened upon the differences: each animal and each human being has the physical, etheric, and astral/soul bodies; however each human when awake also has the ego forces within him – this is the ‘I am’. It is the waking presence of the individualized ego body that separates our consciousness from that of animals, and it is this that creates vast array of personalities within human. The animal does not have its ego on the physical plane, for that we must look deeper into the astral plane; it is here that we find the group ego of the given animal form. What we see here in the physical, earthly presence is the horse as it is outwardly projection by the horse ego living in the astral world; it is this group ego that is as much a separate entity as we humans are on Earth. 14
Steiner gives an imaginative example:
“We may picture it in this way. Imagine a man's ten fingers thrust through a screen and in movement. We see the moving fingers but not the man, for he is hidden by the screen. We cannot imagine that the fingers have come through the screen and move about on their own. We have to assume the intervention of some kind of being.” 15
As opposed to human uprightness, the animal’s body is oriented such that it eliminates obstruction to the flow of the currents of the sentient, intellectual, and consciousness souls through it; the importance being that this flow is not imbued with the individual ego – the ‘I’ as it is with human.16 Thus animals are born with the soul infused in its organs, as opposed to the human. Poppelbaum quotes Steiner: “We have to recognize how entirely different is the way in which wisdom is manifested in man and animal. The animal has wisdom in its organs, man has not;
13
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
m a n m u s t f i r s t a c q u i r e i t t h r o u g h i n n e r effort” (Poppelbaum 1931, p. 87). Wisdom in the animal dwells deeper – within the organism itself – than in human, and the animal at birth finds wisdom already incarnated (Poppelbaum 1931, p. 89). As discussed above, the animal soul organization is of the species group; its origin is not found within the individual animal (as it is within human) but is bound up within the bearer of the inherited qualities of the given species as it draws downward from the stream of heredity (Poppelbaum 1931, p. 98). This, in essence, is what gives horse-ness to the horse. By contrast, in human, it is the descent of the spirit (ego) that allows development of the unique individual.
Animal exists in a state of consciousness similar to that human once did – an atavistic clairvoyance that allows the animal to see and grasp much that we can no longer perceive – particularly relationships within the natural world. It was previously discussed that the animal is a specialized form. For instance, the horse, with his specialized digestive system can – given a species appropriate diet and lifestyle – discern the difference between a poisonous and non-poisonous plant. The horse knows this from within organic wisdom; the current state of human consciousness has to learn these things. The consciousness of animals is that of the etheric or living world with an active participation in and dependency upon their lifeworld. The evolution of human consciousness – the awakening of the individual spirit and the incarnation of the “I” – has allowed us to become emancipated from the organic processes of nature, whereas the animal cannot exist without the relationship that flows between him and his environment in a very active way. In contrast, human consciously uses and manipulates his environment to provide resources as needed. The human ego unites concept and percept in thought (Poppelbaum 1928), yet we have become deadened to much of it . The phenomenological relationship that flows between us and nature is still there as it is with animals, it has not disappeared, yet human lost the percept of it centuries ago – we only see ‘us’ and ‘it’. Re-discovering the capability of seeing the ontological relationship, this time from a place of awareness can help us in every way, including in our interactions with other species: “The new task of mankind is to reawaken to the etheric world through the development of a modern clairvoyance, Imaginative consciousness that can operate simultaneously with wide-awake self-awareness.”17
The more humans interact with animals the more their individual spirit awakens (Mikic 2014, p. 33). Yet one of the hallmarks of individuality is freedom, and with freedom comes responsibility. This includes freedom from
the confines of dependency upon the environment, as was stated above. The state of human consciousness allows this – animal consciousness does not – and thus the individual responsibility lies with us, the human. The increased attention to animal welfare in recent years has increased the tendency to attribute morality to animals and we apply anthropomorphic language quite frequently, seemingly now even more so with the ‘formal’ recognition of consciousness in animals. An animal can kill but it cannot murder; it does not have the morality to comprehend the difference. I was participant in an online discussion several years ago concerning whether animals could be said to possess morality or not, in which one person asserted that his dog had a ‘moral character’ because he would not take a steak off the counter when left alone with it; that is not morality, that is behavior and likely conditioned behavior at that. Humans have the tendency to confound these two very different aspects, particularly regarding animals. Anthropomorphic language is customary in the EAP/L field perhaps in large part due to the use of ‘natural horsemanship’ methodologies with the horses (see next section). I would like to take a moment here to clarify something about anthropomorphizing animals: This is not always ‘bad’ as sometimes this is the only way to make the non-human experience come alive for us. Understanding the animal form and organization as per the above discussion helps us to avoid boxing the animal into a behavioral pattern it is not capable of. An example would be to view the emotion of grief comparatively between animal and human. We can say that an animal can suffer loss of a companion (be it another animal or human) with similar reactions as a human might display from the death of close friend or family member: loss of appetite, dejection, sadness, and so on – emotions that all flow from the trauma of a loss. What we cannot say is that the animal grieves the same as a human might: what we add to the trauma of loss is the individualized introspect of ‘why me’…why did this happen ‘to me’. Some people are questioning whether anthropomorphism should be re-defined. I think at this point the definition is completely adequate; it is an understanding of the animal form that gives us the keys toward how to use it.
Within the biological sciences we seem to have gone from applying terminology toward animals such as ‘incomplete’ and ‘underdeveloped’ to now considering that they have the same mental and emotional capacities as humans, and lately we seem to be imbuing animals with even more intelligence than humans. This should not be a contest as to which species is more intelligent; this should be about a thorough understanding of what the animal is and is not
14
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
capable of so that we do not apply undue stress to them. True to our Cartesian nature, human wants to quantify the animal’s cognitive abilities; it is not about how much or how little intelligence the animal possesses – it is about the differences between animal and human. We humans need to remain cognizant of why we are investigating and studying animal cognition. By not understanding the animal form and the comparative differences regarding the soul and ego bodies, we run a very high risk of instituting another form of abuse upon animals – trying to mold them into something they can never be. This is not unlike parents trying to mold their children into what they want them to become instead of taking time to see the child and his individual capabilities. It is this space which spans the differentiation between human and animals that has become the massive grey area, and it is within this space that we seem to be treading deep water without a life preserver because mainstream science is still trying to find consciousness within the physical brain.
“At every stage of its life the animal leads a p h y s i c a l , a l i v i n g , a n d a n e m o t i o n a l existence” (Schad 1977, p. 225).
The Impact of Equine Assisted Therapy on Both Horse and Human
The concept of horses being helpful or healing to humans with various mental health or social issues is based almost entirely on the idea that horses are domesticated prey animals, and therefore are [supposedly] “extremely sensitive to changes in the human being”, because the human is seen as a predator; it is said that the horse acts as a “biofeedback machine” that can provide the client and therapist with information relative to the client’s moods and changes of such. Horses are seen in this context as large and powerful creatures that teach us to stay focused and attentive. 18
Concerns of animal welfare have grown exponentially in recent years, yet the amount of written literature dedicated to the welfare of horses used in equine assisted therapy has not kept the same pace (Ben-David 2013, p. 261). The overall ethos, including religious beliefs of a given culture, are generally recognized as influencing factors within overall animal welfare, and these factors will dictate the amount of attention given to the horse’s welfare, including the teaching of such within that culture.
Drawing from what we have already seen regarding the phenomenological equine form, I would like to present five determinants that we can look at within a domestic
horse’s lifeworld that have the potential to be adversely affected in such a way as to generate pathology and/or behavioral abnormalities, which in turn has the capability to alter the entire horse/human interaction: 19
Ø Heredity – determines the inborn vitality or weakness of the animal ; the susceptibility to pathology may be there latently but it is a matter of whether or not it is ‘triggered’ that determines whether the weakness will manifest; this aspect can be manipulated by forced breeding programs. Many therapy facilities use rescue or re-homed horses, so the control over heredity is often missing. However, it needs to be recognized that the very act of placing a susceptible horse in a therapy program can act as such as ‘trigger’. The fact that off-the-track Thoroughbreds are many times used in therapy situations should be a major concern within this a s p e c t ; i t i s w e l l k n o w n t h a t Thoroughbred breeding is subject to inherited disorders (Bettley et al. 2012, p. 62).
Ø Regimen – this covers nutrition/diet, hydration, sleep, and exercise. The horse’s digestive system is designed to process small amounts of food frequently, converting them into available nutrients that keep the organism in proper working order (i.e. homeostasis) as well as produce appropriate amounts of energy for various life functions (Reagan 2012, p. 20). The reality is that most horses’ diets are highly manipulated, with them being ‘fed’ meals at a rate of one to two times per day; if they are lucky they also receive ad-lib hay; some facilities, if there is enough pasture, will allow the horse(s) to go out for at least a portion of the day to graze at will. A horse that is not allowed continual free choice grazing and movement has increased susceptibility to pathology and/or altered behavior patterns; this is seen particularly in view of the previously-discussed threefoldness. I have personally experienced that a dietary change from a forced feeding regimen to one in which the horse was
15© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
allowed complete control over his own nutrition (within the confines of his place) completely resolved what I erroneously had thought to be a ‘behavioral issue’. A horse should always be allowed free access to a clean, non-fluoridated water source; a healthy horse will consume five to fifteen gallons of water per day, and p o s s i b l y m o r e d e p e n d i n g u p o n temperature, humidity, etc (Reagan 2012, p. 41). The horse should be allowed rest time undisturbed; horses can sleep standing up due to a unique ‘stay-apparatus’ but need about an hour or two of REM sleep in a twenty-four hour period, which is generally taken in relatively short bouts; it should be noted they can only achieve REM sleep when lying down (Goodwin 2007, p. 9). Unfor tuna te ly, too many horses exper ience REM s leep way too infrequently. Exercise for a horse should be on his own volition and given ample space and opportunity, the horse will do so. The reality for a horse is that many times they are forced into exercise; horses in the wild do not run around in circles like many domestic horses are forced to do, instead they walk many miles over any 24-hour period. A horse that is let ‘out of his cage’ will typically display extreme bursts of energy that is not seen in one who is free. Any one or a combination of these aspects that are not species-appropriate has the potential to trigger pathology and/or behavioral anomalies.
Ø Place20 - this can be defined as: “any environmental locus in and through which individual or group actions, experiences, intentions, and meanings are drawn together spatially” (Seamon 2014, p. 14). The wild horses in the past met this definition precisely, however domestic horses experience a ‘built environment’ of varying degrees, and even if there is no physical structure (such as barn), there is almost always restriction placed upon all four of these definitive aspects due to a dire lack of understanding regarding what
a horse sees as ‘appropriate place’. The list of potential domestic place detriments include: inappropriate stocking rates, confinement, transporting from place to place or bringing in unfamiliars (such as a boarding situation), forced weaning, forced separation of dams and foals, forced breeding, and so on. The horse is a highly social and affiliative animal; anything less than species-appropriate in this regard has the potential to negatively a f f e c t t h e h o r s e , a g a i n , b o t h physiologically and with respect to behavior. The very act of bringing a horse into domesticity constitutes change in a horse’s lifeworld. This shift, while demonstrably workable for humans, requires re-thinking whether it is truly workable for the horse; most, if not all, research toward this end has been from an an th ropocen t r i c and behav io r i s t perspective. A domesticated situation for horses need not exist to the horse’s detriment and can work within species-appropriate parameters; however it takes a phenomenological perception of the animal, as well as putting human centric desires into proper perspective to see things differently and thus to accomplish a species-appropriate place and lifestyle for the horse (indeed, any domestic animal).
Ø Trauma – this aspect involves all the differing ‘assaults’ upon the animal, both physiologically and mentally; they are a result more of human decisions than physical accidents; over time the cumulative effect of these traumas becomes greater than their sum. These t r a u m a s g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t f r o m inappropriate Regimen, the disruption within Place, and/or the destruction of Resonance (see below).
Ø Resonance with Human – this includes the emotional/vibrational interaction between animal and human, although the human’s active role in the foregoing determinants
16
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
is just as important as the inter-species relationship aspect in determining the quality of this resonance. We can liken our domestic animals to our own kidneys…they filter everything that goes on in our lives. The day-to-day interaction that the horse has with the human care-giver (be it owner, stable manager and/or anyone else) has the potential to run the gamut of beneficial to becoming detrimental and disruptive – the latter situation being one that may place the human at even greater risk of physical harm than normal. Since the time the horse was brought into the human’s sphere thousands of years ago, human has been trying to figure out ways to get the horse to do his bidding at any level; the primary approach to this is most commonly referred to as ‘training’ (Waran and McGreevy 2007, p. 151). Training typically permeates every aspect of the domestic horse’s life from feeding to performance, and including preparation for participation in EAP/L sessions.21 Equine training methods have evolved significantly from physical manhandling with the aid of shackles and ropes (aka ‘breaking’) to what has been touted as ‘gentling a horse’ – otherwise known as Natural Horsemanship. NH (as it is often referred to) gained popularity in the 1970s as a horsemanship ‘revolution’, which puts forth the idea that ‘working in sympathy’ with a horse would accomplish much more than inflicting (physical) pain. Natural horsemanship philosophy actually has a very long history, dating back to the two-part treatise, On Horsemanship, by Xenophon (430-354 BCE) (Wikipedia 2015b). One of the hallmarks of NH training is use of the round-pen or some t y p e o f e n c l o s u r e t o m i n i m i z e distractions; this aspect is actually not new either – the Greeks of centuries ago “developed a method of breaking their horses in small, enclosed circular arenas filled with deep sand or shavings” (Waran and McGreevy 2007, p. 156). [The historical perspective would make one wonder just how much of a ‘revolution’ natural horsemanship truly is.] There are
probably as many variations of and within NH as there are spots on a Leopard-spotted Appaloosa, so while it is difficult to specif ical ly def ine individual methodologies, the underlying philosophy is one of operant conditioning with most practitioners using some form of pressure-and-release, which also takes the form of advance-and-retreat. Instead of physically wrangling a horse into submission, NH’s proponents say that it uses the natural instincts and methods of communication of the horse to modify his behavior.
It is within this fifth determinant of Resonance that I believe requires a closer examination regarding ethical concerns of the equine welfare, and with particular respect to the training aspect. Based upon my own personal experience and knowledge of the horse industry (including some exposure to EAP/L sessions) as well as an online perusal of several equine assisted facilities, it is safe to say that the natural horsemanship methodology is used extensively with horses used in the EAP/L field, which carries over into therapy sessions. However, the NH methodology is not without issues, two of the primary ones being: 1) misuse of operant conditioning terminology; and 2) use of a dominance model in equine culture that equates to nothing more than a legitimizing myth. I will attempt to show how these issues can impact both the horse’s welfare as well as potentially lead to invalid feedback to the human patient/client which, in turn, feeds into the cycle of anthropomorphic view of horses.
In the first instance, one of the major selling points of NH is that it utilizes ‘positive reinforcement’ via a pressure-and-release method. Obviously using a term such as ‘negative’ would detract from the selling potential of a product (and NH has essentially become a product to ‘fix’ the horse), but the plain and simple truth is that, in practice, when an aversive stimulus (the ‘pressure’) of varying degrees is applied and then ‘released’ when the horse responds in the way the clinician/trainer desires, that is, by definition, negative reinforcement. Along with this pressure-release method goes the NH mantra of “make the wrong things difficult, and the right things easy” (Hunt 1978, p. 85). These two aspects often become blurred into melding negative reinforcement with positive punishment. Within behaviorism, both reinforcement and punishment are seen to be aimed toward the behavior, not the individual. The logistical problem with this is the fact that, the use and application of natural horsemanship is not restricted to degreed behaviorists who have a (supposed)
17
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
thorough understanding of the techniques and differentiations involved, and therefore the potential to affect the individual horse through misapplication of conditioning modalities is great. And to get to the crux of the matter – how can one ‘separate’ the individual from his behavior?
In the second instance, the ‘natural instincts and communication methods’ that are used within NH are typically defined through a spatial-dominance model. Regarding dominance, what this means in natural horsemanship parlance is that, within a horse herd there is seen to be a dominant leader, typically a mare and referred to as the ‘alpha’ with the other horses following a sort of ‘pecking order’. Regarding spatiality, horses are perceived to more or less aggressively move another out of ‘their space’, with the exact definition of ‘space’ primarily being up to the individual NH practitioner. This supposedly has to do with the horse getting close enough to the human handler to cause bodily harm; yet we ride our horses in extremely close contact, riding being by some estimations one of the five most dangerous sports (for girls). The methodology of NH confers the right to the human to move horse out of her space if he should ‘intrude’. The problem with the dominance model in general is simply that it doesn’t exist in nature, and is a construct of resource restrictions (perceived by the horse) (Rees 1985, ©1984, pp. 55–56) (Kiley-Worthington 1987, p. 139). Dominance relationships among mares in the wild, in fact, are fluid: “Rarely were the same females consistently the dominant members of their bands. Dominance relationships changed regularly and most often over periods that spanned a few days to several weeks” (Berger 1986, p. 158). It has been my personal observation that, once the resources are adequate for the number of horses involved, the horse does not display any ‘in your space’ issues, and so the ‘problem’ resolves itself.
As was previously mentioned, one of the hallmarks of natural horsemanship is starting, or ‘gentling’, a horse in an enclosed area, generally using what is known as a round pen. Again, there are a great number of different specific applications of this, but the underlying theory is to get the horse to recognize the human handler as the ‘alpha’, or the ‘leader of the herd of two’. This is where the advance-and-retreat (pressure/release) technique is typically used, the goal being to get the horse to submit to the human – even though the word ‘submission’ is usually shunned in favor of terms such as ‘hook on’, ‘join up’, etc. If the horse should come into the handler’s space, the horse is driven away; only the human is allowed to initiate this kind of ‘in your space’ contact. I have witnessed (and caused myself in years past when ignorant of the
consequences) the confusion of a horse that is constantly being driven away to run around the pen. A horse has consciousness and is cognitive, but he has no concept – no reference point within his nature – as to why this is being done. It is an inescapable, very real possibility, given what has been previously discussed concerning equine morphology as well as the significant amount of literature that shows the horse to not just desire, but need freedom of movement, that a horse undergoing this kind of restricted training will see his plight as inescapable, therefore resulting in an emotional shock to his system. It is well-established within human psychology that repetitive, inescapable mental shock situations can lead to learned helplessness; given the fact that the underlying research for this was done on dogs, it is not any stretch of imagination to say that horses can suffer the same.
During a therapy session the client is typically taught about ‘equine psychology’, which is largely based upon the above false models as well as a view that life for a horse in domestication is normal, and then guided to discover some similarities within human dynamics; as well, the horse may be subjected to various ‘exercises’ that are part and parcel of NH training methods as a way of eliciting therapeutic responses from patients/clients. Horses may be forced to experience emotional stress that can have lasting and cumulative effects. One example: a so-called herd-bound horse exhibits signs of emotional distress when separated from her ‘buddies’; herd-bound within the horse industry is generally viewed as something negative, an undesirable behavior. This situation is demonstrated to show clients the parallels between the horse’s behavior and issues in their lives such as separation anxiety, relationship dependency, etc. Is this ethically right regarding the horse’s welfare when we come to understand that the horse is a very social animal and has an innate need for con-specific association? We are also forced to ask whether or not exposing patients/clients to techniques based upon false beliefs leave them with the wrong set of cultural/ethical models upon which to base their life.
I recently viewed a video22 in which the therapy patient agreed to have the session filmed; the session primarily dealt with her inabilities to set boundaries, low self-esteem, and allowing others to ‘invade her space’. One particular horse that came very close to her (in her ‘space’) was used metaphorically for people in the woman’s life who took advantage of her, invading her ‘space’ without invite; she felt uncomfortable with that horse and chose (was given the option) to work with another horse who seemingly ‘chose’ her. This second horse walked up straight away to investigate the woman, sniffed her over a bit, then walked away; as explained by the therapist, this
18© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
triggered the patient’s feelings of low self-esteem as she ‘realized’ this horse ‘wanted’ to be near her, a feeling she had long denied herself (that of being wanted by other people). Once the woman had chosen this horse, she was taught how to lead him and keep him out of her ‘space’ by giving the lead rope a firm yank every time he drifted toward her, another metaphor for forcing people in the patient’s life to ‘respect her space’. Notice that it was asserted (by the therapist) this second horse came straight up to the woman because he somehow recognized that need in her. I would like to present another interpretation of that: Working on the assumption this is a typically managed domestic horse who receives ‘regular’ meals twice per day, is likely given treats during at least some of the therapy and/or training sessions, and whose freedom of choice and movement is generally restricted, could that horse have simply seen the woman as someone who might possibly have a treat handy? Based upon my own experience, I believe it is entirely possible that this horse was viewing this woman as a potential food-giving source. My horses have been kept for quite a number of years as ‘natural’ as can be possible in a domestic situation and they were allowed free choice in feeding situations, even with hay, and with food resources being spread out sufficiently for each horse to not feel threatened. I remember an old (40 +/-) horse that lived here, when it came time to put him on a feeding regimen of soaked hay cubes, he became noticeably more assertive whenever I or anyone else would come around as he quickly learned to associate the human being with providing food; he had lost almost all of his teeth and could no longer obtain sufficient nutrition on his own. It has also been my experience with treat-fed horses that they quickly learned to become more assertive in this respect toward the human. Does it really matter how we interpret this if the patient received benefit and the horse was not immediately harmed? Perhaps not in this one isolated situation or even a couple of such isolated situations, but I believe it does matter in the greater scheme of things. I believe this is an example of one brick in a therapeutic wall potentially built on lies. Perhaps we are attributing magical properties to therapy horses at times when all they are really wanting is to satisfy their instinctual needs. Within the norms of domestication a horse is given learned behavior and mental conditioning to govern its life; in other words, we – the human – teach the horse how to be a horse. The horse as Other is not given the chance to develop his own cognitive map of his lifeworld within the framework of his given threefoldness. It is my perspective that is an unstable foundation on which to build a therapy practice.
None of these five major determinants of the horse’s lifeworld exist in isolation; they all intertwine and any one or more that becomes disturbed has the potential to inflict varying amounts of stress upon the horse. After consideration of the horse’s primary form (Metabolic/Limb), as well as the five determinants of lifeworld, we can begin to see how subjecting a horse to the kind of inter-species interaction in which the human is encouraged to process their psychological issues in the presence of a sentient animal has the potential to overwhelm the astral body, eventually manifesting as either aberrant behavior or somatic symptoms, or both – and this potential is immensely increased for any horse that has a history of stress factors. I do not mean to imply that the horse is as fragile as a China doll; else they would not have survived as a species to this point. However it is obvious to anyone who truly cares to ‘see’ that domestic horses are suffering – it has sadly become ‘normal’ for a horse to suffer some kind of pathology during his lifetime; and true to the horse’s threefold form, most of the pathologies that horses suffer relate to either the digestive system (e.g. colic, Equine Gastric Ulcer Syndrome) or the extremities (e.g. laminitis, founder) – or both.
The most common land animals used within animal assisted psychotherapy are dogs and horses. There is a tendency to think of animals in a collective category of…well, animals. One well-written piece on ethics within the field states:
“Changing surroundings may also be considered as enrichment for the animals, challenging them with acquaintance of new environments. It is known that animals in captivity may suffer from boredom and need new stimuli and challenges. Meeting different clients, experiencing new smells and new kinds of contact…might provide the animals with this needed stimulation.” (Ben-David 2013, p. 265)
I do not believe, however, this can be said unilaterally across all species. Dogs are primarily of the rhythmic system and pulsate in between the other two poles (see previous discussion on morphology); it is this aspect that gives them resonance with human in a way that no other species can – they are truly “man’s best friend” (Mikic 2014, p. 46). There exists a unique congruence of body and soul within the carnivore, being neither too bound nor too disconnected with the body (Schad 1977, p. 227). A healthy dog (physically and mentally) can take great pleasure in the sensory experience of exploring new environments and meeting new people so long as they are allowed to bound back to their secondary metabolic nature
19© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
as needed.23 While there is no doubt that the horse/human relationship can run very deep, the horse tends to live within; being primarily of the metabolic system, he turns his attention inward toward bodily processes where the soul activity is concentrated, at least until something activates the nerve-sense system. A horse cannot pulsate in between the two outer poles as the dog can. To unduly disrupt the horse’s inward attention can stress the nerve-sense system. The horse needs its own kind. The dog will view new surroundings with anticipatory pleasure following the lead of human, whereas the horse will view new challenges and surroundings with perturbation. It does not mean a horse cannot experience new things, but it must be done on his time, not the human’s. Dog, on the other hand, tends to be ready to go when human is. Ben-David makes a very valid point when she says: “Therapists have a responsibility to take care of the animals that depend on them, much like the responsibility parents have for their children” (Ben-David 2013, p. 265). However, the concept of animal needs must go far beyond the current superficial understanding.
From a Cartesian-science viewpoint, equine assisted therapy lacks a firm theoretical and research base regarding human psychological intervention (Bachi 2013, p. 221). There are several published studies of clinical trials as well as numerous articles relating anecdotal evidence of the effectiveness of animal assisted therapy in general, and several papers and books on equine assisted therapy. Those espousing the benefits of EAP/L are almost all from a personal subjective/interpretative view. However, there are two problems in particular according to Hal Herzog (2014): 1) clinical trials are methodologically flawed to the point the conclusions cannot be trusted, and particularly twelve out of fourteen studies published on clinical trials in equine assisted therapy were too small to produce reliable results, with eight of the studies also lacking no-treatment control groups; 2) there was a tendency for positive-result experiments to be published while those that showed treatment did not work were rarely published (Herzog 2014). In fact, one study of 81 boys with emotional problems ranging from depression to ADHD to PTSD showed that the children became so highly attached to the therapy horses, it resulted in higher levels of depression and anxiety; the study was never published (Herzog 2014). Incorporating animals into psychotherapy has the attractiveness of increased client attendance and participation (Urichuk and Anderson 2003, 1.3). However, the vulnerability of certain patients/clients to form emotionally dependent bonds with their four-legged therapist is – or at least should be – an ethical consideration when this kind of transient human-animal
relationship is instituted. And given what has previously been discussed here, it is not out of the question, particularly in the case of canine assisted therapy, the animal may form an attachment bond with the patient.
Where do we go from here?
What is missing in the mainstream practice of psychology is a relational ontology (Slife 2004), and I believe this is particularly true with respect to animal assisted therapy. Not unlike conservation psychology which is concerned with relationships between human and nature (Wiggins et al. 2012), equine assisted therapy is concerned with relationships as well: one is the triadic relationship of therapist-patient-horse during a session; another is the overall relationships that the patient engages in during her life, some of which have likely been the catalyst for therapeutic treatment. Yet another relationship that is often overlooked is that of the horse with his surroundings. Philosophically speaking there are two kinds of relationships – weak or analytical and strong or synergistic24. A weak [or analytical] relationship can be defined as a reality that is “reducible to fundamentally individual self-contained (or atomistic) parts that interact with one another, be they atoms, people, or cultures”, and the reality of the relationship is defined by the parts; it is the prevailing way we view relationships in Western culture (Wiggins et al. 2012) [emphasis mine]. A strong [or synergistic] relationship is one “in which relationships are at the ontological foundation of identity and existence – the identity of any part is defined to some degree by its contextual relationships” (Wiggins et al. 2012). This r e l a t i o n a l o n t o l o g y i s o n l y s e e n t h r o u g h a phenomenological approach – a set of shared meanings within any given relationship.
There are many branches or doctrines within the field of psychology, including so-called ‘phenomenological psychology’. However the process of identifying this kind of psychology is not well defined, with some viewing it as nothing more than a method of introspection or subjective experience (Scalambrino n.d.). In simple terms, phenomenology is the interpretive study of human experience (Seamon 2008), and one would think this would fit neatly into psychology, oddly it does not. Even though Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) is considered the founder of phenomenology, over time two major schools of phenomenology developed – that of Husserl’s transcendental method, and that of existential phenomenologists, particularly Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty, among others (Seamon 2008). Transcendental phenomenology begins with experience but then draws
20
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
back to examine it cerebrally through tools of the intellect (Seamon 1978, p. 243). Phenomenological psychology uses transcendental phenomenology as a research method ( S c a l a m b r i n o n . d . ) , e s s e n t i a l l y r e n d e r i n g phenomenological psychology primarily a method of co l l ec t ing and ana lyz ing da t a . The re fo re , phenomenological psychology is not, at this point, commonly found in clinical settings, as Slife’s 2004 article referenced above shows. Obviously, the research data has a trickle-down effect into practice, but it does not give phenomenology an actual place in practice.
Existential phenomenology focuses on the everyday experiences and situations of real people in real places (Seamon 2008). This method of phenomenology is rooted in Goethean science. Phenomenological psychology purports to base its methodology in Goethe’s way of science (Giorgi and Giorgi 2008, p. 166). Nevertheless, phenomenological psychology, as indicated above, gives primacy to the viewpoint of the behaver (the patient) through the research method. While there is nothing wrong with that per se, it is an analytical relationality; it is not a psychology of doing, of participation, and I assert therefore is not rooted in Goethean science. The triad in an EAP/L session is composed of ‘parts’ (therapist-patient-horse) coming together for a relatively brief period of time of which an end ‘product’ is expected, that ‘product’ essentially being the analytical interpretation (by the therapist) of the encounter between patient and animal; we cannot say that the ‘healing’ of the patient is the end product as that is tenuous – from any perspective. Such analysis is many times dependent upon the behavioral response of the animal.25 As has been previously discussed there are several determinants within the animal’s lifeworld that, if they become disrupted have the potential to distort what would otherwise be a normal-for-the-horse behavioral response. In essence, we have attributed consciousness to animals, yet horses in particular are still treated as ‘things’ – therapy tools – within animal assisted therapy.
A true phenomenological attitude26 encompasses the dynamics of the relationship itself as a synergistic or strong (ontological) relationality. In a weak relationality, the parts are seen as self-contained local entities that influence each other causally across space and time. In a typical equine assisted therapy situation this occurs when the therapist ‘shows’ that, for instance, the horse’s attention triggers a sense of belonging in a patient who suffers from feelings of worthlessness. This is an immediate metaphorical cause-and-effect scenario that is then linked to the patient historically, calling attention to her reactions in given situations in her life. This is viewed
as two ‘parts’ that create a relationship, albeit metaphorically. While some benefit may be derived from this kind of approach, it needs to be seen for what it is – an atomistic approach, an abstract reduction. The problem lies in (in addition to what has been previously discussed) the continuous use of this kind of “billiard ball causality” view resulting in “free will/determinism and mind/body problems” (Slife 2011).
The methodology of the equine assisted therapy session is based upon cognitive-behavioral and learning theories, which are by definition analytical relations. The restricted structure of a typical session and the need by the therapist to explain the horse’s behavior thwarts the opportunity for the patient/client to be able to begin to see on her own the synergistic relationships that exist naturally in a horse herd, not just among the horses themselves but as they interact with their lifeworld. Within a natural herd setting and working from a basic understanding of the horse’s morphological form and consciousness, we can proceed to go upstream27 in relations, allowing a participation in the horse’s lifeworld instead of bringing the horse temporarily into an artificial-to-him setting to illicit a behavioral response. Engaging the horse in a completely natural setting and allowing him to freely participate in the relationship that comes into being as the patient/client enters his world provides a much truer perception than the analytical approach in a restricted area. If this space is opened up to the patient/client, then she gains the opportunity to foster development of self-volition as well as deep understanding of the mind/body continuum in action, as opposed to basically being ‘told’ what her issues are. Horses (all animals) live their experiences whereas humans tend to re-present life historically in thoughts which is the capacity of the incarnated ego that the animal does not possess. In a healthy person there is nothing wrong with re-presenting life in thought processes, but when things go awry we can become stuck in this mode. This kind of participative exercise with the horse in a natural state helps to foster an understanding of presencing life, as opposed to it being just a thought process.
As was discussed previously, the animal consciousness (the soul) is infused in the organs. Humans, on the other hand, have different modes of consciousness – that of the intellectual or rational mind and that of the emotional or intuitive mind. Remaining within the analytical mode is to remain solely within the intellect; while there is nothing wrong with using the intellect – and we certainly need it, it is the ultimate pairing of the intellect with the intuitive – that brings us to a place of true awareness. “It is the nature of knowledge that we must first fathom with our emotional mind (holistic operation) before we can understand with
21
our intellectual mind (discursive, analytical operation). The nature of knowledge is that it is contained in all of the parts and yet is not reducible to the parts” (Verspoor and Decker 2008, pp. Introduction). The mode of consciousness we bring to bear on our daily lives affects how we see things and events, which in turn determines our reactions to various situations, relationships. Use of only the intellectual mode of human consciousness creates a sort of ‘sclerosis’ of the mind; unfortunately this is the prevalent mode in society. Engaging in the process of Goethean science helps us to see ‘old’ things in ‘new’ ways. Understanding lies not so much in the ‘facts’ themselves but in the consciousness that we bring to bear upon them.
I propose that, instead of setting the patient up for a response within the analytical mode, allowing the unfolding of the sensorial process as it flows from the synergistic practice of Goethean science is ultimately a much more therapeutic and durable way of bringing the patient (or client) to a place of wholeness. Is not one of the primary goals of psychological therapy to help bring the patient to a place where she can develop and use her own intuitive senses to help guide her in all of life’s relationships? This is exactly what Goethe spoke to when he said: “Every process in nature, rightly observed, wakens in us a new organ of cognition” (Lehrs 1985; reprint 2010, p. 42). Goethe believed that our senses as well as our intellect are gifts of nature, and that at any point they prove to fail us, we can again turn back to nature to help us develop the proper collaboration between intellect and the senses (Lehrs 1985; reprint 2010, p. 42).
As was said above, while our intellect is important, seeing phenomenologically goes beyond that to involve other organs of knowledge; as our ability to see outwardly improves, so will our inner perceptions become more sensitive. Many humans are sensorially naïve, therefore it is the training and education of the senses that is crucial and must be developed through “effort, practice, and perseverance” (Seamon 1978, p. 242). Horses (and all a n i m a l s ) a r e n o t c o n s c i o u s l y a w a r e o f t h e phenomenological mode of seeing, they are innately born with this kind of perception and do not require ‘practice’. When we learn about nature, we learn about ourselves; it is this kind of participation – this way of ‘being’ – with the horse that, in my perspective, is by far more valuable to the human patient/client in the long term and not detrimental to the horse’s welfare in any way. In this way, the horses can help cultivate in us this kind of phenomenological perception – they become our teachers, and a new way of being carries over into the patient’s life.
“He who beholds a phenomenon will often extend his thinking beyond it; he who merely hears about the phenomenon will not be moved to think at all” (Goethe 1998, p. 307).
When we begin to practice Goethean science and first experience a phenomenon in this way – be it the horse, perhaps something in the horse’s field, or even something that the horse is engaging with, there is at first a compulsion to control the object, then follows a desire to get to know it better – to become “utterly identical with the object” (Holdrege 2005, p. 30), quoting Goethe (Goethe 1998, p. 307). This is what Goethe called, delicate empiricism – as we orient our striving around the phenomenon itself; then we begin to experience something more, as if the ‘thing’ were “pregnant with a depth we may be able to plumb” (Holdrege 2005, p. 30). It is the realization that we cannot fathom these depths with our usual abstract models and theories that brings us to the second mode of sensitivity: we become aware of our thoughts in relation to the phenomenon, showing us how we interact with the world through our thinking as the emotional mind begins to come forward; this awareness leads to transparency and illumination of our thought process (Holdrege 2005, p. 30). One way to engage this kind of process is through metaphorical conversation28; this can help to bring into consciousness that there is an ongoing, synergistic relationship flowing back and forth between the partners [in this case, the patient/client and horse, or other phenomenon being observed] (Holdrege 2005, p. 31). This process of conscious development carries over into everyday life and how its varied relationships have a generative effect upon us, creating who we are at a given moment in life. In any conversation, in any relationship, no matter how short-term, the partners involved change and evolve – they move to a different place than they were at the beginning. In the ‘conversation’ that occurs between human (patient) and horse in a typical EAP/L session, it may be somewhat easy to see the shift or change in the human; what we many times fail to realize is that – from a synergistic relationality viewpoint – the horse changes as well. Any time we interact with nature, we change nature, and that includes all the ‘parts’ of nature – animals, plants, rocks, etc. Instead of treating our horses as therapy tools, it is time we begin recognizing them for the divine beings they are.
22
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
References
Allen, C. and Trestman, M. Animal consciousness. In: E.N. Zalta, ed. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford CA: Stanford University, http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2015/entries/consciousness-animal/.
Bachi, K., 2013. Equine-facilitated psychotherapy: Practice, theory, and empirical knowledge. In: N. Parish-Plass, ed. Animal-assisted psychotherapy: Theory, issues, and practice. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press, 221–244.
Ben-David, R., 2013. The unique ethical stance of animal-assisted psychotherapy. In: N. Parish-Plass, ed. Animal-assisted psychotherapy: Theory, issues, and practice. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press, 261–284.
Bentham, J., 1823. An introduction to the principles and morals of legislation. A new edition, corrected by the author. England: unknown.
Berger, J., 1986. Wild horses of the Great Basin: Social competition and population size. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bettley, C.D., et al., 2012. A review of scientific literature on inherited disorders in domestic horse breeds. Animal Welfare, 21 (1), 59–64.
deGiorgio, F. and Schoorl, J., 2013. The cognitive horse: An inspiring journey towards a new co-existence. Netherlands: Learning Animals.
Dimitrijević, I., 2009. Animal-assissted therapy: A new trend in the treatment of children and adults. Psychiatria Danubina, 21 (2), 236–241.
Duncan, I.J., 2006. The changing concept of animal sentience. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 100 (1-2), 11–19.
Forsythe, P., et al., 2010. Mood and gut feelings. Brain, behavior, and immunity, 24 (1), 9–16.
Frewin, K. and Gardiner, B., 2005. New age or old sage?: A review of equine assisted psychotherapy. The Australian Journal of Counselling Psychology, 6, 13–17.
Giorgi, A.P. and Giorgi, B., 2008. Phenomenological psychology. In: C. Willig and W. Stainton Rogers, eds. The SAGE handbook of qualitative research in psychology. Los Angeles, Calif., London: SAGE Publications, 165–178.
Goethe, J.W.v., 1998. Goethe's collected works. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Goodwin, D., 2007. Horse behaviour: evolution, domestication and feralisation. In: N. Waran, ed. The welfare of horses. Dordrecht: Springer, 1–18.
Herzog, H., 2014. Does animal-assisted therapy really work?: What clinical trials reveal about the effectiveness of four-legged therapists [online], Psychology Today. Available from: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/animals-and-us/201411/does-animal-assisted-therapy-really-work [Accessed 23 Aug 2015].
Holdrege, C., 2005. Doing goethean science. Janus Head [online], 8 (1), 27–52. Available from: http://www.janushead.org/8-1/Holdrege.pdf [Accessed 11 Sep 2015].
Hunt, R., 1978. Think harmony with horses: An in-depth study of horse/man relationship. Fresno, Calif.: Pioneer Pub. Co.
Kiley-Worthington, M., 1987. The behaviour of horses: In relation to management and training. London: J.A. Allen.
Lehrs, E., 1985; reprint 2010. Man or matter: Introduction to a spiritual understanding of nature on the basis of Goethe's method of training and observation. United States: HardPress Publishing.
Levinson, B.M., 1962. The dog as co-therapist. Mental Hygiene (46), 59–65.
Marino, L., 2012. Construct validity of animal assisted therapy and activities: How important is the animal in AAT? Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary Journal of The Interactions of People & Animals, 25 (3), 139–151.
Mikic, A., 2014. Dogs: Their true origin, function and future: a study in spiritual unfolding. Hudson: Steiner books.
Poppelbaum, H., 1928. The consciousness of higher animals. Anthroposophical Movement, 5 (24).
Poppelbaum, H., 1931. Man and animal: Their essential differences. Forest Row, England: Rudolf Steiner Press.
Reagan, S.L., 2012. Equine nutrition: from a species appropriate perspective: Applied Equine Ecology Series. Knoxville TN: Willow Oak Publishing.
Rees, L., 1985, ©1984. The horse's mind. New York: Arco Pub.
Riegner, M., 1993. Toward a holistic understanding of place: Reading a landscape through its flora and fauna. In: D. Seamon, ed. Dwelling, seeing, and designing: Toward a phenomenological ecology. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 181–215.
Riegner, M., 1998. Horns, hooves, spots, and stripes: Form and pattern in mammals. In: D. Seamon and A. Zajonc, eds. Goethe's way of science: A phenomenology of nature. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 177–212.
23
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
Robbins, B.D., 2005. New organs of perception: Goethean science as a cultural therapeutics. Janus Head, 8 (1), 113–126.
Safina, C., 2015. Beyond words: What animals think and feel. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
Scalambrino, F., n.d. Phenomenological psychology [online]. Dallas, TX, Internet Encyclopedia of Philsophy. Available from: http://www.iep.utm.edu/phen-psy/ [Accessed 7 Sep 2015].
Schad, W., 1977. Man and mammals: Toward a biology of form. Garden City, N.Y: Waldorf Press.
Seamon, D., 1978. Goethe's approach to the natural world: Implications for environmental theory and education. In: D. Ley and M.S. Samuels, eds. Humanistic geography: Prospects and problems / edited by David Ley and Marwyn S. Samuels. Chicago: Maaroufa Press, 238–250.
Seamon, D., 1979. A geography of the lifeworld: Movement, rest, and encounter. London: Croom Helm.
Seamon, D., 1998. Goethe, nature, and phenomenology: An introduction. In: D. Seamon and A. Zajonc, eds. Goethe's way of science: A phenomenology of nature. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1–14.
Seamon, D., 2008. Phenomenology, place, environment, and architecture: A review. Environmental & Architectural Phenomenology Newsletter, 1.
Seamon, D., 2013. Analytic and synergistic understandings of place: What does qualitative research offer environmental design? Providence, RI.
Seamon, D., 2014. Place attachment and phenomenology: The synergistic dynamism of place. In: L. Manzo and P. Devine-Wright, eds. Place attachment: Advances in theory, methods, and applications. London, New York: Routledge, 11–22.
Slife, B.D., 2004. Taking practice seriously: Toward a relational ontology. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 24 (2), 157–178.
Slife, B.D., 2011. Features of a relational ontology [online] [Accessed 5 Sep 2015].
Urichuk, L.J. and Anderson, D., 2003. Improving mental health through animal-assisted therapy. Edmonton, Alberta: Chimo Project.
Verspoor, R. and Decker, S., 2008. The dynamic legacy: hahnemann from homeopathy to heilkunst: Book I: An ongoing study of the meaning in the writings of Samuel Hahnemann within the context of the dynamic system of thought. Manotick ON: Hahnemann Center for Heilkunst.
Waran, N. and McGreevy, P., 2007. Training methods and horse welfare. In: N. Waran, ed. The welfare of horses. Dordrecht: Springer, 151–180.
Wiggins, B.J., Ostenson, J.A., and Wendt, D.C., 2012. The relational foundations of conservation psychology. Ecopsychology, 4 (3), 209–215.
Wikipedia, 2015a. Animal assisted therapy [online], Wikimedia Foundation. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal-assisted_therapy#Criticisms [Accessed 7 Aug 2015].
Wikipedia, 2015b. Natural horsemanship [online]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_horsemanship [Accessed 20 Aug 2015].
Endnotes1 Marc Bekoff, website accessed 6 Aug 2015: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/
animal-emotions/201208/scientists-conclude-nonhuman-animals-are-conscious-beings
2 Ibid, Fn1
3 For the purpose of discussion in this paper, sentience is equated with consciousness, or at
least being a part of same; i.e. if sentience is present, then some level of consciousness is
present. However, it is recognized that historically some may have differentiated between the
two.
4 What is commonly referred to as ‘Cartesian science’ is the reductionist methodology that
he used, which basically eschews observation and experiment, relying instead upon a series
of deductions from ‘self-evident truths’ (i.e. a hypothesis taken for granted); it essentially
eliminates references to sensible qualities as useless periphery.
5 NAHRA is now known as the Professional Association of Therapeutic Horsemanship
International (PATH Int’l); EFHMA was fully integrated into PATH Int’l in Nov 2010; they
use the term EAAT, or Equine Assisted Therapy and Activities (website accessed 12 Aug
2015): http://www.pathintl.org/about-path-intl/about-path-intl/future-trends
6 Website, accessed 5 Aug 2015: http://www.pathintl.org/about-path-intl/about-path-intl
7 We b s i t e a c c e s s e d 5 A u g 2 0 1 5 : h t t p : / / w w w. e a g a l a . o rg / I n f o r m a t i o n /
What_Is_EAGALA_Model
8 History remembers Johann Wolfgang von Goethe as a poet and playwright; what is little
understood is that Goethe used his poetry to express his work in science; his work in science
was of utmost importance to him.
9 Within the human sciences of philosophy and sociology, lifeworld can be defined as a term
used to describe a world that subjects may experience together. It is a pre-epistemological
stepping stone for phenomenological analysis. Although ‘subjects’ do not necessarily mean
conspecifics, horses are social creatures, and thus a basic definition of lifeworld in reference
to social animals could be: An animal’s life in relation to places, spaces, and environment
which in sum comprise the animal’s geographical world. Paraphrased from: (Seamon 1979,
p. 15)
10 Convergent evolution basically states that it is an evolutionary process whereby
organisms that are not closely related independently evolve similar traits as a result of
having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches, regardless of where they may
live in the world.
11 Rudolf Steiner was responsible for translating most of Goethe’s work; Steiner himself
heavily incorporated Goethe’s work into his own teachings, unfolding them to a much
greater extent.
12 I use this term only in light of it being an accepted biological classification; as viewed
from within Goethean science, the distinction between prey and predator does not
completely envelope the relationship between the two; as well, the terms carry somewhat of
an anthropomorphic view, and feed into the ‘fight or flight’ myth.
24
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
13 Functions of the other bodies begin to emerge early on, however they do not take active
or dominant hold until the approximate seven-year cycles. It should be noted this is not a
linear process just as the threefold organic systems are not.
14 The Group Souls of Animals, Plants, and Minerals; Lecture given by Rudolf Steiner, 2
Feb 1908, Frankfurt-on-Main; website accessed 31 Aug 2015: http://wn.rsarchive.org/
Lectures/19080202p01.html
15 ibid, Fn 14
16 ibid, Fn 14
17 Stephen Usher, website accessed 15 Aug 2015: http://www.anthroposophy.org/calendar/
event-details/the-reappearance-of-christ-in-the-etheric-the-re-emergence-of-human-
awareness-of-the-etheric-world/
18 Website accessed 15 Aug 2015: http://www.pathintl.org/resources-education/resources/
eaat/60-resources/efpl/201-what-is-efpl
19 Adapted from The Origin of Animal Disease, 2012, unpublished pdf file; Aleksandra
Mikic; I have listed the aspect of ‘Place’ separate as I feel it is significant enough to stand on
its own; otherwise it would simply be combined into Regimen as ‘environment’. See Fn 20.
20 We speak of the domestic animal’s environment as a ‘thing’ of consideration and
affection upon the animal, but seldom is the phenomenological concept of ‘place’ used in
animal literature. The research on Place as a phenomenological concept within environment-
behavior research in the human realm is extensive. Biologist Mark Riegner (see References
section) is one scientist that has approached the concept of Place from a phenomenological
perspective within the animal world. In this article I would like to bring this concept more
into view, with the hope of establishing it as a determining aspect of the domestic animal’s
lifeworld that needs full consideration as seen
from within the principles of Goethean science and phenomenology. My phenomenological
understanding of the domestic animal’s Place is still unfolding and this is but a brief
introduction, which I hope to expand upon in the near future. I would like to express my
deepest appreciation to David Seamon (see References section), environment-behavior and
phenomenology researcher at Kansas State University, for bringing this concept into focus
for me; he has written extensively on the subject in the human realm.
21 For the purpose of this discussion, I am referring to domestic horses living in developed
countries. Horses in less developed countries (i.e. ‘third world countries’) are primarily
considered to be of utilitarian use. This does not mean ‘training’ is a moot point, however the
so-called affectionate interspecies relationship that is purported to widely exist in developed
countries may be generally lacking. EAP/L is found mostly, if not wholly, in developed
countries.
22 For obvious reasons, I am not sharing the name of the facility however it is a large one
and is indicative of an EAP/L therapy session.
23 Please note that not all breeds of dogs may be suited to this type of activity, and this
requires further investigation. We may refer to a work-in-process outline as given by
Aleksandra Mikic in her book Dogs: Their True Origin, Function, and Future ((Mikic 2014,
pp. 71–84).
24 “Analytical” and “synergistic” are relationship terms borrowed from a paper by David
Seamon ((Seamon 2013); “weak” and “strong” terms are from a paper by Brent D. Slife
((Slife 2004). I may use the corresponding terms interchangeably in this discussion.
Apologies to philosophers and scholars for simplifying the definitions of these terms in an
already lengthy article.
25 At other times generally speaking, the analysis is brought forth from the patient’s
emotional response of just being present with an animal and is not necessarily dependent
upon the response from the animal. However, in EAP/L the horse’s behavioral response,
even a subtle one, is largely depended on, based upon my own observations and research. As
previously discussed, it is the erroneous interpretation of that response that can potentially
place the client at risk.
26 The “attitude” ultimately leads into a discussion between the ‘natural attitude’ and a
phenomenological one. Space in this article does not allow room to delve into this aspect;
suffice it to say that the current state of clinical equine assisted therapy remains in the
‘natural attitude’, and in fact the mainstream view of the horse itself is from that perspective.
Please see David Seamon’s works for a complete discussion of natural vs phenomenological
attitude as it relates to environmental research.
27 “Downstream/upstream” thinking is attributed to the late Henri Bortoft, physicist and
preeminent student of Goethean science and wholeness in nature; 1938-2012; author of The
Wholeness of Nature and Taking Appearance Seriously.
28 This ‘metaphorical conversation’ has nothing to do with the previously mentioned
analytical metaphors derived from the typical EAP/L session.
I am a researcher in Goethean animal science
with a primary interest in the human/animal
relationship; I have a doctorate in natural animal
science/naturopathy (KCNH) and am currently
working on a MSc in Human/Animal Studies
(HAS) at Bircham International University; I
hold the Advanced Diploma in Veterinary
Homeopathy (BIH/USA) and am a registered homeopath through
NUPATH. I am currently on the Board of Directors of the Society for
Animal Consciousness and am the equine instructor with American
Council of Animal Naturopathy. My first book, Equine Nutrition: From
a Species Appropriate Perspective was published in Feb 2013; I have
written several unpublished articles, primarily on equine health issues.
Having been a small organic commercial farmer, I understand
sustainable growing methods and believe that in order to sustain and
nourish the animal directly we have to create a sustainable cycle from
cradle to grave of all the food components including the growing
methods; I recognize that the sustenance the animal takes in and
transforms into self has a direct affect upon all aspects of outward
projection (including behavior) of the animal, and thus it becomes
imperative that the animal receive nutrition that is natural and species-
appropriate. I am an ardent advocate for a biocentric approach to all
aspects of animal welfare – and particularly that of horses.
Contract Sarah Reagan: [email protected]
25
About the AuthorSarah L. Reagan
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
Dying for
your PleasureChiara Marrapodi
Photographic Credit and copyright www.freedigitalphotos.net
In Malay Orang-Utan means “person of the forest”.
This is derived from the words ‘orang’ meaning
people and ‘hutan’ meaning forest. Interestingly, the
Dyaks a Malay Indigenous population consider
Orang-Utans to be equal to humans and treat them as
such, affording them the same respect as they would
a neighboring tribe.
A prominent researcher, Birute Galdikas, who has
been studying Orang-Utans for many years states:
“Orang-Utans are tough. They’re flexible. They’re
intelligent. They’re adaptable. They can be on the
ground. They can be in the canopy. I mean, they are
basically big enough to not really have to worry
about predators with the possible exception of tigers,
maybe snow leopards. So if there were no people
around, Orang-Utans would be doing extremely well
(Source Bill Brubaker, Smithsonian Magazine, Dec
2010). I find it intriguing that Birute Galdikas ends
her statement by saying that if humans were not
around the Orang-Utans would be safe. We all know
about Orang-Utans and habitat loss. It has been
plastered in the vast plains of our media. The
devastating effects of the Orang-Utan orphans left
behind to die in the most unsavory ways. The
abandonment and fear that they experience as a
result of their mothers being burnt, poisoned and
starved to death must be all consuming, however, no
one dares talk or write about this. Keeping
conversations firmly focused on the materialist and
avoiding the potential for projecting our own
emotions and ideas, dare I say empathizing with the
potential states of these beings. This is often referred
to as anthropomorphism; that is, attributing human
emotional experiences on animals; in scientific
circles this is frowned upon. However, it is my
26
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
7
suggestion that often through anecdotal evidence,
such as this, we find the most compelling questions
that stir the cauldrons of scientific hypothesis
formulation. Indeed, the question is, can awareness
be completely isolated? Furthermore, if we are
unable to do so how can it be removed as a
potentially confounding factor in experimentation?
Science does not have a definitive answer. Professor
William Tiller has some compelling research on
intention and it’s effects on experimentation but that
is for another article all to itself!
I am a proponent of science and the scientific
method, however, I cannot deny that for me to type
these words requires more than mechanistic
programming. It requires a creative flair. A facet of
human activity that science has yet been unable to
explain. Although science frowns upon
anthropomorphism it is conducted within scientific
circles unconsciously. Indeed, cognitive
comparisons testing primate abilities against those of
humans is the gold standard for assessing animal
intelligence and awareness. It seems rather ironic
don’t you think? We are basing our comparisons on
our limited view of what intelligence means to us
and what awareness we are able to tap into. Perhaps
a more appropriate method would be to compare
behavior between and within species, on their level
based on their environmental specificities as opposed
to an isolated laboratory environment? Yes isolation
of variables would be difficult, however, a
potentially more realistic understanding of
phenomenon would result. Rigorous attention to
detail is required and potentially more time,
however, more naturalist information would be
available. Essentially this is what ethnologists do.
Non-for-profit organizations the world over use
anecdotal evidence to pull at your purse strings,
however, science denies its true validity, reinforcing
the notion that this type of evidence is not
informative. However, behavior tells us a great deal
about the state of any being. It is only the limitations
of our own belief system that hold humans in a
perpetual sense of mis-understanding or half-
understanding with veritable chunks of knowledge
missing. Indeed, these limitations create a rather
myopic view of the self and others, resulting in the
idea of separation. This idea that humans are
separate from animals and the natural world creates
the illusion that the effects of humans on animals and
their eco-system is unimportant. However, the
opposite is true. The natural world works
synergistically. This means that each part of the eco-
system has a role to play and if tampered with
creates a ripple effect throughout the entire system.
Therefore clearing the virgin forest in Borneo to
make way for palm oil trees, for example, not only
destroys the natural balance of the Bornean forest, it
displaces species (plant and animal) from all parts of
the canopy and undergrowth. The delicate balance is
lost and the result is extinction of species in a short
27
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
period of time. Additionally, it creates an invisible
imbalance in economical terms. While more money
is made by those selling the palm oil, tourism is
affected and non-for-profit organizations are required
to move in and take care of the orphans and injured
in the attainment of this red oil. Indeed, a great deal
of expense is placed on trying to transport, house,
feed, rehabilitate these red ape orphans, with few
taking a vested interest in their welfare. Ironically,
palm oil is the same color as an Orang-Utan (red)
and yet for each jar of palm oil produced we are
closer to losing this intelligent species.
If one were to switch places with an Orang-Utan to
feel and sense its anguish, I wonder what you would
be compelled to do? And yet these red apes seem
resigned to their fate and rather forgiving if they
survive. They flirt with death everyday to provide
humans with goods such as soaps, shower gel,
shampoos, cosmetics, sweet bakery goods and paper.
Next time you reach for your favorite cosmetics or
sweet bun and see palm oil as part of the ingredient
list cast your mind to the species who were burned,
injured, orphaned and killed for your pleasure. It
sure is a sobering image and makes one realize that
we are all responsible for this planet and the species
upon it.
About the Author
Chiara Marrapodi
Chiara is the Founder of the Society for Animal
Consciousness and is the Editor of
t h e J o u r n a l f o r A n i m a l
Consciousness. Both these
projects are the first of their kind
worldwide. Chiara has a colorful
background; she was born in Africa where she grew
up and has lived on three other continents. She has
a Bachelor of Psychological Science (Honors) from
the University of Queensland, is a Certified Clinical
Hypnotherapist currently completing a Masters in
Integral Health from the California Institute for
Human Sciences and has been accepted for her PhD
in Clinical Psychology from the same institution.
Chiara is an author, researcher, spiritualist, healer,
scientist, educator and entrepreneur. She recently
published her preliminary research relating to
potential subjectivity in probiotics and presented her
research at the ISSSEEM conference in 2015 where
she receive a silver medal for emerging scientist.
Chiara believes that an integral approach to the
scientific endeavor is paramount for the survival of
the human species which is indelibly connected to
the natural world.
C o n t a c t C h i a r a M a r r a p o d i :
28
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
Do Horses
Suffer from PTSD-like
Symptoms?Chiara Marrapodi
Photographic Credit and copyright www.freedigitalphotos.net
Abstract
This paper presents and discusses trauma and stress related psychopathology. Furthermore, the potential for
trauma and stress related psychopathology in animals is examined. More specifically, whether animals may
suffer from PTSD-like symptoms. This investigation predominantly focused on equines (Equus caballus). As a
species, equines have been most valuable to humanity and yet there is a paucity of psychological research
relating to trauma and stress in their midst. It is with this in mind that the author is presenting an introductory
examination of equine stress and trauma. Within the scope of this paper the Soul is not included as it would
require a complete examination unto itself. Furthermore, a scale on PTSD in equines is proposed and is in
progress.
Keywords: equine, PTSD, psychopathology, stress, trauma, affect regulation, DSM, animals. Contact: Chiara
Marrapodi - [email protected]
29
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
The narrative of trauma is ubiquitous in modern
society. It is experienced at subtle and gross levels.
More specifically, it can be overt such as physical
abuse or covert and disguised as emotional-
psychological abuse. Nonetheless, it creates serious
effects on the mind-body complex of the victim.
Trauma is defined by Kalsched (2013) as resulting
“from the fact that we are often given more to
experience in this life than we can bear to experience
consciously” (p. 10). A more traditional perspective,
defines trauma as “an emotional response to a
terrible event like an accident, rape or natural
disaster” (American Psychological Association,
(APA), 2015). Typical responses to trauma are
described as “unpredictable emotions, flashbacks,
strained relationships and even physical symptoms
like headaches or nausea” (APA, 2015). Thus
suggesting a multi-dimensional effect of trauma
from a bio-psycho-social-affect perspective
(Kalsched, 2013; Hill, 2015 ; Levine, 2010).
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is
heralded as the mental illness of the twentieth
century. It is often associated with war veterans,
however, it is now recognized as more prolific in
Western society. Indeed, PTSD is a recognized
disorder ranging from preschool to adulthood
(DSM5, 2015). According to the DSM V PTSD is
categorized under Trauma and Stress or Related
Disorders (DSM5, 2015). Indeed, recent revisions
in the DSM V include four (instead of three
previously) diagnostic clusters; 1) Re-experiencing,
for example, flashbacks, bad dreams and frightening
thoughts; 2) Avoidance, for example, feeling
emotionally numb, avoiding areas or places that
remind of the event, depression, worry or guilt,
amnesia, loss of interest in otherwise enjoyable
activities; 3) Negative Cognition and mood, for
example, persistent negative beliefs, distorted blame,
feelings of alienation and diminished interest in life;
4) Arousal, for example, being easily startled,
feeling tense or on edge, difficulty sleeping and/or
angry outbursts (National Institutes of Health (NIH),
2015). Moreover, changes to the diagnostic criteria
for children means that emerging abstract cognitive
and verbal expression capacities of young children
are being included (Scheeringam Zeanah, Drell &
Larrieu, 1995; Scheeringa, Peebles, Cook &
Zeanah, 2001). This is a direct response to the need
for PTSD diagnost ic cr i te r ia wi th more
developmental sensitivity (Scheeringam et al., 1995;
Scheeringa et al., 2001).
Trauma, such as PTSD, is deeply intertwined
with stress. Stress creates a cascade of endocrine
chemical reactions that over time have considerable
effects on the body-mind complex. Hans Selye, a
pioneer in the study of the stress response, believed
that all stress exerts a significant impact on the body
(Selye, 1950). According to Selye (1950) the body
is continually attempting to rebalance after stressful
events with the process following three stages, 1)
Alarm (initial reaction following exposure to a
stressor event); 2) Resistance (the body is bouncing
30
back following a stressful event) and 3)
Exhaustion. Indeed, prolonged stress at the
exhaustion stage has detrimental physiological
effects. Over time this results in sustained
maladaptive responses that mis-align the body-mind
complex and result in a state of chronic stress.
Interestingly, Pert’s (1997) research reveals
emotions are not recorded in the brain alone, rather
they are recorded at the cellular level through out the
body. Therefore, the body stores information about
its experience in physical matter relative to space-
time. Continual psycho-physiological adaptations
based on environ-mental cues are often distorted
over time due to lack of support, resources and
adaptation skills. Consequently, repeated exposure
to traumatic events shapes individual perception;
over time these experiences develop and crystalize a
personal worldview. Indeed, research suggests that
those with reduced resiliency (NIH, 2015) are most
affected and respond by internalizing their
experiences. Resilience factors are considered to
reduce the risk of post traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) and include, seeking support, a positive
affective appraisal of ones own actions in the face of
trauma, coping strategies and the ability to respond
effectively despite experiencing fear (NIH, 2015).
Psychological theories relating to trauma
abound. Indeed, trauma exists on a continuum,
ranging from relatively mild to severe. The effects
of trauma are believed to result in dissociation,
internalization and/or compartmentalization (Heller
& LaPierre, 2012). According to Hill (2015)
dissociation consists of three phenomena 1)
automaticity; 2) compartmentalization of content;
and 3) altered states of consciousness. Dissociation
may be full or partial (Hill, 2015). In partially
dissociated self-states, one may remember other
ways of being but they seem disconnected (Hill,
2015). They may be dismissed by the individual
(Hill, 2015). Conversely, full dissociation may be
total amnesia of thoughts, feelings and a sense of
self (Hill, 2015).
Research suggests the level of trauma is
related to developmental attachment states. Bowlby
(1958) formulated what is known as attachment
theory investigating the type of bonds that are
created between infant and caregiver. Research by
Ainsworth and Bell (1970) further elucidated these
attachment relationships by examining the mother-
infant dyad interaction during the fear state. This
study illuminated the importance of attachment and
its role in the development of relationships with the
self, the environment, others and the adaptability to
stress. The fear response and the adaptation of the
infant was measured through the stranger
experiment. The infant was separated from their
main caregiver and a stranger was introduced.
Subsequent behavior towards the stranger and the
return of the original caregiver elucidated the types
of attachments and adaptability developed by the
infant. Consequently, four main types of
31
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
attachments were identified; 1) secure attachment
(toddlers explore their environment and use their
caregivers as a secure base. Following separation
from their caregiver they seek comfort upon their
return and are easily soothed); 2) anxious-
ambivalent (insecure - caregivers may be
behaviorally unpredictable and out of sync with their
infant. These toddlers explore little, are wary of
strangers and may be demanding and clingy. Upon
reunion, after separation from the caregiver, they are
difficult to soothe and appear angry, while seeking
comfort at the same time); 3) anxious-avoidant
(insecure - this attachment style is mostly found
where caregivers are emotionally unavailable or
reject the infant. The toddler seeks little physical
contact with the caregiver and might be
unresponsive when held, although gets upset when
put down. These toddlers tend to ignore or avoid
their caregiver after separation) and 4) disorganized
(this attachment style tends to be found in infants
whose caregiver tends to be a source of comfort and
a source of stress or fear. These toddlers tend to lack
an organized strategy for coping with stress and
show odd behaviors, such as freezing or turning in
circles during a reunion with their caregiver).
Interestingly, a study of one hundred and thirty-six
cats showed that domesticated animal species suffer
from separation anxiety syndrome (SAS) when
separated from their main caregiver (Schwartz,
2002). SAS in cats resulted in behavioral problems
such as inappropriate urination, defecation,
excessive vocalization, destructiveness and
psychogenic grooming (Schwartz, 2002).
According to Hill (2015) dissociation is
linked to attachment styles. Hill (2015) postulates
that moderate forms of dissociation originate in the
structured insecure attachment pattern. Whilst
preoccupied trauma results in a tendency to
moderate hyper-aroused dissociation. Avoidant
trauma results in proneness to moderate hypo-
aroused dissociation. Disorganized trauma results in
greater damage to the regulation system and greater
degrees of dissociation. Hill (2015) also posits that
severe levels of dissociation have been the accepted
criteria in determining disorders for psychological
publications such as the DSM V. However, he also
suggests that moderate to low levels of dissociation
remain under recognized and its effects are
neglected.
To further investigate developmental trauma,
affect regulation provides a bio-psychological
linkage. Affect regulation is a reflection of the
ability of the infant to adapt to internal and external
environments (Hill, 2015). Indeed, regulation is
considered to be optimal functioning or adaptive
functioning (Hill, 2015). Conversely, when affect is
dysregulated the sympathetic nervous system is
activated creating hypo and hyper-arousal and a
cascade of endocrine effects that contribute to the
wiring of these states into adolescence and even
adulthood (Heller & LaPierre, 2012; Hill, 2015). In
hypo-arousal states individuals are locked in passive
32
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
coping mechanisms such as freezing (Heller &
LaPierre, 2012; Hill, 2015). On the other hand,
hyper-arousal states are dominated by active coping
such as running away or flight (Heller & LaPierre,
2012; Hill, 2015). Adaptation requires that
attention spontaneously flows in the direction it is
needed (Hill, 2015). Adaptive affect regulation is
related to secure attachment and engenders tolerance
and resiliency (Hill, 2015). However, when this is
compromised due to shock and trauma the capacity
for affiliative behavior is considerably reduced
(Heller & LaPierre, 2012; Hill, 2015). Often these
states of shock and trauma lead to the inability of
experiential integration and result in maladaptive
responses (Heller & LaPierre, 2012; Hill, 2015).
These are considered decohered experiences and
continual exposure results in disorganization of
internal and external responses (Heller & LaPierre,
2012; Hill, 2015).
Experimentation on animals has been the
focus for understanding traumatic events and the
effects on the bio-psycho-social-affective complex
(Brashwaw & Lindner, n.d.). One of the most
ethically horrendous experiments was carried out by
Harlow, Dodsworth and Harlow (1965) in the 1950s.
Harlow et al., (1965) experimented on the effects of
maternal deprivation. Mother-infant Macaque
(Macaca mulatta) dyads were separated and the
effects were investigated to adulthood. Many of the
animals separated prematurely from their mothers
were socially inadequate, unable to mate and self-
mutilated in adulthood. Indeed, early social context
parameters influence fundamental structures in
behavioral regulation - for example, the
hypnothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
(Bradshaw & Schoore, 2007). Research suggests
that repeated activation of the HPA axis and the
associated elevation of endogenous corticosteroids
due to stress can impair gene expression involved in
neurogenesis and synaptogenesis (Bradshaw &
Schoore, 2007). Therefore these occurrences have
serious effects on the cognitive and affective
regulatory functions (Bradshaw & Schoore, 2007).
Furthermore, cross-species studies show that early
rearing conditions affect hemispheric development
(Bradshaw & Schore, 2007). Neonatal social
behavior associated with the HPA axis increases
right hemisphere dominance (Bradshaw & Schoore,
2007). This is significant as the right brain is
thought to be involved in attachment, emotion, stress
regulation and control of social behavior (Bradshaw
& Schoore, 2007). This suggests that attachment
trauma is embossed in the limbic system, HPA axis
and right frontal lobe (Bradshaw & Schoore, 2007).
Captive animals face a barage of trauma,
however, the effects are largely ignored unless they
are for research purposes. Indeed, not so long ago
children were thought to be unaffected by stressful
situations only for them to resurface in adulthood as
bio-psycho-socio-affect imbalances (Maddux &
Winstead, 2012). In the animal world there are
some studies suggesting that animals are affected by
33
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
stressful life events and thus should be carefully
considered. Shannon, Slotow, Durant, Sayialel.,
Poole, Moss and McComb (2013) studied African
elephants (Loxodonta africana) who were exposed
to the stress of separation from family members and
translocation during a culling exercise. Through
their playback experiments they found social skills
were significantly impaired as a result of exposure to
these disruptive events (Shannon et al., 2013). The
fact that animals are used as models to understand
the effects of trauma suggest that animals experience
pain and suffering as do humans. It is difficult to
quantify these emotions as there is a animal - human
communication barrier. Nonetheless, this research
itself is testament to the effects of trauma in animals.
Captivity is an unnatural existence for
animals, particularly, large wild animals. Unlike
natural disturbances elephants may experience in the
wild - a major difference is captivity restricts
movement and prevents escape. This decreases the
potential for self-preservation during times of fright
and therefore increases the potential for learned
helplessness and chronic stress. Unfortunately, zoos
will often resort to physical force, pain, drugs and
deprivation to control these large beings (Bradshaw
& Lidner, n.d.). Additionally, captive herd animals
such as elephants lack the familial cohesion that is
part of elephant society. Often elephants from
different herds and locations are lumped together.
Familial ties are broken resulting in depression and
and herd discord. Indeed, young wild elephants are
stripped from their Mother’s and sent abroad for
human entertainment at zoos (Bradshaw & Lidner,
n.d.). Subjecting these animals to unnatural
behavior entertaining the masses is a form of chronic
stress. This was the case, recently, for five young
elephants who were captured from Hwange National
Park in Zimbabwe and sent to Chinese and United
Arab Emirates Zoos (J. Rodrigues, personal
communication, March 21st, 2015). Elephants have
been known to experience deep emotions such as
grief (Bradshaw & Lidner, n.d.). Indeed, many of
these young elephants also witnessed their family’s
death either through capture or culling. Research
suggests that males who witnessed herd culling have
a tendency towards bullying later in adulthood
(Bradshaw & Lidner, n.d.). It is believed that these
elephants have similar experiences to war veterans
with PTSD. Indeed, trauma of maternal separation
and translocation leaves an indelible scar on the
animal and human psyche (Bradshaw & Lidner, n.d.;
Dyb, 2005).
Consequently, the question remains, is PTSD
prevalent in the animal world? It is a phenomenon
that has been grossly neglected, predominantly in
the domesticated environment. Evidence of mood
disorders resembling PTSD have been recorded in
chimpanzee’s (Pan troglodytes). Ferdowsian,
Durham, Kimwele, Kranendonk, Otali, Akugizibwe,
Mulcahy, Ajarova and Johnson (1985) accessed case
reports of chimpanzees who had been subjected to
traumatic events such as maternal separation, social
34
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
isolation, experimentation or similar experiences.
They applied a slightly modified species-specific set
of the DSM-V criteria for PTSD and major
depression to these reports and found that a small
number of chimpanzees met the DSM-V criteria for
PTSD and depression (Ferdowsian et al., 1985).
Interestingly, the same criteria were administered to
populations living in wild sites in Africa and in
sanctuaries (those in sanctuaries had been victims of
experimentation, orphanage, illegal seizure or
violent human conflict) (Ferdowsian et al., 1985).
They found that 58% of the chimpanzees living in
sanctuaries met the set of alternative criteria for
depression compared to 3% from the wild
population (Ferdowsian et al., 1985). Furthermore,
44% of sanctuary chimpanzees met the set of
alternative criteria for PTSD compared with .5% of
wild chimpanzees (Ferdowsian et al., 1985). The
findings are compelling, suggesting chimpanzees
with traumatic histories indeed do show evidence for
mood disorders including PTSD and depression
(Ferdowsian et al., 1985). Nonetheless, classifying
disorders per the DSM has some serious limitations.
Historically, the DSM was created by the American
Psychiatric Association as a diagnostic tool for
inpatients with severe psychiatric and neurological
disorders (APA, 2015). Essentially, it was devised
for statistical purposes (APA, 2015). There have
been three major revisions of the DSM with the
current edition, the V, being the most recent. Since
it’s inception the DSM has seen an increase in the
number of diagnosable psychological disorders,
from 106 in 1952 to 365 in 1994 when the DSM-V
was published (Levine, 2013). Indeed, according to
Maddux and Winstead (2012) psychopathological
diagnoses are based on constructs founded on
societal and cultural norms. Consequently, these
social constructs are inevitably subjective rather than
scientific (Maddux & Winstead, 2012). Classifying
behavior as absolute variables of adaptability or
maladaptability (normal and abnormal) does not
constitute the totality of a disorder (Maddux &
Winstead, 2012). More specifically, these
classifications are inadequate at distinguishing
exclusivity between one disorder and another
(Maddux & Winstead, 2012). Nonetheless, the
DSM provides a valuable stepping point for the
development of species specific criteria to elucidate
features of animal interiority.
To further explore these ideas establishing
whether animals possess emotions is key. The
web dictionary (2015) states an emotion is “an
affective state of consciousness in which joy, sorrow,
fear, hate or the like is experienced as distinguished
f rom cogni t ive and vo l i t iona l s t a tes o f
consciousness.” As a horse adopter it would be
untrue to say that my horse does not have emotions,
however, this again is considered anecdotal or
anthropomorphic and not scientific fact.
Nevertheless, ethologists the world over have
witnessed a range of emotions in many species,
35
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
both in captivity and the wild. Indeed, Dr Cynthia
Moss, renowned for her research with wild African
elephants describes the courage, patience and
perseverance of a matriach for her newborn when it
failed to walk immediately (Bekoff, 2000). Left by
the rest of the herd, with the exception for the
elephants adult daughter, she continued to nudge and
support the newborn to take its first steps - it did so
after three days (Bekoff, 2000). Emotions are
categorized into primary and secondary (Bekoff,
2000). Primary emotions are those that are
instinctual, appearing as automatic for example, the
flight and fight response (Bekoff, 2000). On the
other hand, secondary emotions are those that are
experienced and reflected upon (Bekoff, 2000). In
the example above the matriarch demonstrated
instinctual emotions leading her to protect and
support her newborn, however, does the presence of
her daughter throughout the ordeal represent higher
emotions of compassion (Bekoff, 2000)? There are
numerous examples cited by Bekoff (2000) showing
emotional lives of animals from the greeting
rumbles, ear flapping and body spinning when
elephant kin reunite to wolves whining and wagging
their tails when individuals rejoin the pack. Such
simple emotions are not the only ones that have been
cited, indeed Diana monkey’s have been observed in
what can be termed as a form of empathy (Bekoff,
2000). Individuals were trained to insert a token
into a slot to receive food (Bekoff, 2000). After
numerous attempts one of the females was unable to
place her token in the slot, her mate picked up the
dropped token and inserted them in the slot for her
(Bekoff, 2000). He did not attempt to take the food
but let it for her to consume (Bekoff, 2000). This
exhibition of empathy is truly remarkable!
Contemporary scientific ideas tend to objectify the
world based on the notion that animals are irrational,
unintentional and void of consciousness. From the
aforementioned examples this is a highly
reductionistic, elitist and dogmatic world view. It is
the belief of this author that this belief system will
generate outcomes resonating with these same ideas.
How does this translate to the world of
Equidae? Scientifically, the horse is classified as a
“solidungulate perissodactyl mammal of the family
Equidae and genus Equus” (Etymonline.com, 2015).
Horses (Equus caballus) have been a part of human
civilization for thousands of years. It is estimated
that horses were domesticated about 3500BC (Curtis
& Tallis, 2012). Horses were the sole mode of
transportation during feast, famine and war. The
horse is therefore a vital and yet unappreciated
contributor to modern human civilization. The
1800s heralded a change in the ‘use’ of the horse
(Curtis & Tallis, 2012). The development of the
steam locomotive ushered in the industrial age and
with it contemporary ideas about Equus and its
‘viability’ (Curtis & Tallis, 2012). Indeed, the most
36
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
prevalent modern ‘use’ of the horse is for equestrian
sports, racing and riding pleasure.
The paucity of scientific studies relating to
horse psychology, let alone pathology, is a limiting
factor. Not only for the equine field but also for
animal welfare. Emotional understanding of the
Equus is unavailable and anecdotal evidence along
with subjective interpretation are the only guiding
factors in understanding the horse’s mind.
Behavioral approaches to training and interaction
abound, however, unless a trainer has a keen eye and
understands the interiority of the horse little weight
it given to the horses’ internal milieu. Equus is
valued based on its potential to provide pleasure to
the human alone (anthropocentric). Indeed, it is
common practice to define animal expression purely
from a behavioral perspective disregarding the
potential for interiority altogether. This is evident in
the myriad of products available on the market today
touting increased ‘performance’.
Traditionally, equine psychology has focused
on three broad aspects mostly related to equestrian
sports. These are referred to as “three inter-related
but separate levels: temperament, mood and
emotional reaction” (McBride & Mills, 2012, p.1).
Rather, this author asserts, a horses internal state is
shaped by genotype, environment, physiological
health, foraging quality, forage availability, species-
appropriate diet, space management, herd cohesion
and early developmental experiences. Often many
of these dimensions are dismissed or neglected and
thus only a partial picture is developed. More
specifically, human ideas have been imposed upon
the horse (anthropomorphic) and interpretations are
based on domesticity. Many of the available
‘personality’ tests are developed for equine
performance with a focus on behavioral traits such
as dominance, anxiety, excitability, protection,
sociability and inquisitiveness (Maxwell, 2011).
This raises some ethical and validity issues.
Lumping all horses and characterizing them based
on their phenotype is reductionist at best and renders
individuality as an impossibility.
Domesticity within itself poses real stress for
equine physical, mental and emotional health
(Reagan, 2012). Foals are often weaned from their
dams (mothers) early with little regard to the internal
needs of the foal or dam in question (Horsetalk,
2013). Rather the focus is on the monetary value
each represents and the potential human gain. Foals
are forcibly removed from their dams to allow them
to be rebred. Indeed, foals are also ‘imprinted’ at
birth meaning they are handled by humans making
them less resistant to human touch using operant
conditioning techniques (Horsetalk, 2013).
Additionally, if broodmares (breeding mares) are no
longer able to perform their role they are discarded
at auction which inevitably results in slaughter in
most cases (a consequence of overbreeding, the
Premarin drug industry and the horse racing
industry) (Premarin.org, 2015; S. Reagan, personal
communication, October 15th, 2015). Often the
37
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
mating affair is not a natural one requiring invasive
techniques and in some cases the mare is forced to
breed with a stallion despite her repeated resistance
(tantamount to rape) (Premarin.org, 2015; S.
Reagan, personal communication, October 15th,
2015). It is the belief of this author that these early
experiences deeply affect the horse during
developmental milestones and affect the quality of
attachment. These experiences create a state of
chronic stress. Indeed, gastroduodenal ulceration in
foals is now considered a recognized phenomenon
and is believed to be related to stress and microbiota
imbalance (Becht & Byars, 1986; Nieto, 2012;
Reagan, 2012). It is well documented that lack of
adequate forage (the norm is two flakes of dry hay a
day) and the introduction of grain in equine diets
along with limited space and over work creates the
ideal environment for chronic stress (Reagan, 2012;
Nieto, 2012). Over time this creates the pathway to
trauma. Ulcers, colic and other gastrointestinal
problems are common in captivity (especially in the
racing industry), a phenomenon that is only
acknowledged when the physiological effects are
present (Reagan, 2012; Nieto, 2012). Even then
pharmaceuticals are used in ulcer management other
mitigating factors influencing the bio-psycho-socio-
affect complex remain unchanged (Nieto, 2012;
Reagan, 2012). Equally the chronic stress levels are
maintained therefore suppressing the symptoms
rather than addressing the root causes (Reagan,
2012). Indeed, according to Sapolsky (1998) zebras
(Equus burchellii & Equus grevyi) do not develop
ulcers if they have sufficient space and grazing.
Ulcers are only identified after translocation and
severe unnatural stress (Sapolsky, 1998).
Traditionally, domesticated equines are
routinely separated from the herd, are lumped with
herd members with repeated removal, reduced
affiliation, have limited con-specific grooming and
sensory contact, are repeatedly transported to shows
and events, repeatedly trained with mechanical aids
for ‘control’ (whips etc), housed in small cells (12 x
12ft is typical) and released for bouts of exercise at
liberty alone (often referred to as turnout) all reduce
the potential for emotional, cognitive and social
balance in the life of an equine (De Giorgio &
Schoorl, 2013; Reagan, 2012; S. Reagan, personal
communication, October 20th, 2015). These are all
unnatural and highly stressful experiences to a herd
animal whose existence is founded on walking long
distances, foraging for up to eighteen hours a day,
social cohesion, affiliation and reproduction
(Sapolsky, 1998; Reagan, 2012; De Giorgio &
Schoorl, 2013). Furthermore, some of the
stereotypical behaviors found in other captive
animals can be seen in domesticated horses such as
weaving, pacing and wood chewing (Hausberger,
Gautier, Biquand, Lunel & Jego, 2009; Reagan,
2012; De Giorgio & Schoorl, 2013).
Furthermore, equines are herd animals and
induced separation for human purposes has severe
consequences on the mental and emotional stability
38
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
of the horse (Reagan, 2012). Separation anxiety is
reported as a problem by horse owners with some
horses affected more than others. Are these intra-
species differences related to developmental
attachment styles in equines? The perspective has
not been investigated to date. Additionally, the
‘breaking’ of a horse requires the breaking down of
it’s natural instincts often to the point of learned
helplessness (Hothersall and Casey, 2011; De
Giorgio & Schoorl, 2013). Consequently, there are
less natural equine expressions presented. These are
systematically repressed using operant conditioning
in the attempt to make equines ‘safe’ (De Giorgio &
Schoorl, 2013). It is the belief of this author that this
type of breaking the horses spirit causes
psychological and emotional damage to the Equus
state of being. Thus creating chronic stress and
psycho-affective trauma. Indeed, reports suggest
that suppressing natural expression with operant
conditioning may reduce the overt behavior but
create a worsening of the behavior in the long term
(Hothersall and Casey, 2011). Furthermore,
a c c o r d i n g t o D e G i o r g i o & S c h o o r l ’s
anthrozoological-socio-cognition model (2013, p.
143) ‘training’ creates social isolation and it is “the
horse that has been trained to perform activities with
man, but hasn’t been given the opportunity to listen
to his own inner motivation or act feely in his
interactions with man, that goes into resistance,
throws people off, runs away, avoids being caught,
or becomes closed and just follows commands.”
Operant conditioning renders the being devoid of
interiority. It is the equivalent of the individual
being removed and replaced with a black box where
stimuli are sent in and the result is behavior. This is
a simplistic and reductionist approach. According to
De Giorgio and Schoorl (2013, p.98), operant
conditioning “disrupts a horse’s problem-solving
abilities, his abilities to be creative and his abilities
to deal with changing circumstances, because they
reinforce linear reactions by asking for precise
reaction that is independent from the actual
situation......the animal is consequently trained....to
ignore and inhibit his capacity to create sound
understanding of his environment”. Interestingly,
there are effects upon the physiological structures,
such as, the limbic system when food is used to
reward precise behavior. This removes the horses
ability to evaluate the situation/object on his own
terms and “the possibility of remaining calm and
explorative is almost entirely taken away (De
Giorgio & Schoorl, 2013, p.99).
Indeed, the Life Events Checklist describes
seventeen situations that are considered as risk
factors for mood disorders and according to Brown
and Harris (1989) these are also risk factors for
physiological illness such as gastrointestinal
disorders (Hilegers, Burger, Wals, Reichart,
Verhulst, Nolen, Ormel, 2004). Some of the items
relate to natural disasters such as fire or explosion.
However, some relate to combat, serious accidents,
transportation accidents, physical assault (with a
39
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
weapon, being attacked or hit, beaten), serious injury
or harm, sudden unexpected death of a family
member and any other stressful experience (Blake,
Weathers, Nagy, Kaloupek, Chamey & Keane,
1995). Many of the aforementioned examples create
stressful life events from the equine perspective. It
is astounding that chronic stress and trauma have not
been considered a significant aspect in equine
welfare.
Future Directions
As presented above anthrozoological and
ethological perspectives suggest there is a large gap
in understanding the psychological functioning of
the horse. Indeed, there are many in the horse world
who purport to understand horses and what they are
feeling and thinking. However, the majority in the
horse world fall upon behaviorism as the mainstay
for dealing with horses and other large animals in
captivity. The idea is based on the need for
‘control’ and force. More specifically, the idea that
animals are automata (stimuli in, behavior out) and
are devoid of interiority abounds (De Giorgio &
Schoorl, 2013). In 2012 the Cambridge Declaration
of animal sentience is a reflection of a change in
world view. Notwithstanding, the change in beliefs
and programs in the equine-world remain archaic to
say the least. They are remnants of the 1950s dogma
based on behaviorism and human dominance over
the natural world. In the mean time the horse is
forced into a state of learned helplessness and lives
out its days trapped in body and mind. The
development of a new species-specific PTSD/
Trauma questionnaire is recommended based on the
DSM-V Trauma and Stress related PTSD criteria to
begin the documentation and understanding of
equine trauma and potential presence of PTSD.
Furthermore, this assessment will go a long way
towards assessing equine welfare. In the future this
may be modified for use in other large captive
species.
The recommended s t ructure of the
questionnaire is based on that presented for young
children with added species-specific factors (to be
determined). Unfortunately, the instruments
published to assess PTSD have mainly focused on
behavioral and symptomatic aspects, with little
emphasis on the stressor and subjective responses
(Dyb, 2005). Indeed, an integrated approach is
suggested encompassing an understanding of the
early-forming attachment styles including the
psycho-neurobiological mechanisms that mediate
adaptive and maladaptive regulatory processes
(Maddux & Winstead, 2012). Early attachment
failures without compensatory social structures
permitting recovery are associated with high risk for
disorders later in adulthood (Bradshaw et al., 2005;
Bradshaw & Schoore, 2007). Indeed, with
prolonged stress beyond the personal threshold may
result in changes in behavior or a ‘problem animal’
or ‘rogue’ attacks. This is consistent with the
etiology of PTSD (Bradshaw et al., 2005; Bradshaw
40
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
& Schoore, 2007). It is believed that this type of
evidence will begin to change not only the way
humans view horses but the animal kingdom as a
whole. In so doing, this will begin to pave the way
to changing the legal landscape towards acceptance
of animal interiority. In addition to the modified
DSM-V PTSD criteria, a sample of recommended
species specific parameters may include (but are not
limited to) agency, self-efficacy, perceived control,
hope, optimism, relaxation, competence, species
social bonding, human social bonding, health and
wellbeing, avoidance of isolation, threats/
domination and safety (Bradshaw & Lindner, n.d.).
The dominant paradigm separating humans from the
natural world is illusory. It is a human creation, for
nature is within all beings, it seems incredibly
arrogant to profess humans are alone in possessing
interiority of thoughts and emotions. As guardians
of the natural world it is time for humans to humbly
accept this potentiality universally.
References
Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bell, S. M. (1970).
Attachment, exploration, and separation:
Illustrated by the behavior of one-year-olds
in a strange situation. Child Development,
41, 49-67.
American Psychological Association. (2015).
Trauma. Retrieved the 15th of December
2015 from http://www.apa.org/topics/
trauma/.
American Psychiatric Association. (2015). DSM
History. Retrieved the 15th of December
2015 from http://www.psychiatry.org/
psychiatrists/practice/dsm/history.
Becht, J. L., & Byars, T. D. (1986). Gastroduodenal
ulceration in foals. Equine Veterinary
Journal, 18(4), 307-312).
Bekoff, M. (2000). Animal Emotions: Exploring
Passionate Natures. BioScience, 50(10), pp
861-870.
Bekoff M. (2002). Minding Animals: Awareness,
Emotions and Heart. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Bhaskar, R. (2008). Dialectic: The Pulse of
Freedom. New York: Routledge.
Bhaskar, R. (2012). Reflections on meta-reality.
New York: Routledge Taylor Francis Group.
Blake, D. D., Weathers, F. W., Nagy, L. M.,
Kaloupek, D. G., Gusman, F. D., Charney, D.
S., & Keane, T. M. (1995). The development
of a clinician-administered PTSD scale.
Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 75-90.
Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the child’s tie to
his mother. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis, 39, 350-373.
Bradshaw, G. A., & Lindner, L. (n.d.). Post-
traumatic stress and elephants in captivity.
Retrieved 14th December 2015 from http://
w w w . e l e p h a n t s . c o m / j o a n n a /
Bradshaw&Lindner_PTSD-rev.pdf.
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
41
Bradshaw, G. A., & Schoore A. N. (2007), How
elephants are opening doors: Developmental
neuroethology, attachment and Social
Context. Ethology, 113, 426-436.
Brewin, C. R., & Holmes, E. A. (2003).
Psychological theories of posttraumatic
stress. Clinical Psychology Review, 23,
339-376.
Curtis, J., & Tallis, N. (2012). The Horse: From
Arabia to Royal Ascot. London: The British
Museum Press.
Brown, G., & Harris, T. O. (Eds) (1989). Life
Events and Illness. New York: The
Guildford Press.
Diagnostic and Statistics Manual for Mental
Disorders (DSM). (2015). Retrieved on
10th December 2015 from http://
www.dsm5.org/Documents/PTSD%20Fact
%20Sheet.pdf.
De Giorgio, F., & Schoorl, J. (2013). The Cognitive
Horse. Netherlands: Leaning Animals, De
Giorgio Institute for ZooAnthropology.
Dyb, G. (2005). Posttraumatic stress reactions in
children and adolescents. Norwegian
University of Science and Technology,
Faculty of Medicine.
Etymonline. (2015). Horse. Retrieved on the 13th
of December 2015 from http:/
/www.etymonline.com/index.php?
term=horse
Foy, D. W., Madvig, B. T., Pynoos, R. S. &
Camilleri, A. J. (1996). Etiological factors in
the development of posttraumatic stress
disorder in children and adolescents. Journal
of School Psychology, 34, 133-145.
Friedman, M. J. (2015). PTSD History and
Overview. Retrieved on 17 December 2015
from http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional
/PTSD-overview/ptsd-overview.asp.
Harlow, H. F., Dodsworth, R. O., & Harlow, M. K.
(1965). Total social isolation in monkeys.
Proceedings of National Academy of
Sciences, 54, 90-97.
Hausberger, M., Gautier, E., Biquand, V., Lunel, C.,
& Jego, P. (2009). Could work be a source
of behavioral disorders? A study in horses.
Plos One, 4(10), 1-7.
Heller, L., & LaPierre, A. (2012). Healing
Developmental Trauma. California: North
Atlantic Books.
Hill, Daniel (2015). Affect Regulation Theory: A
C l in ica l Mode l (Nor ton Ser ies on
Interpersonal Neurobiology). W. W. Norton
& Company. Kindle Edition.
Hilegers, M. H., J. Burger, H., Wals, M., Reichart,
C. G., Verhulst, F. C., Nolen, W. A., Ormel, J.
(2004). Impact of stressful life events,
familial loading and their interaction on the
onset of mood disorders. The British Journal
of Psychiatry, 185(2), 9-101.
42
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
Horsetalk. (2013). Retrieved on 9th December
2015 from http://horsetalk.co.nz/2013/10/16
/imprinting-newborn-foal/#axzz3ve8Edl8z.
Hothersall, B., & Casey, R. (2011). Undesired
behavior in horses: A review of their
development, prevention, management and
association with welfare. Equine Veterinary
Education, 24(9), 479-485.
Kalsched, D. (2013). Trauma and the Soul: A
Psycho-Spiritual Approach to Human /
development and its Interruption. New York:
Routledge.
Levine, B. (2013). Why the rise in mental illness?
Pathologizing normal, Adverse Drug Effects
and a Peculiar Rebellion. Retrieved 20
December 2015 from http://
www.madinamerica.com/2013/07/why-the-
dramatic-rise-of-mental-illness-diseasing-
normal-behaviors-drug-adverse-effects-and-
a-peculiar-rebellion/.
Maxwell, E. (2011). Temperament: Horse
character in breeding. Retrieved on the 10th
o f D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 5 f r o m h t t p : / /
www.waho.org/blog/wp-content/uploads/
2011/10/Emma-
Maxwell-talk-WAHO-Conference2011.pdf
McBride, D., & Mills, D.S. (2012). Psychological
factors affecting equine performance. BMC
Veterinary Research, 8(180), 1-11.
Maddux, J. E., & Winstead, B., A. (Eds). (2012).
Psychopathology: Foundations for a
Contemporary Understanding. New York:
Taylor & Francis Group.
National Institutes of Health (NIH). (2015). Post
Traumatic Stress Disorder. Retrieved on
10th December 2015 from http://
www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-
traumatic-stress
-disorder-ptsd/index.shtml.
Nieto, J. (2012). Diagnosing and treating gastric
ulcers in horses. CEH Horse Report, 1-6.
Premarin. (2015). Premarin. Retrieved on
the 15th of December 2015 from
http:// www.premarin.org/.
Reagan, S. (2012). Equine Nutrition: From a
Species Appropriate Perspective. Willow
Oak Publishing: Knoxville, TN, USA.
Sapolsky, R. M. (1998). Why Zebras Don’t Get
Ulcers. New York, New York: Henry Holt
and Company, LLC.
Scheeringa, M. S., Zeanah, C. H., Drell, M. J., &
Larrieu, J. A. (1995). Two approaches to the
diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder in
infancy and early childhood. Journal of the
American Academy of Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry, 34 (2), 191-200.
Scheeringa, M. S., Peebles, C. D., Cook, C. A., &
Zeanah, C. H. (2001). Toward establishing
procedural, criterion, and discriminant
validity for PTSD in early childhood.
Journal of the American Academy of Child
and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40 (1), 52-60.
43
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
Selye, H. (1950). Stress and general adaptation
syndrome. British Medical Journal, 1(4667),
1383-1392.
Shannon, G., Slotow, R., Durant, S. M., Sayialel, K.
N., Poole, J., Moss, C., McComb, K. (2013).
Effects of social disruption in elephants
persist decades after culling. Frontiers in
Zoology(10)62, 1-10.
Schwartz, S. (2002). Separation anxiety syndrome
in cats:136 cases (1991-2000). Journal of
American Veterinary Medical Association,
220(7), 1028-1033.
The British Museum. (2012). Retrieved on the 15th
of December 2015 from http://
b log .br i t i shmuseum.org/2012/05/22/
horses- and-human-history/.
Waterland, R. A. (2006). Epigenetic mechanisms
and gastrointestinal development. The
Journal of Pediatrics, 149(5), S137-S142.
Webdictionary.com. (2015). Define
Emotions. Retrieved 20 December 2015
from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/
emotion.
The Society for Animal Consciousness™
2016
Revisiting the animal consciousness debate.
“Do not go where the path may lead, go instead
where there is no path and leave a trail.”
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Do you want your article published in The Journal of
Animal Consciousness?
Email Chiara Marrapodi at chiara@societyforanimalco
nsciousness.org
Revisiting the animal consciousness debate.
The Society for Animal Consciousness™
2016
44
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
Can Smiling
be Bad for
You?Sarah L. Reagan
Most people would think this question to be absolutely absurd. And certainly there is sufficient science as well as anecdotal evidence to tell us that smiling is indeed good for you. What I am referring to here is that forced smile, that happy face you try to put on for your customers’ sake, or because it’s not ‘politically correct’ to do otherwise around someone that has thoroughly upset you (perhaps your boss), or because some new age guru said you can change your whole life for the better just by smiling. Yet a recent study by a Michigan State University business scholar suggests workers in the customer-service sector who fake a smile throughout the day worsen their mood and withdraw from work, affecting productivity. This forced state of happiness can actually cause one to withdraw from the task at hand.
“Employers may think that simply getting their employees to smile is good for the organization, but that’s not necessarily the case. Smiling for the sake of smiling can lead to emotional exhaustion and withdrawal, and that’s bad for the organization.” Interestingly – “Previous research suggests women
are both expected to and do show greater emotional intensity and positive emotional expressiveness than men. Thus, faking a smile while still feeling negative emotion conflicts with this cultural norm and may cause even more harmful feelings in women...” (Brent Scott, study author and assistant professor of management, Michigan State University).
What does this have to do with our animals? Plenty. It’s called shaping behavior. A well-known dog trainer and TV personality likes to lift a dog’s tail up (when it’s tucked between the legs) in a presumed effort to ‘cheer the dog up’. How many horse owners have you seen take their horse’s pinned-back ears and try to pivot them forward into the so-called relaxed position in an attempt to allay fright or to down-scale aggressive behavior? It is an integral part of behaviorist training techniques which utilize operant conditioning methods that the animal should be held or maintained in certain positions for prescribed lengths of time because it is ‘good’ for them, thus shaping their behavior into a so-called
45
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
positive one. There appears to be a widespread belief within these behaviorism circles that shaping an expression or even a physical position in an animal will result in an automatic change to a ‘happy’ condition. In natural horsemanship circles this translates into a horse who is a ‘willing partner’. This positiveness, however, is defined from a human perspective, not the animal’s, and we get caught in the trap of superficial emotions and false interpretations. The animal will not lie, it is our incorrect interpretation of their display of behavior that gives us false feedback. For the sake of achieving that gold standard in behavioristic training – compliance – we do not take the time to observe the living being standing in front of us, nor consider the underlying causes of the immediate emotive expression. This has the consequence of not seeing the internal affective state and can lead to ‘explosive’ behavior or even worse for the animal, a state of becoming ‘shut down’ emotionally. How many times have you heard a person describe a horse that suddenly ‘blew up’ (referring to behavior)? With a thousand pound animal, this can have dire consequences for anyone standing nearby; and then, of course, then horse is labeled ‘crazy’. The flip side to that is an animal that displays all the symptoms of learned helplessness, even migrating into PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder). Unfortunately in the horse world, this state is many times viewed as a compliant one and thus desirable.
In dog training it is quite common to force the dog to remain in an unnatural state, such as in the ‘down’ or ‘stay’ mode when the dog is actually quite agitated. There is a sequence to the manifestation of behavior that exists in all organisms, called the four-beat cycle: tension/charge/discharge/relaxation. If the animal is already in a tension/charge state and then forced into relaxation without being allowed to go through the discharge phase, there can be negative consequences for the psycho-physiological, or the affective state and can ultimately result in negative valence –
namely fear and aggression. Over time, this suppression of the emotional response cycle has the potential to manifest itself in physical illness.
If we can learn to give our animals space to allow them the chance to utilize their own cognitive and sentient abilities we can find they will be happier and healthier animals.
I am a researcher in Goethean animal science with a primary interest in the human/animal relationship; I have a doctorate in natural animal science/naturopathy (KCNH) and am currently working on a MSc in Human/Animal Studies (HAS) at Bircham
International University; I hold the Advanced Diploma in Veterinary Homeopathy (BIH/USA) and am a registered homeopath through NUPATH. I am currently on the Board of Directors of the Society for Animal Consciousness and am the equine instructor with American Council of Animal Naturopathy. My first book, Equine Nutrition: From a Species Appropriate Perspective was published in Feb 2013; I have written several unpublished articles, primarily on equine health issues. Having been a small organic commercial farmer, I understand sustainable growing methods and believe that in order to sustain and nourish the animal directly we have to create a sustainable cycle from cradle to grave of all the food components including the growing methods; I recognize that the sustenance the animal takes in and transforms into self has a direct affect upon all aspects of outward projection (including behavior) of the animal, and thus it becomes imperative that the animal receive nutrition that is natural and species-appropriate. I am an ardent advocate for a biocentric approach to all aspects of animal welfare – and particularly that of horses.
Contact Sarah Reagan: [email protected]
About the AuthorSarah L. Reagan
46
© The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016. Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
The Society for Animal Consciousness would like to extend a hearty thanks to all those who contributed in this Journal edition!
A Journal for a paradigm shift from a uni-dimensional perspective to a multi-faceted approach about the natural world and consciousness.
We are proud to announce our ISSN application is in process!
What is consciousness and do animals and plants have it?
Think you have an article that adds value to understanding consciousness? Then send it to [email protected]!
The Journal of Animal Consciousness is edited and produced by Chiara Marrapodi Founder of The Society for Animal Consciousness.
The Journal of Animal Consciousness is produced free to the community. It is the first Journal of its kind and incorporates an integral approach. Providing a blend of scientific and philosophical theses on Animal Consciousness and related topics.2016
The Society for Animal Consciousness™
Issue 2, Vol 1, April 2016.
Jour
nal Of
Animal Consciousness
www.societyforanimalconsciousness.org
All articles are copyright of the author concerned and reprinting is authorized by the Editor and Author only. © The Society for Animal Consciousness 2016.
