Quaternary International 184 (2008) 94–108

Late Holocene vegetation changes and human impact in the ChangbaiMountains area, Northeast China

Miroslaw Makohonienkoa,b,�, Hiroyuki Kitagawac, Toshiyuki Fujikid, Xin Liue,Yoshinori Yasudab, Huaining Yine

aInstitute of Quaternary Research and Geoecology, A. Mickiewicz University, Poznan, PolandbInternational Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, Japan

cInstitute for Hydrospheric Atmospheric Sciences, Nagoya University, JapandGraduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan

eGeographical Department, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China

Available online 8 September 2007

Abstract

Pollen analytical data from Jinchuan site in the Changbai Mountains, located within the mixed temperate broadleaved forest zone of

Northeast China, were used for the reconstruction of vegetation changes and dynamics of human habitation activities in the last 6000 cal.

years in the periphery to the Chinese civilization areas of former Manchuria. The beginning of the present type of vegetation dominated

by mixed forests with the characteristic tree species Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis Siebold & Zuccarini) was dated to 3100 cal. BC.

Expansion of Korean pine occurred in two steps. The second phase of enhanced expansion of pine along with other coniferous taxa of

higher altitudes such as Abies and Picea was dated to around 70 AD. The pattern of Late Holocene spread of coniferous elements

(P. koraiensis, Picea, Abies) and retreat of deciduous oaks was associated with phases of climatic cooling and presumably changes in

effective precipitation.

The oldest record of habitation processes identified in pollen assemblages from Jinchuan was dated to around 140 AD. The buckwheat

(Fagopyrum esculentum) cultivation was documented since the first half of the 9th century AD. The 18th century immigration of the

Chinese population of Han ethnicity was reflected in the fossil archive, due to economic activities of the settlers connected with

exploitation of forest resources through cutting of pine trees, protection of walnut stands, and cultivation of Hordeum/Triticum cereals.

r 2007 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The vegetation changes for the Changbai Mountain

region in eastern Manchuria have been previously studied

by Liu (1989), Mingram et al. (2004a, b), Sun et al. (1991),

Sun and Yuan (1990), Sun and Weng (1992), and Yuan

and Sun (1990). The longest sequences covering the Late

Glacial and the Holocene were presented from Gushantun

and Jinchuan sites (Liu, 1989; Sun et al., 1991), subse-

quently used for the regional synthesis in China (Sun and

Chen, 1991; Ren and Zhang, 1998; Yu et al., 2000; Ren and

Beug, 2002). These studies, however, concentrated on main

vegetation changes, forest taxa and selected herbaceous

components with restricted analyses of anthropogenic

factors. Timing and scale of human interferences during

the Holocene, perceived as the Anthropogenic Era (Ruddi-

man, 2003), and especially during its later part of

increasing human impact, is of great importance for

palaeoenvironmental reconstructions. The role of anthro-

pogenic factors in vegetation dynamics is still poorly

documented by palynological data in China (Ren, 2000).

This paper presents new results of pollen analytical studies

of the sediments from Jinchuan site providing a well-dated

scheme of vegetation changes in the forest zone of north-

eastern China in the Late Holocene. High-resolution data

and the use of indicative herbaceous taxa of human impact

allowed an attempt to separate climatic and anthropogenic

signals in the fossil pollen record, and a more detailed

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1040-6182/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.09.010

�Corresponding author. Institute of Quaternary Research and Geoe-

cology, A. Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland.

E-mail address: makoho@amu.edu.pl (M. Makohonienko).

reference to habitation processes within the broadleaved

deciduous forest zone of Northeast China during the last

6000 years.

Peat sediments of the Jinchuan site have been previously

studied in relation to changes in oxygen isotope ratios

(d18O) and stable carbon isotopic composition (d13C). The

analysis carried out on the remains of plant cellulose

deposited in Jinchaun peat have been used for assessment

of climatic response to solar forcing in a high time-

resolution scale, and for reconstruction of changes in

drought and precipitation in Northeast China (Hong et al.,

2000, 2001). The results provoked vivid debate with the

main question focused on precision of timing of the

discussed geological record (see Fairbridge, 2001; Hong,

2001; Oldfield, 2001). The reconstructed climatic para-

meters presented by Hong et al. (2000, 2001) were used in

this study for inferences on vegetation changes.

2. Regional and local environmental settings

The Jinchuan site is located in the eastern part of

Dongbei (Northeast China), also known as Manchuria, in

the Changbain Mountains region (Fig. 1A and B) within

the biome of East Asiatic temperate (evergreen coniferous

and deciduous broadleaved) mixed forests, which extends

from the northern part of the Korean Peninsula through

Northeast China to the Amur region of the Russian Far

East (Yim, 1977; Wu, 1983; Krestov, 2003). In Northeast

China this is the largest forest region including such

mountain ranges as the north Xiao Hinggan Ling (Lesser

Hingan), and further to the south Wanda Shan, Zhang-

guangcai Ling, Liaoye Ling, Changbai Shan, Longang

Shan, Hada Ling, and Qian Shan (Qian et al., 2003). The

climatic conditions of the region are determined by the

monsoon system of East Asia. Seasonal changes in

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Fig. 1. Study area in Northeast China (Dongbei). (A) Administrative division and main cities in Dongbei with location of the Jinchuan site in southern

part of Jilin Province (marked by asterisk). (B) Mean annual precipitation in Northeast China and indicated approximate limit of East Asian summer

monsoon reaching the Greater Hingan mountain range in western part of Dongbei (after Geographical atlas of China, Zuixin Shiyong Zhongguo Dituce,

1997). Major mountain ranges in Northeast China are labelled. (C) Seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation in Jilin Province, Changchun

station (from Wu, 1983).

M. Makohonienko et al. / Quaternary International 184 (2008) 94–108 95

temperature and precipitation (Fig. 1C) are connected with

activity of the summer and winter monsoon. The summer

southeast monsoon, with air masses from the subtropical

anticyclone in the Northwest Pacific, brings most of the

annual precipitation, around 70–80%, which falls from

June to August (Domros and Peng, 1988; Zhang and Lin,

1992). Distribution of annual precipitation in Northeast

China shows a gradual decrease from the south-east (with

precipitation of 600 to around 1300mm in Changbai

Mountains) to 300–400mm in the north-west (in the Great

Hingan Mountains area, where the summer monsoon

reaches its limit) (Fig. 1B). Siberian high-pressure systems

prevailing in winter bring in turn cold and dry air masses

from the interior of the continent. The winters are clear,

windy and with little snowfall. The mean temperature for

the warmest month (July) in the almost entire Northeast is

above 20 1C. The mean air temperatures of the coldest

month (January) in the Changbai Mountains range

between �10 and �20 1C depending on elevation (Zhang

and Lin, 1992; Liu, 1998).

The short duration of the summer monsoon as well as

long, cold and dry winters are assumed to be the main

natural climatic factors responsible for vegetation distribu-

tion. The mountainous areas of Northeast China constitute

one of three main forest regions of the country. Cold-

temperate coniferous forests with larch occur in the north

of Great Hingan Mountains, while in the Lesser Hingan

and Changbai Mountain systems, temperate mixed con-

iferous and deciduous forests predominate (Fig. 2).

According to the phytogeographical divisions, most

of the Manchurian Plain belongs to the steppe zone (see

Wu, 1983).

The Jinchuan wetland (421200N, 1261220E) is located at

the elevation of around 616ma.s.l., surrounded by low

mountains reaching up to 820ma.s.l (Fig. 3). The main

local watercourse (Hou River) passes through the southern

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Fig. 2. Main vegetation zones in Northeast China and the present distribution of forests (after Wu, 1983).

M. Makohonienko et al. / Quaternary International 184 (2008) 94–10896

margins of the swamp at a distance of about 700m from

the drilling point. The nearest settlement, Jinchuan, is

located only 1 km east of the swamp at the foot of the maar

lake Dalongwan. Cultivated fields (mainly with Sorghum

sp. and Zea mays) and ruderal vegetation is common at

low elevations. The surrounding mountains are covered

with mixed conifer and deciduous broadleaf forests. This

type of vegetation occupies areas between 500 and 1100m

in the Changbai Mountains (Chou, 1997; Zhu, 1999; Qian

et al., 2003; Zhu et al., 2003). Conifers include Korean pine

(Pinus koraiensis Siebold & Zuccarini), fir (Abies holophylla

(Maximowicz), red pine (Pinus densiflora Siebold &

Zuccarini) and Japanese yew (Taxus cuspidata Siebold &

Zuccarini), and deciduous broadleaf trees include Mon-

golian oak (Quercus mongolica Fischer ex Ledebour), Tilia

amurensis Ruprecht, Ulmus, ash (Fraxinus mandschurica

Ruprecht) and Manchurian walnut (Juglans mandshurica

Maximowicz). Higher elevated areas between 1100 and

1900ma.s.l. support dark conifer forests with spruce

(Picea jezoensis Siebold & Zuccarini and P. obovata

Ledebour), fir (Abies nephrolepis (Trautvetter ex Maximo-

wicz) Maximowicz), and larch (Larix olgensis Miller) and

in subcanopy with maple, birch, mountain ash and poplar.

The alpine zone, above 1900ma.s.l., consists of meadow

vegetation and shrubby communities with Salix spp.,

Vaccinium spp., Rhododendron spp. and dwarf rock birch

(Betula ermannii Chamisso).

3. Field and laboratory methods

The core for palaeoenvironmental studies was taken with

a piston sampler with the tube of 5 cm diameter, from the

central part of the Jinchuan swamp at a distance of about

350m from its northern margin at 665ma.s.l. (Fig. 3). Sub-

sampling was done on the fresh sediments. The samples for

pollen analyses were prepared with the use of heavy liquid

(polytungstate) to separate mineral components (Nakaga-

wa et al., 1998). For each sample 600–1000 pollen grains of

terrestrial plants were counted. Percentages were calculated

according to the pollen sum of all terrestrial plants,

AP+NAP ¼ 100% (Berglund and Ralska-Jasiewiczowa,

1986). To avoid an effect of over-representation by local

components, telmatophytes, including Cyperaceae, and

limnophytes were excluded from the calculation sum.

Calculations, zonation of the pollen sequences and

construction of the diagrams were performed with the use

of Tilia and TiliaGraph programs (Grimm, 1987,

1991–1993). The amount of charcoal particles and some

non-pollen microfossils as such Cyanobacteria was also

counted. Nomenclature of pollen type classes followed

Moore et al. (1991) in general. Chinese and Japanese pollen

morphological publications were used for taxonomical

identifications (Shimakura, 1973; Nakamura, 1980a, b;

Nasu and Seto, 1986a, b; Wang et al., 1995). Cultivated

plants such as Fagopyrum, Cerealia undiff., have been used

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Fig. 3. Simplified topographic map of the Jinchuan area, Huinan County, Jilin Province, Northeastern China.

M. Makohonienko et al. / Quaternary International 184 (2008) 94–108 97

as direct indicators of human activity. The other herbac-

eous taxa, which occupy synanthropic habitats such as

Chenopodiaceae, Xanthium, Humulus type, were selected as

potential supporting evidence of habitation phases.

4. Sediment stratigraphy and chronology

The sediment stratigraphy of the Jinchuan profile used

for palynological procedures is illustrated in Fig. 4. The

550 cm long sequence represents sediment accumulation

during the last 6000 cal. years. The chronology of the

profile was established with 7 AMS measurements. Radio-

carbon dates were subsequently calibrated to calendar

years using the CALIB ver. 5.0 program (Stuiver and

Reimer, 1993). The radiocarbon dates and calibration

results are listed in Table 1.

The drillings did not reach the bottom of the accumula-

tion basin. The lowermost part of the core represents

limnic accumulation (sandy clay), which ended at the depth

of 470 cm, dated to ca. 5200–5300 cal. BP. At the depth of

470–510 cm, a layer of sand and gravel occurred. The

stratum may represent fluvial deposition due to changes in

channel of the water course passing through the former

lake or plausibly it reflects a short-term deposition of

coarse mineral material during extreme conditions such as

a flood event. The top of the sand layer can be dated

between 5400 and 5600 cal. BP.

The upper part of the sequence from the depth 470 cm

contains telmatic sediments composed of sedge peat.

Sedimentation rate (SR), calculated on the basis of

calibrated radiocarbon years for the seven time-windows

showed values that varied from 0.033 to 0.211 cm/year

(Fig. 4) with the mean sedimentation rate of 0.088 cm/year

(calculated for the 447.5 cm long peat sequence dated using

radiocarbon). The lowest SR was recorded between levels

dated to 1410 BC and 70 cal. AD, and between 840 and

1630 cal. AD. The highest sedimentation rate occurred

between levels dated to 70–840 AD. Then, the most

remarkable shift in sedimentation rate occurred at the

level dated to around 70 cal. AD. It should, however, be

stressed that the SR simplified curve represents only

changes between the levels used for radiocarbon dates,

and the real levels of shift in sedimentation rate may differ

from that presented in the chart.

The depth-age model constructed for the peat sediments

of the Jinchuan site with 7 AMS measurements presented

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Fig. 4. Lithology and age-depth model of the Jinchuan core (421200N, 1261220E). Age model based on 7 calibrated radiocarbon dates (see Table 1 for

details). Horizontal bars indicate calibrated age ranges calculated from probability distribution for 2s (95.4% confidence). Changes in sedimentation rate

(SR) in the seven intervals between levels dated with radiocarbon dating have been measured and indicated by simplified chart. Mean sedimentation rate

calculated for the 447.5 cm long section of the sediment sequence dated with AMS was 0.088 cm/year.

M. Makohonienko et al. / Quaternary International 184 (2008) 94–10898

in this paper (Fig. 4), did not show a linear trend. A linear

trend was established with 5 radiocarbon dates by Hong et

al. (2000) for a core of peat sediments taken from the same

swamp, and used for correlations of climatic changes and

solar forcing. This has been discussed by Fairbridge (2001)

and critically evaluated in relation to the issue of

chronology and time-resolution by Oldfield (2001) (with

response of Hong, 2001).

5. Results and interpretation

5.1. Natural vegetation changes and climatic implications

In the pollen sequence of the 550 cm profile from

Jinchuan swamp (Figs. 5–7), four local pollen assemblage

zones (L PAZ) reflecting main phases in vegetation

development during the last 6000 cal. year were delimited

with the assistance of the statistical program CONISS

incorporated in Tilia/TiliaGraph.

5.1.1. Phase of broadleaved deciduous forests-

Quercus–Juglans L PAZ (prior to 3100 cal. BC)

In the earliest phase of the stratigraphic sequence, prior

to 3100 cal. BC (5050 cal. BP) delimited as Quercus–Juglans

L PAZ, fossil pollen spectra showed predominance of

deciduous tree taxa including oaks (Quercus—max. to 35%

of calculation sum AP+NAP), walnut (Juglans—max.

16%), Ulmus (max. 14%), Fraxinus (8%), Carpinus (5%),

and Tilia (3.5%). Alnus, Salix and Corylus were recorded in

small quantities. Occurrence of pollen grains of Acer,

though low, may indicate its significant admixture in the

local deciduous forests. Pollen grains of the Amur corktree

(Phellodendron amurense Ruprecht) were also recorded.

Low occurrences of high-pollen producing taxa such as

Betula (up to 3%) and Pinus (up to 7.6%) reflect their very

restricted role in vegetation cover of the region. Pollen

grains of Ephedra, representing far-distant aerial transport,

were regularly found in that zone. Single grains of Castanea

may also reflect an influx from remote areas.

In the Quercus–Juglans pollen assemblage zone, arboreal

pollen (AP) comprises from 81% to only 40% of the total

sum of AP and NAP. Representation of herbaceous plants

(NAP) from 19% to 60% was relatively high. Such a high

amount of NAP resulted mainly from the content of

Poaceae pollen grains. Changes in lithology in this part of

the core indicate a transition from lacustrine to mire

environment, suggesting that the high content of Poaceae

can be linked with pollen grains of common reed-forming

Phragmites communities. Numerous macroscopic remains

of Phragmites in the sediments of Jinchuan at the relevant

depth were reported by Hong et al. (2000). Thus, the

Poaceae pollen type, though included in the group of

terrestrial herbaceous plants, originates from the species

Phragmites australis growing in shallow waters, forming a

belt of emergent aquatic macrophytes along the former

lake shores. The appearance of wet habitats in closer

proximity to the sampling site is confirmed by temporal

high representation of such taxa of wet habitats as

Lythrum, Mentha and Apiaceae. This episode indicates

lowering of the water level of the Jinchuan paleolake.

The highest amount of Cyperaceae (224% of AP and

NAP, Cyperaceae excluded from calculation sum) was

recorded in the very beginning of peat accumulation dated

to ca. 5300 cal. BP (3350 BC), followed by a phase of fern

expansion (Polypodiaceae). In the fossil samples, pollen

grains of Cyperaceae were encountered in conglomerates,

which indicate their local origin. In the last sample prior to

the transition from lacustrine to swamp environment,

marked by a sediment change, very high amounts of

Artemisia pollen occurred reaching 46% (in the sample at

the depth 478 cm). The genus Artemisia is characteristic of

open habitats. It is a common component of steppe

vegetation, and may appear in a forested landscape due

to disturbances of vegetation cover. However, as the level

of high pollen frequency of Artemisia contained conglom-

erates of numerous pollen grains, it can be assumed that

the high content of mugwort resulted from an occasional

inwash of material from a terrestrial habitat, and the taxon

was overrepresented. A high overrepresentation of Ulmus

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Table 1

Radiocarbon dates of the Jinchuan profile dated with the AMS method

Laboratory code Sample

depth

(cm)

Age 14C (year

BP)

Calibrated 14C

age ranges (year

BP), 2s ranges

Cal. 14C age

(year BP) (round

to decade)

Calibrated 14C

age ranges (year

AD/BC), 2s

ranges

Cal. 14C age

(year AD/BC)

(round to

decade)

Material

dated

GrA-15820 45–50 280750 150–485BP 310BP 1465–1800 AD 1630 AD Seeds

GrA-15824 90–95 1170760 961–1258BP 1110BP 692–989 AD 840 AD Seeds, Carex

GrA-15823 185–190 1680750 1418–1710BP 1560BP 240–532 AD 390 AD Seeds, Carex

GrA-15821 245–250 1950750 1739–2030BP 1880BP 81BC–211AD 70 AD Unidentified

GrA-15825 295–300 3150750 3256–3470BP 3360BP 1521–1307 BC 1410 BC Seeds, Carex

GrA-15826 395–400 4060750 4421–4809BP 4620BP 2860–2472 BC 2670 BC Seeds, Carex

GrA-15822 445–450 4370750 4839–5261BP 5050BP 3312–2890 BC 3100 BC Ephiderma

Calibration with the use of CALIB ver. 5.0 program (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993). Calibrated (BP and AD/BC) age ranges calculated from probability

distribution for 2s (95.4% confidence), Calibration data set: intcal04.14C (Reimer et al., 2004).

M. Makohonienko et al. / Quaternary International 184 (2008) 94–108 99

pollen grains was recorded in the same lithological strata of

Jinchuan sediments analyzed by Sun et al. (1991). The

evidences of inwash of pollen from terrestrial habitats

would additionally suggest significant water level fluctua-

tions or intensified fluvial activity at that time.

5.1.2. Expansion of Korean pine—earlier phase of mixed

forests Quercus–Pinus L PAZ (3100 BC–70 cal. AD)

The fossil pollen record reveals that the expansion of

Korean pine, a characteristic tree species of the present day

regional vegetation, occurred around the site shortly after

the changes from lake to mire ecosystem, reflected in the

lithology of the studied core as well as in pollen

assemblages showing development of swamp vegetation

with Cyperaceae, Polypodiaceae and other taxa of telmatic

habitats such as Thalictrum, Lythrum, Apiacae, Mentha

type or possibly Aster type.

The pollen spectra showed reverse trends in representa-

tion of Pinus and Ephedra. The pollen grains of Ephedra

discovered at Jinchuan originate from beyond the Chang-

bai region, representing far-distant pollen transport from

semi-desert and desert areas in northern China, west of the

forested areas of Dongbei. The Ephedra had higher and

more regular occurrences during the preceding phase of

deciduous forests dominated by oaks, and it declined after

3000 cal. BC, during the subsequent phase of P. koraiensis

expansion. The retreat of Ephedra in desert areas, and of

oak-dominated forest communities in favor of mixed forest

in the Changbai Mountains seem to reflect a common

response to the Late Holocene climate change in the two

ecologically differing areas.

Expansion of Korean pine, which is a mountainous

species associated with cooler conditions, occurred mainly

at the expense of deciduous oaks (Quercus). The second

deciduous tree affected negatively at the time of spread of

Korean pine was Tilia. The other deciduous taxa, e.g.,

Carpinus and Acer, showed their decline later, around 1800

BC. Between around 800 (700) BC and 70 AD, the pollen

profile showed a second phase of development of wet

meadows richer in such herbaceous taxa as Sanguisorba

officinalis, Thalictrum, Aster type, Poaceae and Cyperaceae

as well as increase of light-demanding forest fern Pteridium

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Fig. 5. Jinchuan site-pollen percentage diagram for arboreal taxa (AP). Percentages values for the individual taxa based on pollen sum of all terrestrial

plants, AP+NAP ¼ 100% (excluding telmatophytes and limnophytes). Lithology as in Fig. 4. Magnification by 10 is used to show minor percentage

values. For very rare taxa, dots were used to indicate presence of single pollen grains in the stratigraphic record. L PAZ—local pollen assemblage zones—

delimited with assistance of CONISS procedure.

M. Makohonienko et al. / Quaternary International 184 (2008) 94–108100

aquilinum combined with pine decline and episodic rise of

Betula in the final phase. A slight rise in Artemisia pollen

content has been recorded as well. These vegetation

changes correspond with decrease of Cyanobacteria

remains in the sediments, however, still with a presence

of specimens of green alga of Scenedesmus and Botryoco-

cus. The lowest sedimentation rate in the sequence was

recorded in that phase indicating restricted organic

deposition or higher decomposition of organic matter due

to aeration of the surface sediments. Climatic parameters

reconstructed on the basis of the isotope studies (Dd18O

and Dd13C) of peat cellulose from Jinchuan swamp,

indicate in that period a decrease in mean air temperatures

and frequent fluctuations in soil moisture/precipitation

(Hong et al., 2000, 2001).

5.1.3. The second phase of expansion and dominance of

mixed forests with Korean pine Pinus L PAZ (70 cal. AD—

ca. 1630 AD)

The following phase showed the second stage of Korean

pine expansion along with other mountain arboreal taxa

such as Abies and Picea—reflecting their migration to

lower elevations. Relative frequency of Pinus pollen grains

increased above 50%. The onset of that event was dated in

the profile to around 70–100 AD. In the lithological

sequence, the layer between ca. 70 AD and ca. 800 AD is

characterized by the highest accumulation rate of peat, up

to 0.21 cm/year, which may broadly reflect optimal,

sufficient supply of moisture during the vegetative season

for the growth of sedge communities, and for the formation

and preservation of peat. A drier event, reflected in

minimal Cyperaceae and a drop in pine pollen, was dated

according to the calculated calibrated time scale, to around

350–370 AD. At the level dated to around 140 AD, the

Jinchuan palynological record revealed the first evidence of

human interference in the forest environment, inferred

from the presence of Xanthium pollen.

In the level dated to around 850 AD, the first pollen

grain of cultivated species Fagopyrum esculentum was

recorded. In the subsequent sample, representation of pine

pollen decreased while the amount of Betula and herbs of

open habitats such as Artemisia increased, suggesting a

phase of a more open landscape. Between 840 and

1630 cal. BP, the sedimentation rate of peat was low. The

last evidence of presence of aquatic organisms such as

Diatomae and Spongia corresponded with the maximum of

Cyperaceae, and was dated to ca. 1200 AD.

5.1.4. The phase of local expansion of Ericaceae L PAZ

(1630 AD—present)

Since around 1630 AD, pollen spectra reflect a spread of

Ericaceae, probably from local mire communities at the

site. A short dry climate episode is indicated by minima

of Cyperaceae, Polypodiaceae and Sphagnum. This is

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Fig. 6. Jinchuan site-pollen percentage diagram for terrestrial herbaceous plants (NAP). All percentages values are based on pollen sum of all terrestrial

plants, AP+NAP ¼ 100% (excluding telmatophytes and limnophytes). Lithology as in Fig. 4. Magnification by 10 is used to show minor percentage

values. Dots were used to indicate presence of pollen conglomerates.

M. Makohonienko et al. / Quaternary International 184 (2008) 94–108 101

recorded at 35 cm depth, dated 1730–40 AD. This level

corresponds well to the historically documented droughts

in China, which triggered the immigration of Chinese

peasants into Manchuria, the province formerly closed to

settlement by Chinese farmers (Sun and Yuan, 1990). Since

that time, a permanent cultivation of cereals and utilization

of forest resources has been recorded.

5.2. Human impact in Changbai Mountains—reconstructed

from the pollen record of the Jinchuan site

The pollen diagram from Jinchuan provided a record of

human impact on the natural environment in the Changbai

Mountains area, within the broadleaved deciduous forest

zone. For detecting human-induced changes in vegetation,

pollen analysis uses direct and indirect evidence (Iversen,

1949; Behre, 1981, 1986; Berglund and Ralska-Jasiewiczo-

wa, 1986; Birks et al., 1988). The direct evidence refers to

presence of cultivated plants or synanthropic taxa originat-

ing from weeds and anthropogenic ruderal flora. The

indirect evidence may be deduced from changes in AP/

NAP ratio, appearance and increase in representation of

apophytes, appearance and increase of amount of charcoal

dust particles related potentially to anthropogenic fires,

palynodiversity (palynorichness) as well as from non-pollen

microfossils, e.g., algae remains, parasites and others

associated with human interferences of aquatic and

terrestrial ecosystems.

The best and direct evidence of human activity in the

past is the presence of introduced cultivated plants. From

that group, two pollen taxa were identified in Jinchuan:

Cerealia type (including pollen grains of Triticum,

Hordeum, Avena) and F. esculentum. These cultivated

plants appeared relatively late. The pollen grains of

Cerealia-type were recorded for the first time after the

described evidence of historical drought dated in the profile

to 1730–1740 AD. The cultivation of these cereals was

initiated by the settlers of Han (Chinese) ethnicity

mentioned in historical records. Palynological data showed

that this most recent phase of settlement activity, lasting

for the last 270 years, resulted in selective destruction of

mixed forest by cutting out the Korean pine, which

declined in pollen spectra from average values of 50% to

around 23%.

As a result of human impact, some tree taxa (especially

Betula as a pioneer) increased their representation in the

landscape. An unusual percentage increase in pollen

assemblages for the last 50–60 years has been walnut,

represented in the region by Juglans mandschurica

(Manchurian walnut). Its pollen grains reached the

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Fig. 7. Jinchuan site—summary pollen percentage diagram for selected trees (A), terrestrial herbaceous plants (B)—mainly indicators of human impact,

content of charcoal particles, selected telmatophytes (C) and some additional non-pollen microfossils such as Diatoms, Spongia, Cyanobacteria and

Chlorophyta). Dots indicate presence of the taxon. All percentages values for the individual taxa based on pollen sum of terrestrial plants,

AP+NAP ¼ 100% (excluding telmatophytes and limnophytes). Lithology as in Fig. 4. Magnification by 10 is used to show minor percentage values.

M. Makohonienko et al. / Quaternary International 184 (2008) 94–108102

maximum value for the whole sequence of 18.3% of the

calculated sum of AP+NAP. This phenomenon seems to

be associated with purposeful economic protection of

walnut stands in the local forests as the source of nuts.

Large amounts of gathered nuts were observed during the

field expedition in the nearby Jinchuan settlement. A very

recent phenomenon is the appearance of Populus pollen

grains, which reflect planting of the poplar trees in the

cultural landscape around the settlements during the last

50–60 years. Pollen grains of seabuckthorn (Hippophae

rhamnoides) most probably reflect recent planting of this

shrub for the control of soil erosion, stabilization of slopes

and improvement of soil properties of mountainous

wastelands. Single pollen grains of hemlock (Tsuga) may

be connected with introduction of the tree in the forestry in

the region.

The observed changes in forest composition were

accompanied by increases of herbaceous plants, indicating

development of open habitats of synanthropic character.

Due to the proximity of the drilling site to the forest edge,

the representation of herbaceous component (NAP) was

not high even in surface samples, reaching only around

15% of the total AP+NAP sum. For the most recent

historical phase, higher amounts of Artemisia and Cheno-

podiaceae, as well as Poaceae, can be attributed to

terrestrial habitats and regarded as general apophytes.

The other synanthropic taxa were Xanthium—represented

in present ruderal habitats of the region and in the fields by

the species Xanthium strumarium L. and Humulus type—

represented in the region by the weedy species Humulus

scandens (Louriero.) Merrill. The other single pollen grains

belonging to Rumex acetosa-acetosella type and Plantago

(Plantago asiatica type) may also originate from anthro-

pogenic communities. The presence of P. aquilinum spores

is regarded as an indicator of the opening of the forest

canopy—possibly connected with human activity. Higher

representation of microscopic charcoal in the sediments

was associated with palynological indicators of human

activity and can be linked during that phase with the

intentional use of fire in settlement activity, e.g., burning

dry vegetation of grasslands or plant remains in fields, or

using fire in households.

Episodic, significant increases of charcoal particles

deposited in sediments have been encountered in older

phases of the analyzed sequence. The earlier three maxima

of charcoal content were correlated with the presence of

cultivated F. esculentum or pollen grains of Xanthium. The

previous maximum at depth 95 cm was dated to ca. 820 AD

and coincided with the evidence of Fagopyrum cultivation

along with episodic increase of P. aquilinum. At the depth

of 185 cm (dated to ca. 420 AD) a very high amount of

charcoal particles (260% of AP and NAP sum) was

recorded along with pollen grains of Xanthium, Plantago

and increase of Chenopodiaceae. The earlier record of

higher charcoal content at the depth 225 cm occurred in a

subsequent sample just after the appearance of Xanthium

and maximum of Chenopodiaceae pollen dated to ca. 140

AD. These two earliest mentioned anthropogenic phases

(dated respectively to around 420 AD and 140 AD)

occurred during periods of somewhat wetter conditions,

deduced from the occurrence of indicators of water

habitats, e.g., remains of Spongia, Diatomae, green algae

Mougeotia or blue–green algae Gloeotrichia.

The pollen record of the anthropogenic phase dated to

around 820 AD did not reveal forest clearings, which

would be reflected in decline of the AP curve. In contrast,

the indicated level showed the absolute maximum of pine

pollen content in the whole analyzed sequence, over 72%.

The minima of Quercus and Juglans pollen frequencies

might suggest some cuttings of deciduous species, which

would cause openings of the canopy and stimulate pollen

production of pine trees. Representation of P. aquilinum, a

light-demanding forest fern species, argues for opening of

the canopy. The scale of deforestation due to farming

activities was too low to be reflected in a decline of the AP

curve. This settlement phase followed by a remarkable

decrease of pine, coincided with birch expansion and

minima of telmatic taxa such as Cyperaceae and Poly-

podiaceae. The pronounced minima both for sedges and

ferns, similar to those correlated with 18th century

drought, may suggest a climatic dry event (culminating

around 1050BP). The subsequent changes showed an

increase in open habitats in the landscape with Artemisia,

Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae and Xanthium coinciding with

recurrence of wetter conditions at the Jinchuan swamp—

deduced from an increase in telmatic taxa and appearance

of Spongia remains. This settlement phase was dated to

around 1200–1300 AD.

5.3. Palynodiversity and environmental changes

Fossil data from the Jinchuan site were used to illustrate

changes in palynodiversity, which can be attributed the

history of floristic diversity in the region for the last 6000

years (Fig. 7). The data showed that the floristic diversity in

the region was positively stimulated by moderate human

impact. The highest numbers of plant taxa were recorded in

the sediments of the Jinchuan site, during the period of

intensification of anthropogenic activities from the 17th to

19th century AD. In very recent times this diminished due

to a decreased number of herbaceous taxa both of

terrestrial and telmatic habitats. Relatively high floristic

diversity occurred during the early stage of formation of

mixed forest with P. koraiensis. The second stage of

expansion of Korean pine and its predominance in forest

phytocoenosis resulted in reduction of floristic diversity

between the 1st and 17th century AD.

6. Discussion

The palynological record from the Jinchuan site provides

a high-resolution sequence of vegetation changes in the

Changbai Mountains region with reference to human

impact. The most essential event in the Late Holocene

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M. Makohonienko et al. / Quaternary International 184 (2008) 94–108 103

vegetation changes in the forest zone of northeastern China

was expansion of Korean pine, which shaped the present-

day biome of the area. The regional scale of pine expansion

is illustrated by the isopollen maps for China, constructed

for 2000-year time intervals (Ren and Zhang, 1998; Ren

and Beug, 2002). The spread of pine (shown for the

4000BP time horizon) occurred in the mountainous areas

of eastern Manchuria, corresponding broadly with the

present-day distribution of temperate mixed broadleaved

forests with Korean pine. The Jinchuan profile revealed

that the formation of the mixed forest phytocoenosis

occurred in two stages. The beginning of that process was

dated to 3100 cal. BC (4370 cal. BP). The lack of palynolo-

gical evidence of human interference in the vegetation

cover at the time of the Korean pine expansion, suggests

that its spread was caused by natural factors. Climatic

cooling is considered the most likely phenomenon respon-

sible for the expansion of P. koraiensis in broader areas of

lower mountainous elevations (Ren and Zhang, 1998; Wu

and Raven, 1999). Air temperature values reconstructed by

Hong et al. (2000) for the last 6000 years showed significant

fluctuations in the time preceding the pine expansion

(Fig. 8). The data indicate a phase of cooler air

temperatures between 3600 and 3300 BC, followed by

shorter warmer period dated to around 3300–3050 BC. The

second reconstructed colder phase, dated in the profile

studied by Hong et al. (2000) to ca. 3050 BC directly

initiated the spread of pine. The onset of pine expansion

was dated in the profile to 31007210 BC. The apparent

differences in timing seem to result from the radiocarbon

dating procedure, as do the broad calibrated age ranges.

This second cooler phase lasted till around 2600/2500 BC.

The transition from lake to swamp environment

recorded in the lithology of our core and dated to ca.

3250 BC, corresponded with the period of higher air

temperatures (between 3300 and 3050 BC) and lower

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Fig. 8. Jinchuan site-changes in relative pollen frequency for Pinus (A) and reconstructed climatic parameters by Hong et al. (2000, 2001) for the last 6000

years. (B) Air temperature index based on the peat cellulose d18O values. (C) Soil moisture/precipitation index based on the peat cellulose d

13C values.

M. Makohonienko et al. / Quaternary International 184 (2008) 94–108104

values of soil moisture/precipitation index (Fig. 8). This

suggests that the final change from lake to swamp

environment in Jinchuan occurred due to water level

lowering in response to climatic changes. The evidence of

Late Holocene low lake water levels and vegetation

changes in continental East Asia was mainly attributed to

the weakening of the Pacific Monsoon, which brings

moisture during the summer season (see Jarvis, 1993;

Gasse et al., 1996; Chen et al., 1999; Enzel et al., 1999;

Tarasov et al., 2000, 2004). However, it could be connected

also with changes in precipitation during winter season,

i.e., activity of winter monsoon. In temperate climatic

zones, according to model simulations, lake water levels

depend on the amount of snow accumulated through the

winter season and associated spring runoff (Harrison and

Digerfeldt, 1993; Vassiljev et al., 1998). The lake level

lowering, and expansion of swamp vegetation in Jinchuan,

could thus indicate a phase of lower mean annual

precipitation values, and most probably decrease in

amount of snowfall. Presently, the lowest monthly average

precipitation in the Changbai Mountains comes in the

period December–February with monthly sums below

20mm.

The pollen record revealed that the spread of Korean

pine was associated with retreat of deciduous oaks,

represented presently in the area by Q. mongolica.

Distribution of major tree species in the mixed forests

with Korean pine according to the soil moisture gradient,

shows that Q. mongolica can be associated with xeric

habitats, and P. koraiensis with mesic soil conditions (after

Okitsu, 2002). Geographical distribution of Korean pine in

northeastern China is restricted to mountainous areas of

eastern and northern Manchuria characterized by higher

mean annual precipitation and higher moisture index

(defined as annual precipitation divided by annual poten-

tial evapotranspiration) (Box and Choi, 2003). Mongolian

oak has a broader geographical distribution, occurring also

in western and southern Manchuria, in the areas char-

acterized by lower moisture index. It would indicate that

the phases of climatic cooling that stimulated development

of P. koraiensis were probably associated with some

changes in soil moisture. The years with lower summer

temperatures probably decreased the rate of evaporation

providing somewhat wetter habitat conditions during the

vegetative season, suitable for Korean pine.

The suggested trend toward somewhat cooler summer

temperatures, which would have influenced the decrease of

evaporation during the summer season, may in turn

explain a general tendency to more extensive paludification

in Northeast China during the Late Holocene as broadly

expressed by the Peat Study Group (1983) and supported

by evidence from Muchang and Dahuofang sites located in

western Manchurian Plain (Makohonienko et al., 2004).

The beginning of peat accumulation on mineral substrate

was initiated in the Muchang site around 3120 BC

(calibrated time scale) and in the Dahuofang site, around

2520 BC (1910 BC). The Late Holocene trend in peatland

development has been documented in other temperate

areas of the Northern Hemisphere and is connected mainly

with climatic cooling, changes in soil conditions as well as

sometimes with human impact (Griffin, 1975; Lamb, 1980;

O’Connell, 1986; Bell and Walker, 1992).

The second phase of expansion of Korean pine occurred

during the 1st century AD, along with another montane

taxon, Abies. Pollen spectra did not record for that time a

human impact on vegetation. The expansion of coniferous

taxa correlated with the beginning of a period of higher

rates of sediment accumulation. This suggested optimal

hydrological conditions for the growth and preservation of

sedge peat at the Jinchuan site. The second stage of pine

and fir expansion also corresponds with a period of lower

air temperatures, reconstructed by Hong et al. (2000) on

the base of peat cellulose d18O values from Jinchuan. The

palynological record, supported by the results of stable

isotopes (d18O), indicates that the Late Holocene two-

phase development of mixed forests with Korean pine in

the Changbai region of northeastern China was a response

to climatic factors.

A regression of Korean pine stands, dated to around 370

AD and accompanied in the fossil record by a minimum of

Cyperaceae pollen, can be also interpreted in climatic

terms. This pine decline corresponds with a drop in

precipitation reconstructed by Hong et al. (2001) for the

Jinchuan site, showing at 350 AD the highest drought

index in the analyzed sequence for the last 3000 years. The

reconstructed curve of air temperatures showed at that

time the highest values (Hong et al., 2000). A period of

severe droughts in China during the 4th and 5th centuries

AD was suggested by Gong and Hameed (1991) on the

base of historical documents. The lowest moisture indices

calculated by these authors for the last 2000 years of

Chinese history were recorded for 350 AD (Gong and

Hameed, 1991). Similarly, a short-lasting but well-marked

decline of pine accompanied by minima of telmatic plants,

dated to the first half of 18th century AD was correlated

with historical droughts.

Habitation activities in the mountainous forest regions

of eastern Manchuria detectable in pollen fossil archives

were dated to the last two millennia. Human impact did

not result in a remarkable deforestation of the area. Forests

were only partly cleared in valleys, while the surrounding

mountains remained unaffected by man. The first evidence

of human impact on vegetation detectable in the

pollen assemblages from Jinchuan were found in the

level dated to ca. 140 AD. The human activity was inferred

from the appearance of pollen grains of Xanthium.

The genus is commonly represented in the region by

synanthropic species X. strumarium L. (syn. X. sibiricum

Patrin ex Widder, X. japonicumWidder). It grows in segetal

and ruderal habitats, in roadsides and riverbanks. In

China, the species is classified primarily as a weed of

cultivated fields (Zhang and Hirota, 2000). In the past, the

cocklebur was utilized in China as a leafy vegetable and it

was intentionally planted (Li, 1969). Northern areas of

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M. Makohonienko et al. / Quaternary International 184 (2008) 94–108 105

China are supposed to be the origin of its cultivation (Li,

1970).

This first occurrence of Xanthium pollen in the Jinchuan

profile broadly correlated with the first pollen grains of the

species recorded in the Manchurian Plain at the Dahuo-

fang site, dated in a range of calibrated scale between ca. 80

BC and 70 AD (Makohonienko et al., 2004) and

corresponding to the protohistoric times when the terri-

tories of present Northeast China were inhabited by tribal

unions, located south of the Changbai Mountains area,

around the Gulf of Bohai (Janhunen, 1996). In the history

of China, this period corresponds with the time of the Han

Dynasty (dated to 206 BC–220 AD). The evidence of the

Late Holocene spread of Xanthium in the landscape of

Manchuria may reflect an intensification of human

activities or changes in land-use. Presumably, it could have

been indirectly connected with an increase in cultivated

land in the region. The role of Xanthium as indicator of

cultural landscape development also was indicated also

from western Eurasia (Brande, 1976). Pollen grains of the

cocklebur were found in south-eastern Europe, in sedi-

ments dated to the Last Glacial, indicating that the taxon is

an apophyte, i.e., a synanthropic plant of native origin.

A regular reoccurrence of Xanthium in the Holocene was

not recorded until the 4th millennium BP. Its increase in

representation occurred especially since the time of the

Roman Empire, ca. 2000 BP.

The first palynological evidence of cultivation in the

Jinchuan area was documented by presence of Fagopyrum

pollen. The beginning of buckwheat cultivation was dated

to the first half of the 9th century AD. Cultivation of other

crops such as millets, though probably practised in the

region, was not detected in palynological spectra. Pollen

grains of small-seeded annual grasses, broomcorn millet

Panicum milliaceum or foxtail millet Setaria italica,

cultivated as grain crops in northern China and Manchur-

ia, are very difficult to separate from pollen grains of wild

grasses and could have been identified as Poaceae type.

Though China is considered to be the center of common

buckwheat and tatary buckwheat domestication, which

presumably occurred already 5000 years ago (Ohnishi,

1998), Fagopyrum pollen grains are, so far, very seldom

identified in fossil pollen records. Manchuria is located

peripherally to the suggested center of domestication in

Yunnan and Sichuan (Ohnishi, 1998). Presently available

pollen sequences document the beginnings of Fagopyrum

cultivation in Manchuria to medieval times. The first

palynological evidence of Fagopyrum from two sites in the

Manchurian Plain was dated to 900 AD (Muchang site)

and to 1200 AD (Dahufang site) (Makohonienko et al.,

2004). The pollen profile from Sihailongwan lake in the

Changbai Shan region, near Jinchuan site, dated the first

pollen grains of the Fagopyrum type to 13–14 cal. AD

(Mingram et al., 2004a, b).

A more regular occurrence of Xanthium pollen grains in

the Jinchuan profile dated to the 17th century AD, and

corresponded with times of consolidation of Jurchen tribes

with a center of political activity between the eastern fringe

of the Liao River Basin and the Changbai Mountains

(Elliott, 2001). The traditional way of life of Jurchen tribes,

known later as Manchu people, was partly sedentary and

nomadic. Important roles were played by hunting, fishing,

limited pastoralism and agriculture. The palynological

data, showing a limited scale of deforestation, correspond

to that kind of economy. The oldest evidence of cultivation

of wheat/barley in Jinchuan, identified as Cerealia type and

dated to the 18th century AD, was connected with

migration of the Han Chinese population into mountai-

nous areas of eastern Manchuria. Introduction of these

crops, selective cutting of pine and protection of walnut

stands in forests to increase production of nuts, indicate

essential changes in economy of the new settlers.

7. Conclusions

The Late Holocene spread of the montane species P.

koraiensis shaped the present day forests of the Changbai

region in northeastern China. The beginnings of pine

expansion were dated to ca. 3100 cal. BC. Its regional

expansion occurred during the period of climate instability

(between 3600 and 2500 BC), characterized by subsequent

cold, warm and cold oscillations. The phase of warmer and

drier climate reconstructed by Hong et al. (2000, 2001) and

dated to 3300–3050 BC, preceded the spread of pine. This

warmer phase resulted in lake water level lowering and

development of swamp in Jinchuan. The spread of pine

from restricted refugia into lower mountainous areas was

directly triggered by the cooling phase indicated in the

studies of Hong et al. (2000) and dated between around

3050 and 2500 BC. The second stage of expansion of

Korean pine, along with other montane conifers, was dated

to the 1st century AD and correlated with beginnings of a

cooling phase. Predominance of oaks in deciduous forest of

the region prior to 3100 BC, and their reduction as a result

of pine expansion, also may reflect changes in soil

moisture. Ecological characteristics of these two main

species of the region, Korean pine and Mongolian oak,

would most probably suggest somewhat wetter soil

conditions during the vegetative season, in the periods of

Korean pine expansion. Changes in soil moisture could

have been associated with the inferred decrease in

temperatures. Cooler summers would influence the moist-

ure increase, due to a lower rate of evapotranspiration.

Cooler summers and lower evapotranspiration could also

stimulate the process of paludification during the Late

Holocene in northeastern China.

The use of indicative species of synanthropic habitats

and analyses of charcoal content allowed for the first time a

more reliable distinction between natural and anthropo-

genic vegetation changes in the region during the Late

Holocene. Palynological analyses showed, however, a

relatively low degree of human interference in the

mountainous forest environment of Changbai region in

the last 6000 years. This is in general agreement with the

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M. Makohonienko et al. / Quaternary International 184 (2008) 94–108106

available historical data on the economy of the tribes that

inhabited the areas of eastern Manchuria, which was based

on hunting, gathering, restricted pastoralism and cultiva-

tion. The first palynological evidence of human impact on

the landscape was dated to the 2nd century AD. Phases of

anthropogenic activity occurred also around 420 AD, 820

AD and 1200–1300 AD. The first evidence of cultivation,

detectable by pollen analyses, was buckwheat cultivation.

The available palynological records of F. esculentum in the

Changbai region and in the Manchurian Plain, document

the appearance of buckwheat in northeastern areas of

China since the 9th century AD. The pollen record from

Jinchuan indicated some intensification of human impact

on the landscape during the times of unification of the

Jurchen tribes in 17th century. The essential changes in

agricultural activity and forest economy were evident for

the last ca. 270 years, and were associated with the

migration of Chinese settlers into eastern Manchuria. To

better understand the background of environmental

changes in northeastern areas of China, analyses of human

impact on vegetation needs further studies. So far, only a

few available pollen profiles refer to documented evidence

of human activity such as the presence of cultivated species,

weeds, plants of ruderal habitats, or charcoal content.

Broader reconstruction of cultural processes and distinc-

tion between natural and anthropogenic factors in paly-

nological sequences in this region is still required.

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