Objective methods, techniques and tools in physical activities testing

Journal of Tourism, Recreation & Sport Management, vol. 1/2013

Section II – Physical activity, leisure and recreation

Agnieszka Nawrocka The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Mikołowska 72a, Poland tel. (+48) 32 207 51 00; e-mail: [email protected]

Accepted for printing in Journal of Tourism, Recreation & Sport Management vol. 1/2013 on May 2013 63

Objective methods, techniques and tools in physical activities testing

by

Władysław Mynarski1, Agnieszka Nawrocka1, Michał Rozpara1

Jarosław Cholewa1, Rajmund Tomik2

1 Department of Recreation, The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice

2 Department of Tourism, The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice

Abstract

Repeatedly scientifically proven positive connections of rational physical activity (PA) with health and psychophysical welfare result in a rapidly rising worldwide interest of issues regarding measurement and evaluation of individual level, in the context of health benefits. As a result progress in research methodology of PA, as well as effective practice in this respect, have been particularly visible in the last decades, what is depicted in surveys from final years.

The aim of this study is to review so-called objective methods, techniques and a new generation of measuring tools of physical activity and a presentation of up-to-date national and foreign-language literature on the subject concerning the methodology of PA measurement and evaluations.

There are two most often distinguished methods and research techniques: so-called subjective and objective. Objective methods are called measuring, because research techniques assigned to them consider measuring the recording (monitoring): physiological body reaction to physical activity and kinematic parameters of movements performed in a given form of activity.

It is possible to state that the area of scientific search in the diagnostic credit rating of contemporary PA measuring tools is wide, but at the same time dispersed. It indicates the need to conduct further research, especially of PA forms of high intensity. Key words: physical activity, research techniques, objective methods

Introduction

So-called civilisation diseases, being a main cause of the rising number of premature deaths, are a well identified threat to contemporary generations. The most serious include diseases of the cardiovascular and metabolic system which are becoming the most frequent illnesses in the world, regarded as epidemics of the 21st century and the main threat to the public health (Fogelholm 2010, Orsini et al.

2008, Warburton et al. 2006). Civilisation diseases result from i.e. shaken energetic balance which is a consequence of drastic limiting the physical activity and a wrong diet. For this reason, in the prevention and therapy of these illnesses, especially those of hypokinetic origin (resulting from the lack of physical activity) an appropriately dispensed physical activity, becoming an irreplaceable element of pro-health lifestyle, plays a particular role (Butte et al.

Mynarski et al.– Objective methods, techniques and tools in physical activities testing

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2012, Ainsworth 2009, Haskell et al. 2007, Bauman et al. 2006, Schnohr et al. 2006, Levine 2005, Blair et al. 2001).

Repeatedly scientifically proven positive connections of rational physical activity (PA) with health and psychophysical welfare result in a rapidly rising worldwide interest of issues regarding measurement and evaluation of individual level, in the context of health benefits. As a result progress in research methodology of PA, as well as effective practice in this respect, have been particularly visible in the last decades, what is depicted in surveys from final years (Freedson et al. 2012, Hail et. al. 2012, Leppaluoto et al. 2012, Rosenbaum 2012, Shephard et al. 2012, Attolach et al. 2011, Matchews et al. 2011, Yngve et al. 2011, Crouter et al. 2008, Reilly et al. 2008, Pober et al. 2006).

The accurate PA diagnosis is necessary among others for monitoring and checking the energy balance which constitutes the basis of checks of body weight. It matters greatly in the improvement of the public health, because an excess weight and obesity constitute the essential risk factor of cardiovascular diseases, being a main cause of deaths at present (over 50%). Moreover the accurate evaluation of intensity of efforts enables to create directed programmes on therapeutic character for people with various health problems. Feedback information on the level of physical activity is another advantage of PA monitoring. On the one hand it enables interpretation in regard to pro-health physical activity recommendations, and on the other constitutes a motivator for taking physical efforts (Katzmarzyk et al. 2009, Schnohr et al. 2006).

It is emphasised in the subject literature that credible diagnosis of the PA level and its evaluation is a complex and multifaceted action, because it should take into account among others:

age and sex of examined people, type of undertaken activities, most

frequently the following efforts are distinguished: activities performed at home and around the house, at work, connected with commuting (communications), and those of recreational and sports character,

aim e.g. health, recreational, sports, aesthetic,

season, it is assumed that PA should be examined at least twice a year, in autumn-winter and spring-summer period,

basic parameters of effort; as a rule a frequency of doing activity is taken into account (during the week, month), duration of efforts (during a day, week) and its intensity (the heaviness and the intensity),

form of activities e.g. weight, endurance, coordination or suppleness (balance and orientation) exercises,

evaluation of effects of the individual PA diagnosis relating to parameters recommended for getting health benefits,

level of efficiency and physical fitness.

On account of the purpose of observation, ways of conducting the research of physical activity are also diversified, including single and repeated large-scale research (semi-longitudinal) and constant repeated research in the same group of people (longitudinal). Registering (monitoring) parameters of a physical effort with special measuring devices within day, week, month, as well as during the training, or recreational classes and the like is a relatively new form of constant examinations.

Prestigious research institutions have been working worldwide to find out a satisfying solution to the complex and multifaceted issue of the PA diagnosis and evaluation in longer and shorter spans of time. Among others physiologists, epidemiologists, ergonomics, food and sports specialists have been dealing with this issue. In the subject literature many


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meta-analyses of the state of knowledge have appeared (Duncan et al. 2011, Rahl 2010, Marphy et al. 2009, Reilly et al. 2008, Sancho Martinez et al. 2008, Haskell et al. 2007, Welk et al. 2007, Schneider et al. 2004). Similar studies have appeared in recent years, including national literature (Mynarski et al. 2012, Lipert, Jegier 2009, Biernat i et al. 2008, Plewa 2008, Strugarek 2007). Progress within the discussed subject, on practical implications, is in final years very dynamic what is combined with the application of new technologies in different fields of life. The progress is visible mainly in creating the recalled PA measuring equipment using conjugated electronic devices with computing.

The aim of this study is to review so-called objective methods, techniques and a new generation of measuring tools of physical activity and a presentation of up-to-date national and foreign-language literature on the subject concerning the methodology of PA measurement and evaluations.

Classification of methods and techniques of physical activity examination

In the national literature there are different classifications of methods and techniques of physical activity examination (Mynarski i et al. 2012, 2013, Lipert, Jegier 2009, Strugarek 2007, Osiński 2003, Szeklicki 2000). However described divisions are not truly exhausting and separate, because still there are different classification criteria of methods and belonging to them research techniques (Łobocki 2000). In this study it is assumed, that ‘... examination methods are ways concerning the general rules, or principles of research proceedings associated with them, while the techniques of examinations always refer to more specified (elaborated) directives, i.e. closely determined recommendations of such proceedings.’ (Łobocki 2000, p. 29)

There are two most often distinguished methods and research techniques: so-called

subjective and objective. Subjective ones are also determined as estimated, because they rely on the PA self-assessment by the examined himself. Objective methods are called measuring, because research techniques assigned to them consider measuring the recording (monitoring):

physiological body reaction to physical activity,

kinematic parameters of movements performed in a given form of activity (Mynarski i et al. 2012, Lipert, Jegier 2009).

It is a distinctive tendency of recent years to formulate measuring tools that record parameters simultaneously from both mentioned above measurement techniques, determined as multisensor tools. Applying objective or subjective research techniques the following tools for measuring physical activity are used: varieties of pedometers, accelerometers, multisensor devices, questionnaires, and interview. The deliverables of observation, processed with the use of mentioned above research techniques are most often reflected as energy expenditure - EE, or energy cost - EC i.e. into kcal or kJ, regarded as the best measure of the volume of physical activity (DeLany 2012, Brychta et al. 2010, Voleno et al. 2010, Ainsworth 2009). The measurement has indirect character (converting cinematic or physiological parameters recorded by devices in kcal or kJ).

Whereas intensity of the physical activity is most often expressed with so-called multiple metabolism equivalent of tasks MET (Ainsworth et al. 2011).

It can be assumed that objective methods have their source in natural sciences, whereas subjective ones derive from humanities (sociology, pedagogy, psychology). Cognitive effects more accurate in assumptions are obtained in case of applying objective methods (Łobocki 2000). Schema 1 shows most often met techniques of the measurement of physical


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activity.

Techniques of physical activity examination on the basis of registering (monitoring) physiological effort

This technique can be adopted for the measurement of volume itself and intensities of physical activity through the recording of physiological reactions of the organism to a physical effort (changes of the frequency of heart contractions, body temperature of the proportion, the capacity of respiratory gasses O2 and CO2). These techniques include direct and indirect

calorimetry and doubly labelled water.

Doubly labelled water – DLW

This technique relies on restoring the initial isotopic composition of water during the nutritional metabolism. The examined person drinks marked water with isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium 2H) and of oxygen (18O). Deuterium leaves the organism as water (2H2O), mainly in form of urine, sweat and steam exhaled into the air. While marked oxygen leaves the organism also with water (H218O), but also as carbon dioxide (C18O2).

Schema 1.

Objective techniques of PA measurement (Mynarski et al. 2012).

Knowing differences in expelling both isotopes, based on appropriate equations, it is possible to calculate the amount of CO2 generating in the body, and on the basis on the value of respiratory quotient (RQ) also an amount of charged O2. It allows indirectly to set the energy expenditure in the period of examinations. It is assumed, that for the precise EE measurement with this technique a period of week is enough at children’s and two weeks at adults (Lipert, Jegier 2009, Szeklicki 2000). DLW is regarded as the best technique of appointing EE, and is described as ‘gold standard’ due to its high accuracy of measurement. However this technique is time-consuming and very expensive, which prevents from its usage in population

examinations. In the recent time it is proposed to shorten the test procedure by dose reduction of isotopes and shorten the time of examination (Mann et al. 2007). Applying the labelled bicarbonate method 13C is another solution which allows to finish the examination within two days (Raj et al. 2006).

Direct calorimetry – DC

The measurement takes place in the calorimetric chamber or special overalls with the system of tubes with flowing water. The examined person performs the exercise in such conditions, e.g. on cycloergometre; the warmth generated during effort metabolism raises the water temperature in tubes . On the ground of


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differences of water temperatures before and after the exercise an amount of generated warmth is determined (kcal) (Haugen, Chan 2007, Szeklicki 2000). A low risk of the error of measurement is an advantage of this research technique (about 1%). Whereas its disadvantages are the following: time consumption, laboratory and troublesome test procedures. The little space of the calorimetric chamber reduces possible forms of performed movements to exercises done in the place or on ergometers e.g. on cycloergometer. At the same time however it is facilitating the standardisation of intensity of effort and is facilitating interpretation of findings.

Indirect calorimetry – IC

In this technique a known relation between the amount of oxygen taken up in the course of effort (O2) and of expelled carbon dioxide (CO2) is used. At present to measure oxygen intake and freed carbon dioxide special wires and mouthpieces connected with a small portable oxygen analyser which is placed on the back or at the belt level. Knowing the amount of inhaled O2 and expelled CO2 it is possible indirectly to appoint the amount of the energy expenditure (EE). This technique is particularly useful for the evaluation of high-calorie cost of oxygen efforts (aerobic) (Lipert, Jegier 2009). The measuring error at applying the discussed research technique, as similarly as in case of DLW, is low; therefore this technique is treated also, as the ‘gold standard’ (Benito et al. 2012, Sancho Martinez, et al. 2008, Perret, Mueller 2006). Both techniques are used for determining the accuracy of other ways of measurement of the physical activity (Predieri et al. 2013, Slinde et al. 2013, Assah et al. 2011, Brazeau et al. 2011, Drenowatz et al. 2011, Berntsen et al. 2010, Catharina et al. 2010, Johannsen et al. 2010).

Heart rate monitoring

It is the best known and most often used technique of the indirect PA measurement

in sport and motor recreation. It uses portable pulse recorders – pulsometers applied among others in the programming and control of training loads in sport and recreation. Possibility of calculating the energy expenditure during physical activity based on the frequency of heart rate (HR) results from its considerable relation with the oxygen volume (VO2) (Wilmore, Costil 1999). HR records (beats/min.) assigned to VO2 values (ml/kg/min) or EE (kcal/min) are however individually diversified, because they depend on the level of the circulatory-respiratory efficiency of the examined person. Establishing the actual EE of the specific person requires determining their physical fitness (VO2 max) in laboratory conditions. There are some carpal pulsometers or pulsometers with a telemetric belt set around the chest available on the market.

Pulse rate devices of a new generation, (e.g. sport-testers, RS 400 SD Polartec), based on the advanced digital technology, enable not only a HR monitoring, but also among others the measurement of covered distance, numbers of performed steps, speed, or the outside temperature. They allow for the HR registration in determined lengths of time, e.g. 5, 10, 60 minutes, enabling characteristic of intensity of performed physical activity. Through the interface the data is transferred from a sport-tester to computer what allows for further statistical analysis, through an appropriate programme. The monitoring of the frequency of heart contractions is a good solution in EE evaluation of short-temporary motor classes e.g. recreational, sports. Pulsometers have a smaller diagnostic value in evaluation of the week's PA volume. Telemetric belts are inconvenient and carried unwillingly by examined people. Moreover the frequency of heart contractions within the week is dependable on many factors (emotional reactions, weather conditions and the like) what can influence the misinterpretation of achieved results. It is assumed that it is


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possible to obtain the accurate and credible evaluation of everyday physical activity based on the constant HR monitoring within 4-5 days, including holidays (Szeklicki 2000). The greatest advantage of pulsometers is a possibility of registration (measurement) of changing intensity of physical activity during oxygen efforts. However they are useless in the evaluation of anaerobic physical activity (Strugarek 2007).

The subject literature presents the ways of predicting EE based on parameters of minute's ventilation of lungs (spirometry), as well as measurement of the body temperature.

Techniques of physical activity examination based on the registration of cinematic parameters of moves

Adopting these techniques relies on detection and registration (record) of kinematic parameters of moves performed during different life activities and calculating on their bases e.g. daily EE. For this purpose different forms of mechanical or electronic "record" of parameters of course of moves, e.g. accelerations, number of steps, are used.

Pedometers

They are small electronic or mechanical devices placed at the hip level or on the ankle, but more and more often also in sports shoes, which register steps in the course of locomotive movements (march, run, Nordic walking, hiking, trekking). Some of them let also appoint covered distance as well as calculate energy expenditure of the monitored physical activity. Such data as a length of typical pace and body weight are encoded to their memory. The newest electronic pedometers can monitor results in long terms and use computer programmes for their further analysis. Pedometer Step Counter Omron HJ-720, Yamax Digi Walker SW-700, Tech4O Pedometer Watch Vapor is often used in scientific researches (Machat et al. 2013).

Their main disadvantage is the lack of possibility of distinguishing intensity of effort, different e.g. in march and run at the different speed. It is only indirectly possible e.g. through determining the proportion between the number of steps or covered distance, and the total time monitored activities (e.g. within an hour). A recording of movements of body in the frontal plane and stronger shocks is another lack of these devices, e.g. counting jumps in the place as steps. The most credible measurements with the use of pedometers are achieved in march of restrained intensity (80-188 m/min., 4.8 km/h) (Abel et al. 2008, Crauter et al. 2003). Aspects such as availability in the retail trade, low cost and the easiness of use are their advantages.

Review of PA examinations with the application of pedometers is presented in studies among others by Schneider et al. (2004), Brawata et al. (2007).

Measures of acceleration (accelerometers)

Acceleration is an effect of energy released in muscles - cinematic parameter of moves, diversified depending on intensity of effort (accelerations in moves of the whole body or its parts). This correctness was exploited in constructing measures of acceleration - accelerometers. These are small electronic devices, worn, depending on the monitored activity, at the hip level, or on limbs not-limiting possibilities of movement. At first only single-axis accelerometers were constructed, e.g. Caltrac Monitor, ActivPall, ActiGraph GT1X. Nowadays multi-axis accelerometers measuring accelerations in planes: fibular, frontal, and crosswise (e.g. TriTrac-R 3 D, ActiGraph GT3X) are used. Accelerometers record linear and angle accelerations during moves of the whole body or its parts, with electromechanical, optical or piezoelectric sensors of move. It is showed that the majority of high accuracy accelerometers register accelerations with locomotive moves of the whole body, whereas


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imprecisely its parts e.g. of upper limbs. The newest single-axis ActivPAL accelerometers, duo-axis BioTrainer Pro and triaxial ActiGraph GT3Xplus are an effect of technological progress in the aspiration to increasing the accuracy and versatility of measurement of different signs of human physical activity.

They are adapted to being carried on torso and upper and bottom limbs. Depending on the form of the measured activity, they register accelerations of the body or its parts, number of performed steps, covered distance, time of sitting and lying, or marching, number of changes of

the posture (from lying to a sitting position, from a sitting position to a standing one). Thanks to available software archiving the data as well as a tabular and graphical presentation of effects of the conducted monitoring are possible. For example Schema 2 depicts a daily volume and intensity of physical activity of a 23-year-old man which was being monitored with ActiGraph GT3Xplus.

PA findings with accelerometers are presented by among others Vanhelst et al. (2010), Hussey et al. (2009), Plewy et al. (2008), Rowlands, Eston (2005).

Schema 2.

Daily volume and intensity of physical activity of a 23-year-old man presented in couts – on the left, number of steps – on the right (printout from ActiLife 5.10 programme)

Multisensor registration of parameters of physical activity

This technique combines advantages of both earlier discussed techniques, monitoring simultaneously with the use of sensors, different type of physiological reactions of the organism to effort and its biomechanical parameters (accelerations). Relevant computer programmes allow for calculating the energy expenditure of effort (EE) either basing on all recorded PA parameters or on each of them individually.

Body Media Sensewear Armband was

one of the first such devices. It is equipped among others with the 3-pivot accelerometer which registers accelerations with the fibular, frontal and crosswise plane and a built-in inclinometer which identifies changes of the body position.

Moreover, this device monitors changes of the body temperature, galvanic skin reactions (GSR) and differences between the temperature of skin surface and body temperature (Heat-Flux). For this reason they are useful especially in the EE diagnostics of non-standard movements


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and static physical efforts.

The greatest advantage of new devices (multisensor devices) is a possibility of registering the time of effort with different zones of intensity and setting its calorie cost in these zones. Aspects such as possibility of applying in the field, conducting measurements in long stretches and processing registered data with the help of computer programmes are further advantages of discussed research tools. Table 1 presents the most often applied pedometers, accelerometers and multisensor devices.

It is necessary to add that for example in the measurement of covered distance during PA a Global Positioning System (GPS) technology is more and more often applicable. Knowing the length of distance and the time of activity it is possible to determine exactly the speed of locomotive moves e.g. in jogging and to appoint their intensity in MET units. Measurement of distance through the GPS combines with accelerometry or with the HR record, and even with EMG. Such proceedings are effective in the evaluation of non-standard movements e.g. in sports games and so-called communications activity (Theaou et a. 2012, Maddison et al. 2010, Duncan et al. 2009).

Applying AF measuring devices

Described devices are used both in diagnostics of the global (total) level of physical activity EE - PAEE, as well as connected e.g. with the chosen sphere of living e.g. physical exercises taken up in free time - exercise EE - EEE. They are used for the total daily monitoring - daily EE - DEE, twenty-four hour’s - total EE - TEE and week's - weekly EE - WEE of energy expenditure of different physical efforts. They are also applied in the diagnostics of rest EE - rest EE - REE, as well as EE during the sleep - sleep EE - SEE. Mentioned parameters are recognised as essential for

the full and correct individual PA evaluation (Predieri et al. 2013, Sharif et al. 2013, Elbelt et al. 2012, Heiermann et al. 2011, Johannsen et al. 2010, Fields et al. 2006).

Pedometers, accelerometers and multisensor devices were used repeatedly in PA examinations of children and teenagers (Hussey et al. 2009, Dorminy et al. 2008, Riddoch et al. 2007), adults (Crauter et al. 2008, Mc Clain et al. 2007) and older people (Heirmann et al. 2011, Mackey et al. 2011, Bonomi et al. 2010, Dijkstra et al. 2010). They are also applied in the PA diagnosis of ill people (Machac et al. 2013, Rubinovich et al. 2013, Manns et al. 2012, Mynarski et al. 2012a, Tanhoffer et al. 2012, Van Remoortel et al. 2012, Raj D'Souza, et al. 2006), including the disabled (Predieri et al., 2013, Slinde et al, 2013, Swartz et al. 2009) and those with obesity (Beets et al. 2011, Khemthong et al. 2006). There were also made attempts to use discussed measuring devices in the evaluation of sports efforts, especially their volumes and intensities (Koehler et al. 2011, Ebine et al. 2002).

The majority of researches regard the diagnostic credit rating of techniques and tools of PA examinations of diversified intensity and the form of moves. Review of this issue is presented in works of Tudor-Locke et al. (2006), Staudenmayer et al. (2009), Shepard, Aoyagi (2010, 2012), Bassett et al. (2012), Butte et al. (2012).

Accuracy and reliability of measurements with pedometers, accelerometers and multisensor

In the evaluation of reliability of tools of PA measurements three typical and special ways are applicable:

1. Repeating measurements with the same device, in the interval of a few days, of physical efforts of determined intensity and character of moves (test-retest) (Brazeau et al. 2011).


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Table 1.

Chosen tools for PA examination.

Photography Device Recording method Place

wearing Examples of Physical

Activity

BodyMedia Sensewear Armband

Accelerations, Galvanic Skin,

Response (GSR), Skin temperature,

Heat Flux Steps

Arm

Marche, Running, Nordic Walking, Climbing, Yoga,

Biking, Kayaking

MetaLogics Personal Calorie

Monitor Heat Flux Arm

Actical physical activity monitor

Accelerations Waist, wrist,

ankle Swimming, Kayaking

Actiwatch – recording of

physical activiy and sleep

Accelerations Wrist

Marches, Hiking, Trekking, Jogging, Aerobics, Dancing,

Nordic walking, Volleyball, Basketball,

Soccer

Actigraph GT3X Accelerations,

steps Wrist, waist, arm, ankle

Kenz Lifecorder EX Activity

Monitor

Accelerations, steps

Waist

RT3X triaxial accelerometer


Waist

Dynaport Minimod Move Monitor


Lower back at the height

of the second lumbar

vertebra

Monitor of physical activity -

Tanita

Triaxial instruments , steps

Waist Marches, Nordic

walking


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2. Simultaneous measurement of parameters of effort with many different types of devices, e.g. pedometers, accelerometers, HR monitors and the conformity assessment of results with the use of the Bland Altman limits of agreement – LOA (Predieri et al. 2013, Assah et al. 2011, Herrmann et al. 2011, Hussey et al. 2009.

3. Evaluation of the repetitiveness of the reading of PA parameters from the same two devices carried at the belt level on the right and left side of the body (Welk et al. 2003).

In the evaluation of accuracy of PA measuring devices already recalled ‘gold standards’ become points of reference i.e. outcomes of the effort diagnosis with the use of DLW (Tachhoffer et al. 2012, Catharina et al. 2010, Mackey et al. 2011, Johannsen et al. 2010), IC (Machac et al. 2013, Brazeau et al. 2011, Drenowatz, Eissenmann 2011, Heiermann et al. 2011, Hussey 2009) or DC technique (Wetten et al. 2013).

Examinations show that higher rates of reliability and accuracy of tools of the PA diagnosis are achieved in laboratory conditions compared with the free living conditioned (McClain et al. 2007). A rise of accuracy of PA diagnosis is often shown when parallel two measuring tools are applicable e.g. sensors of the pulse and accelerometers. It is also emphasised that the accuracy and reliability of measurements depend to a considerable degree on intensity of effort. It was demonstrated, that the SWA multisensor and ActiGraph GT3X estimates well PAEE of low and moderate intensity. However they underestimate efforts of high intensity (Machac et al. 2013, Wetten et al. 2013, Benito et al. 2012, Drenowatz, Eissenmann 2011). In other observations it was showed, that SWA underestimates PAEE only in 10 first minutes of examination, in following minutes the error of measurement towards EE estimation with the DLW reduces to

about 8% (Johannsen et al. 2010).

In examinations a diagnostic credibility of single and triaxial accelerometers was also compared in march at different speeds. The single-axis accelerometer demonstrated tendencies of underestimating the number of steps and intensities of effort in MET, during slow march (55 m/min. in comparison to 75 and 95 m/min.). The accuracy of both devices was dependent on the frequency of footsteps, at the low frequency the undervaluation was minus 15%, while at normal and high frequency - plus 15% (Park et al. 2011).

It appears from the above information that contemporary measuring devices perform better in the evaluation of the energy expenditure to physical activity of adults and older people at whom PA of low intensity dominates (Mackey et al. 2011, Shephard, Aoyagi 2010). It seems to be confirmed by the fact that some accelerometers are characterised by a low reliability of the measurement at children and teenagers (Vanhelst et al. 2010).

Generally characterised measuring tools better estimate EE in locomotive moves (march, slow run) (Abel et al. 2008), more poorly in cycling, skating, weight lifting, as well as other non-standard moves (Cyarto et al. 2004, Sirard, Pate 2001).

To sum up, it is possible to state that the area of scientific search in the diagnostic credit rating of contemporary PA measuring tools is wide, but at the same time dispersed. It indicates the need to conduct further research, especially of PA forms of high intensity. Experts emphasise that piezoelectric and other sensors of the move and physiological reactions of organism to effort are already quite accurate. Seeking relevant algorithms allowing for appointing amounts of the energy expenditure of a physical effort on the basis of recorded physical or physiological characteristics at the specific person is becoming a main problem (Freedson et al. 2012).


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Knowledge on the methodology of acting in PA examinations and principles of the best practice in this respect was considerably enriched (Freedson et al. 2012, Heil et al. 2012, Matthews et al. 2012,

Shephard, Aoyagi 2012). However it is a subject for the separate study, similarly to issues of subjective methods and the techniques of examining physical activity.

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Objective methods, techniques and tools in physical activities testing