Research Article Environmental Determinants Influencing Seasonal Variations of Bird Diversity and Abundance in Wetlands, Northern Region (Ghana

Research ArticleEnvironmental Determinants Influencing SeasonalVariations of Bird Diversity and Abundance in WetlandsNorthern Region (Ghana)

Collins Ayine Nsor1 and Edward Adzesiwor Obodai2

1 Center for Savannah Ecosystem Research (CESER) PO Box TL 861 Tamale Ghana2Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences University of Cape Coast University Post Office Cape Coast Ghana

Correspondence should be addressed to Collins Ayine Nsor ayineusyahoocom

Received 28 May 2014 Revised 10 August 2014 Accepted 14 September 2014 Published 29 October 2014

Academic Editor Greg Demas

Copyright copy 2014 C A Nsor and E A ObodaiThis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properlycited

The study assessed major environmental determinants influencing bird community in six wetlands over a 2-year period Acombination of visual and bird sounding techniques was used to determine the seasonal variations in bird abundance whileordination techniques were performed to determine the influence of environmental factors on bird assemblage A total of 1169birds from 25 species and 885 individuals from 23 species were identified in the wet and dry season respectively The shallow closemarshes supported the greatest number of birds (119875 lt 005) compared to the riparian wetlands Bird diversity was significantlyhigher in the wet season than in the dry season (119865 = 4101 119875 lt 005) Cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) and marsh warbler (Acrocephaluspalustris) were the most abundant Using the IUCN ldquoRed Listrdquo database guide we noted that 962 of birds identified were leastconcern (LC)The yellow weaver bird (Ploceous megarhrynchus) was the only vulnerable species (VU) and represented 38 Fromthe three variables tested bushfire and farming practices were the major threats and cumulatively explained 1593 (wet season)and 1406 (dry season) variations in bird diversity and abundanceThese findings will help wetlandmanagers design conservationmeasures to check current threats on birds from becoming vulnerable in the future

1 Introduction

Birds play a vital role in enriching the biodiversity of wet-lands This explains why wetlands are foremost recognizedas a haven for waterfowl by Ramsar International in 1971 [1]Their sensitivity to habitat perturbation makes them suitableas bioindicators to wetland health through their populationsize and composition Globally over 150 bird species arereportedly lost since the year 1500 AD [2] Recent reportshave shown that birds have gone extinct at an exceptionallyhigh rate estimated to be 1000 to 10000 times the naturalbackground rate [2] Today one in eight bird species isthreatened with global extinction with 190 species criticallyendangered and particularly alarming are sharp declines in anumber of formerly common and widespread species suchas cranes and some waders The International Union forthe Conservation of Nature (IUCN) ldquoRed Listrdquo have shown

documented evidence that rate of extinction is getting worseamong species confined to small islands to continental scale[2] This loss is largely due to their increasingly intoleranceto the slightest ecosystem disturbance [3] which is linkedto pollution [4] habitat type and bird distribution [5 6]wetland patch size [7] cutting of mangrove vegetation [8]farming practice and urban development within the wetlandcatchment [9ndash11] and habitat fragmentation [12] Thesehuman disturbances at the landscape scale have structuredthe population and assemblages of birds because of theirhighly specific habitat requirements [13 14]

Scientific studies on bird ecology diversity abundanceand spatial distribution are simply absent or poorly investi-gated in the Northern Savannah wetlands of Ghana How-ever unlike the Northern Region research on birds inthe Southern forest belt [15ndash17] and coastal wetlands hasbeen considerably extensive [18ndash22] The only notable work

Hindawi Publishing CorporationInternational Journal of ZoologyVolume 2014 Article ID 548401 10 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552014548401

2 International Journal of Zoology

previously conducted in one of the wetlands under thecurrent study (Kukobila wetland) was to establish a baselineof the types of birds found in thewetland [23] Understandingoverall bird responses to disturbances will as well require theassessment of the various disturbance scenarios on a seasonalbasis since the impacts of environmental determinants aremany and vary along seasonal trends Ecological changes andland use activities within wetlands catchment in NorthernRegion of Ghana are seasonally driven and can potentiallyaffect bird assemblage composition and habitat preferenceOf the 728 bird species recorded in Ghana [18ndash20] six ofthem are considered threatened and 12 near threatened [24]For example the National Biodiversity Strategy for GhanaReport mentioned hornbill parrots and birds of prey asthe few keystone species under threat [25] Though thesefindings were largely from the southern sector of Ghana(ie forest belt and coastal zones) the phenomenon suggeststhat some birds in the Northern Savannah zone might beunder threat or at risk of extinction giving recent undoc-umented but observed environmental disturbances on thewetlands Therefore the absence of a scientific investigationmakes it impossible to determine the current state of birdpopulation composition and habitat preference (using theirproximate cues) on a seasonal basis among wetlands inthe Northern Savannah zone In this study we apply mul-tivariate ordination techniques to determine the influenceof three environmental factors on the seasonal variation ofbird population diversity and habitat preference among thewetlands The outcome of this investigation will help equipwetland managers with first-hand information on the typesof seasonal disturbance scenarios and how these disturbancescould potentially modify bird assemblage in the future andthe selection of appropriate conservation approach towardsenhancing the sustainability of their population

2 Methods

The study was carried out in six wetlands located in theNorthern Region of Ghana with their coordinates as follows(i) Wuntori (N09∘ 083351015840 W00∘1 09∘6851015840) (ii) Kukobila(N10∘ 087231015840W000∘ 481791015840) (iii) Tugu (N09∘ 225501015840W000∘350041015840) (iv) Bunglung (N09∘ 355761015840 W000∘ 474431015840) (v)Adayili (N09∘ 413911015840W000∘ 414801015840) and (vi) Nabogo (N09∘499411015840 W000∘519421015840) (Figure 1) The six sites lie on theextensive floodplain along the course of the White VoltaRiver which has over time become incised and modifiedthrough meandering and aligning along various topographicfeaturesThis has led to the development of streams that havediverted from the main White Volta [26] All six wetlandswere classified as close shallow marshes (Wuntori and Tuguwetlands) open deep marsh (Kukobila wetland) riparianwetlands (Adayili and Nabogo wetlands) and artificial wet-land (Bunglung wetland)The hydrological regimes of the sixwetlands under study were typical of permanent wetlandswhose depth at low tide did not exceed 2m on average Sizesof the wetlands were as follows (a) Wuntori = 77 ha (b)Kukobila = 5 ha Tugu (c) 27 ha (d) Nabogo = 79 ha (e)Adayili = 67 ha and (f) Bunglung = 115 ha

Annual rainfall is in the range of 1000ndash1300mmpa andthe wet season lasts from June to early October while thedry season last from November to May Average temperaturevaries between 14∘C and 40∘C [27] Altitude ranges between108 and 138meters abovemean sea levelThe vegetation coveris a mixture of grassland dominated by Leersia hexandraand woodland dominated byMahogany (Khaya senegalensis)and shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) interspersed with shrubbycommunities of Mitragyna inermis and Ziziphus abyssinicaThe trees are relatively short with thick bark and occlusionssignifying their adaptation to the cyclical dry season bushfires Crop farming livestock rearing and fishing are themain stay of activities among the inhabitants

21 Sampling Procedure for Bird Species Population moni-toring survey was used to determine the seasonal variationsin bird population using transects line approach [28] Tenplots in each of the six wetlands of 60m times 10m dimensionwere laid The distance between one sampling plot and theother was 5m Birds were counted each of the ten plotswith increasing five class distance scale (1ndash10 10ndash20 20ndash40 40ndash50 and 50ndash60m) from the base of the transect lineusing visual approach and vocally through bird soundingtechnique developed by [27 29] Bird sounding technique issoftware of recorded sounds of different birds accompanyingtheir names and photos This vocal technique was only usedto count birds that were hidden in dense vegetation and weredifficult to visualize This was made possible after observingand listening to the same bird screech chirps or tweet inthe open vegetation in previous sampling Repeated andcareful listening of the bird sound in the thick vegetationfor 5 minutes was followed by playing the composed soundin order to identify the right bird Also birds that werehidden in the thicket vegetation were counted through adeliberate agitation of the vegetation This was done bycarefully throwing a stone inside the dense vegetation inorder to force the hidden bird(s) to fly outTheywere countedafter settling on the open vegetation Counting of birds wasdone from 0700ndash01100 GMT when most of the birds werefeeding Counting was done once a week and hence fourtimes in month Birds were counted in the dry (harmattanmdasha period characterized by low humidity high temperaturesfoggy condition and sandy storms) and wet seasons (rainyperiod) The total number of birds recorded was compiledon a monthly basis Bird nest was not counted since itwas impossible to establish the type and number of birdscohabitating a nest A pair of Bushnell Falcon binoculars witha 10 times 50mm dimension was used to observe birds locatedbeyond 20m distance for morphological features like colourand structure of the beak colour of tail feather colour offeathers around the neck colour of the head feathers and thepresence of comb-like feathers (see [30])

22 Environmental Assessment Identifying how many andwhich types of human-induced disturbances or threats arepresent and their regime is important when assessing thestatus of wetlands of high conservation concern for efficientmanagement [31ndash34] In this regard four environmental

International Journal of Zoology 3

(km)0 5 10 20

Study sitesTownsSample location

RiverRoad

K = KukobilaN = NabogoA = Adayili

B = BunglungT = TuguW = Wuntori

Figure 1 Map of the study areas showing the location of the wetlands in the floodplains of the White Volta River catchment NorthernRegion

drivers of change namely bushfire farming activities graz-ing and erosion were assessed to determine the severity ofthese threats on birds The hierarchical classification of thesethreats was comprehensive (contains all possible items atleast at higher levels of the hierarchy) consistent (ensuresthat entries at a given level of the classification are of thesame type) expandable (enables new items to be added to theclassification if they are discovered) and exclusive (allows anygiven item to only be placed in one cell within the hierarchy)(see [35]) A score ranging from 1 to 4 (1 being the lesserimpact and 4 the highest impact) was used to assess scopeand severity of every threat More precisely for ldquoscoperdquo wereferred to the percentage ratio of the study area affected by aspecific threat within the last 5 years (where 100 correspondto total site area 120594 ha) [36] The scores were assigned as

follows 4 the threat is found throughout (50) the site area3 the threat is spread in 15ndash50 of the study area 2 the threatis scattered (5ndash15) and 1 the threat ismuch localized (lt5)Assessment of the area disturbed was carried out within12 km radius starting from the hydric delineated zone of thewetland This is because all land use activities assessed wereobserved within the stated radius following a preliminarysurvey of the wetlands

23 Statistical Analysis A canonical correspondence analysis(CCA) was performed to determine the influence of envi-ronmental drivers of change on variations on bird diversityabundance and spatial distribution [37] using two analyticalpackagesmdashenvironmental community analysis version 14(ECOMexe) [38] Shannon-Weiner index was performed to


050

100150200250300350400450500

Swamp forest Close shallowmarsh

Deep openmarsh

Man-made

Wetland classesWet season

Num

ber o

f ind

ivid

uals

per w

etla

nd cl

ass

Dry season

Figure 2 Comparison of bird population and distribution patternamong the different wetland classes in both wet and dry seasons

002040608

112141618

2

Shan

non-

Wei

ner i

ndex

Wet season

Wun

tori

Tugu

Kuko

bila

Aday

ili

Nab

ogo

Bung

lung

Dry season

Kruskal-Wallis testP lt 005

Figure 3 Variations in mean diversity in the wet and dry season

determine the current status of bird community compositionShannon-Weiner index equation was expressed as

1198671015840

= minus

119904

sum

119894=1

119901119894 (ln119901119894) (1)

where 119904 is the number of species and 119901119894 is the proportionof individuals or the abundance of the 119894th species expressedas a proportion of the total cover and ln is a naturallogarithm [39] Species evenness distribution (see Figure 4)was evaluated using Pielou evenness index (119869) expressed as

119869 =1198671015840

ln 119878 (2)

where1198671015840 is the diversity index 119878 is species number and ln isnatural logarithm [40] Species richness was quantified usingMargalef rsquos index (119863) for species richness expressed as119863 = (119878 minus 1) ln119873 [41] A one-way ANOVA was applied

to test whether bird diversity evenness and species richnessdiffered significantly from one wetland to the other using

0

Wun

tori

Tugu

Kuko

bila

Aday

ili

Nab

ogo

Bung

lung

010203040506070809

1

Piel

o ev

enne

ss in

dex


Wet seasonDry season

Figure 4 Bird evenness distribution of birds in the wet and dryseasons

0

05

Wun

tori

Tugu

Kuko

bila

Aday

ili

Nab

ogo

Bung

lung

1

15

2

25

Wet season

Mar

gale

f ric

hnes

s ind

ex

Dry season

Kruskal-Wallis testP = 005

Figure 5 Comparison of bird richness in the six wetlands in wetand dry seasons

SPSS version 160 Kruskal-Wallis test was applied to test thedifferences in the mean of the diversity index (Figure 5)

3 Results

A total of 1169 individual birds from 25 species were identifiedand counted during the wet season while 885 individualsfrom 23 species were observed in the dry season (Figure 2Table 1) Of the 25 species counted 24 species (962) wereclassified as least concern (LC) using the IUCN ldquoRed Listrdquodatabase guide (Table 1) The yellow weaver bird (Ploceusmegarhrynchus) was the only species classified as vulnerable(VU) and represented 38 This species was restricted tothorny tree (Ziziphus abyssinica) and some tufted and roughedge grasses such as Diplachne fusca along the banks ofNabogo forested and the Bunglung man-made wetlands All


bird species were classified into 21 bird groups of whichwaders finches and pigeon and doves had two species eachclassified under them (Table 1) Cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis)was the single most abundant species in the wet seasonwhile marsh warbler (Acrocephalus palustris) was the singlemost abundant species in the dry season (Table 1) Overallthe shallow close marshes of Wuntori and Tugu were themost preferred habitats for birds followed by the riparianwetlands (Adayili and Nabogo) (Figure 2) Birds populationin the threemarshes (TuguWuntori and Kukobila wetlands)and the two riparian wetlands substantially differed in bothseasons (119875 lt 005) whereas species in artificial wetland(Bunglung) did not vary significantly (119875 gt 005)

Mean number of birds in each line transect per plotranged from 20 plusmn 05 to 116 plusmn 28 in the wet season and22 plusmn 05 to 96 plusmn 44 in the dry season (Tables 2(a) and2(b)) Nabogo wetland registered the highest mean numberof birds per plot while Bunglung artificial wetland was theleast recorded in the wet season Overall mean bird diversityin the wet season (1198671015840 = 1361 plusmn 014 and 175 plusmn 013)was significantly higher than that of the dry season (1198671015840 =124 plusmn 014 and 156 plusmn 007) (119865 = 4101 119875 lt 005) (Figure 3)Bird diversity generally followed their evenness distributionamong the wetlands (119880 = 0 119875 lt 001 Mann-Whitney119880 test) but did not vary significantly from richness (119880 =95 119875 gt 005 Mann-Whitney 119880 test) Comparatively themarshes (Wuntori and Kukobila) were more diverse in thewet (1198671015840 = 175 plusmn 013) and dry (1198671015840 = 156 plusmn 007) seasonsrespectively than in the riparian wetlands (Nabogo-1198671015840 =167 plusmn 008 wet1198671015840 = 152 plusmn 004 dry) (Figure 3) On speciesrichness however the riparian wetlands (eg Nabogo) weremore species rich (119863 = 196 plusmn 025) than the marshes (egWuntori-119863 = 187 plusmn 029) (Figure 5) The artificial wetland(Bunglung) was the least in diversity (1198671015840 = 157 plusmn 009wet 1198671015840 = 136 plusmn 014 dry) and species rich (136 plusmn 018)(Figures 3 and 5)

Relationship between Environmental Factors and Bird Assem-blage Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) diagramshowed that bird diversity and abundance were generallyinfluenced by farming practices bushfires and grazingintensity although the level of impact varied between thewet and dry seasons (Figures 6 and 7) Although farmingpractices were a common activity within the catchment ofthe wetlands in the wet season the situation was more severeand widespread within 100m radius in the artificial wetlandwith almost 90 of the fertile lands cultivated Birds thatwere identified in these farmed plots were less diverse low inabundance and sensitive to disturbances Examples includedwere black-billed dove (Turtur abyssinicus) marsh warbler(Acrocephalus palustris) and the yellow weaver bird (Ploceusmegarhrynchus) compared with birds found in the remainingfive wetlands Heavily grazed plots inWuntori and Tugu shal-low marshes with severe animal trampling supported highabundance of birds like the African pygmy goose (Nettapusauritus) collared sunbird (Anthreptes collaris) African jacana(Actophilornis africanus) Pied kingfisher (Ceryle rudis) andthe squacco heron (Ardeola ralloides) (Figure 6)

Bushfire was the key human-led factor that consistentlyinfluenced bird population and diversity in the two riparianwetlands in the dry and wet seasons and a few plots in theTugu shallow marsh Observed patchy conditions broughtabout by previously and recent burnt areas (for the pur-poses of farm clearing and charcoal production) were moreextensive in Adayili and Nabogo forested wetlands than tinTugu wetland This disturbance scenario rather attracteddiverse birds such as little bee-eater (Merops pusillus) Spottedcreeper (Salpornis spilonotus) northern red-billed hornbill(Tockus erythrorhynchus) and Western gray plantain eater(Crinifer piscator) to these wetlands in spite of the narrowranges that were created (Figure 6) Majority of speciesnot captured in the ordination diagrams were detected inhabitats with average conditions of the environmental factorsevaluated Cumulative percentage variance of the species-environment relationship (axis I = 554 and axis II = 1039)explained 1593 of the variation in the weighted averagesof the 25 species in relation to three environmental variablesin the wet season (Table 3(a)) The rather weak correlationbetween species-environmental factors in the first three axes(119903 = 0430 119903 = 0523 and 119903 = 0320) reflected in the highdiversity registered in the wet season (Table 3(a))

The dry season saw water from the three marshes (Kuko-bila Wuntori and Tugu) and Bunglung were drained toirrigate nearby farms Consequently birds such as Africanjacana (Actophilornis africanus) lanner falcon (Falco biarmi-cus) marsh warbler (Acrocephalus palustris) and black-billedwood dove (Turtur abyssinicus) were confined to the centralpart of the wetlands that had isolated pools of water andvegetation (Figure 7) Although birds were spatially diversein these wetlands they were less abundant However thepopulation of yellow billed kite increased in the first 0ndash10mand 10ndash20m transect lines where incidences of bushfire wereobserved All the three wetlands with inherent human-leddisturbances (grazing intensity and farming activities) werespatially autocorrelated in the dry season (Figure 7)

Cumulative percentage variancewas explained by the firsttwo axes (axis I = 8963 and axis II = 5092) and accountedfor 1406 of the variation in the weighted averages of the23 species diversity and abundance (Table 3(b))The low birddiversity recorded in the dry season was further reflected inthe strong correlation with the environmental factors on thefirst three axes of the of the ordination diagram (119903 = 0581119903 = 0644 and 119903 = 0629) (Figure 7)

4 Discussion

Our study highlighted the growing concern on bird abun-dance and diversity fluctuations on seasonal scales as aresult of environmental disturbances The increase in birddensity in the wet season with a corresponding increase inarea of lateral distance was probably due to the abundanceof food types presence of dense vegetation (serving assecured nesting sites against hunting) the near absenceof inflammable litter stable hydrological period and theimportance of plot size ratio to wetland area Wetland-dependent birds have reportedly used the availability of wateras proximate cues to assist in their broad scale selection


Table 1 List of bird species detected and their status with respect to the IUCN global ldquoRed Listrdquo database

Family Scientific name Bird group Common name IUNC statusJacanidae Actophilornis africana Coots African jacana LCAnatidae Nettapus auritus Bitterns and herons African pygmy goose LCLybiidae Lybius dubius Woodpeckers Bearded barbet LCColumbidae Turtur abyssinicus Pigeons and doves Black-billed dove LCMalaconotidae Tchagra australis Shricks Black-crowned tchagra LCCharadriidae Vanellus tectus Plovers and lampings Black headed plover LCArdeidae Bubulcus ibis Bitterns and heron Cattle egret LCNectariniidae Anthreptes collaris Tree creepers Collared sunbird LCPhasianidae Pternistis bicalcaratus Pheasants and patridges Double spurred francolin LCMuscicapidae Muscicapa gambagae Flycatchers Gambaga flycatcher LCFalconidae Falco biarmicus Falcons Lanner falcon LCMeropidae Merops pusillus Bee eaters Little bee-eater LCAcrocephalidae Acrocephalus palustris Warblers Marsh warbler LCPloceidae Euplectes franciscanus Finches Northern red bishop LCBucerotidae Tockus erythrorhynchus Hornbills Northern red hornbill LCAlcedinidae Ceryle rudis Kingfishers Pied kingfisher LCPloceidae Quelea quelea Weavers Red-billed quelea LCCerthiidae Salpornis spilonotus Tree creepers Spotted creeper LCArdeidae Ardeola ralloides Waders Squacco heron LCColumbidae Streptopelia vinacea Pigeons and doves Vinaceous dove LCSturnidae Cinnyricinclus leucogaster Terns Violet backed starling LCMusophagidae Crinifer piscator Touracos Western gray plantain eater LCCiconiidae Ciconia episcopus Waders Wooly necked stock LCAccipitridae Milvus aegyptius Swallows Yellow-billed kite LCPloceidae Ploceus megarhrynchus Finches Yellow weaver bird VUThe status abbreviations are as follows least concern (LC) vulnerable (VU) threatened (T) near threatened (NT) critical (CR) extinct (EX)

Table 2 (a) Mean number of birds counted in a lateral distance per line transect (Wet season) (b) Mean number of birds counted in a lateraldistance per line transect (Dry season)

(a)

Wetland type 0ndash10m 10ndash20m 20ndash30m 30ndash40m 40ndash50 50ndash60mKukobila 66 plusmn 25 2 plusmn 05 48 plusmn 22 62 plusmn 15 6 plusmn 11 74 plusmn 2Wuntori 11 plusmn 3 96 plusmn 41 84 plusmn 17 72 plusmn 14 38 plusmn 06 62 plusmn 18Tugu 98 plusmn 48 7 plusmn 28 55 plusmn 19 96 plusmn 36 56 plusmn 2 44 plusmn 12Adayili 76 plusmn 34 54 plusmn 14 28 plusmn 04 58 plusmn 22 44 plusmn 14 52 plusmn 18Nabogo 98 plusmn 17 72 plusmn 26 96 plusmn 41 78 plusmn 34 64 plusmn 23 116 plusmn 28Bunglung 9 plusmn 19 46 plusmn 12 78 plusmn 39 56 plusmn 39 48 plusmn 16 32 plusmn 04

(b)



Table 3 (a) Summary of CCA axis lengths for birds showing the levels of correlation between axes and environmental gradients percentagevariance of species and species-environment relationships (wet season) (b) Summary of CCA axis lengths for birds showing the levels ofcorrelation between axes and environmental gradients percentage variance of species and species-environment relationships (dry season)

(a)

Axis 1 Axis 2 Axis 3Canonical eigenvalues for bird species 0163 0143 0078Pearson correlation species-environmental scores 0722 0795 0558Kendall rank correlation sp-envrsquotal scores 0430 0523 0320Cumulative percentage variance 554 1039 1305 variance explained 554 485 266Number of sites = 30Number of species (response variables) = 25Number of environmental variables = 3

(b)

Axis 1 Axis 2 Axis 3Canonical eigenvalues for bird species 029 016 010Pearson correlation sp-environmental scores 086 065 061Kendall rank correlation for sp-envrsquotal scores 058 064 063Cumulative percentage variance 897 141 172 variance explained 896 509 314Number of sites = 30Number of species (response variables) = 25Number of environmental variables = 3

Ordination plotEnvironment axis 1

3

3

2

2

1

1

0 0

005

01

015

02

025

0

Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2

Speciessamples axis 1

Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

minus3 minus025

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

minus3

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1

Figure 6 Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) ordination diagram showing the relationship between environmental variables andbird species across the six wetlands in the wet seasonThe red circles represent sample plots the green squares represent bird species and thearrows represent each of the environmental variables plotted pointing in the direction of maximum change of explanatory variables acrossthe six wetlands


Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

0

0

1

1

2

2

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1


Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2

005010150202503035

minus025

minus03

minus035

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

0


Figure 7 Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) ordination diagram showing the relationship between environmental factors and birdassemblage in the six wetlands in the dry season Diagram description is the same as in Figure 6

of habitat preference [42 43] while wetland size has beenobserved to correlate with higher densities of bird speciesin North Dakota semipermanent wetlands [5] For the dryseason we observed that marsh-dependent birds (Africanjacanamarshwarbler and squacco heron) whose populationare largely dependent on stable hydrological regime [44 45]were confined to isolated pools of water as a result of waterabstraction for irrigation activities However the abundanceof riparian preferred species (Spooted creeper little bee-eater and northern red-billed hornbill) may be due to theattraction (using their proximate cues) to leftover carcassesfollowing burning and long-term adaption to bushfire land-scape conditions Field experiment conducted by [46] foundfive out of 35 birds in unburned sites in a Florida wetlandwhile [47] also detected an increase in the abundance ofupland sandpipers (Bartramia longicauda) following burningand grazing activities But other studies have rather showna decline in the population of some birds like honeyeatersthrough postmortality of bushfires predation and foodscarcity in Australian wetlands [48] These varied responsesto bushfires are more of species-specific at different spatio-temporal to long-term scales

With reference to the IUCN ldquoRed Listrdquo database (2011)we noted that bird status following the influence of environ-mental disturbances appears not to be under severe threatsince 962 were categorized as least concern (LC) and 38(yellow weaver bird (Ploceus megarhrynchus)) as vulnerable(VU) These species were among the least counted and livedon narrow range habitat predominated by vegetation type(Diplachne fusca a rough serrated grass species and Ziziphusabyssinica a thorny tree) that protect them against huntingfor their aesthetic value But there is the likelihood that

current trends of disturbances could in the near future seemany birds under least concern status becoming vulnerableif not completely extinctThis is evidenced from the relativelylow number of species (26 species) encountered in this studycompared to 48 species of water birds detected in fourcoastal wetlands of Ghana [22] The low diversity indicesin this study (1198671015840 = 124ndash175) compared to the indicesprovided by [39] (ranging from 15 to 35 and occasionallysurpasses 45) and those reported by [49] (1198671015840 = 399) inthe Taunsa Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary-Pakistan reflect thethreats to predicted future vulnerabilities of birds in thestudy sites The reported decline in the global diversity ofhabitat-specific birds and shorebird populations since 1980ndash2007 [50] has been predicted to continue at a rate not lessthan 80 [51]The current study identified farming activitiesgrazing pressure and bushfires as the factors that affected birddiversity Other findings identified pollution [4] cutting ofmangrove vegetation [8] and hydrological regime [44 45]

5 Conclusion

Generally bird diversity and abundance were largely influ-enced farming activities and bushfire and the impacts variedaccording to the season and the type of wetland Althoughfarming activities and bushfire encouraged the presence ofsome bird species the overall impacts of these environmentaldeterminants negated the role of the disturbance scenarioand hencemay not be entirely recommended as conservationmeasure to increase bird population and diversity Further-more considering the fact that the yellow weaver bird wasidentified as a vulnerable species (VU) gives an indicationthat the current environmental disturbances observed during


the study could in the near future affect the population of theremaining 962 of birds classified presently as least concern(LC)

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgment

The authors express their sincere gratitude to the Ghana Edu-cation Trust Fund (GETfund) for supporting this researchwork

References

[1] T J Davis Ed The Ramsar Convention Manual A Guideto the Convention on Wetlands of International ImportanceEspecially as Waterfowl Habitat Ramsar Convention BureauGland Switzerland 6th edition 1994

[2] Birdlife International Threatened Birds of the World LynxEditionsBirdlife International Barcelona Spain 2011

[3] C W Schwartz and E R Schwartz ldquoAn ecological reconnais-sance of the pheasants of Hawaiirdquo The Auk vol 68 no 3 pp281ndash314 1951

[4] C Gordon K Yankson C V Biney J W Tumbolto D SAmlalo and D Kpelle Report of the Working Group on Wet-land Typology Report to Ghana Coastal Wetlands ManagementProject Ghana Wildlife Department Accra Ghana 1998

[5] H A Kantrud and R E Stewart ldquoEcological distribution andcrude density of breeding birds on prairie wetlandsrdquo Journal ofWildlife Management vol 48 no 2 pp 426ndash437 1984

[6] D J Twedt and C R Loesch ldquoForest area and distribution inthe Mississippi alluvial valley implications for breeding birdconservationrdquo Journal of Biogeography vol 26 no 6 pp 1215ndash1224 1999

[7] R Sallabanks J R Walters and J A Collazo ldquoBreeding birdabundance in bottomland hardwood forests habitat edge andpatch size effectsrdquoTheCondor vol 102 no 4 pp 748ndash758 2000

[8] D K Attuqueyefio and F Gbogbo ldquoProspects of conservingwetlands along the Mukwe Lagoon at Nungua in the GreaterAccra Region of Ghanardquo West African Journal of AppliedEcology vol 2 pp 65ndash75 2001

[9] W J Mitsch and J G GooselinkWetlands JohnWiley amp SonsNew York NY USA 3rd edition 2000

[10] J Biggs PWilliamsMWhitfield P Nicolet and AWeatherbyldquo15 years of pond assessment in Britain results and lessonslearned from the work of pond conservationrdquo Aquatic Conser-vation Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems vol 15 no 6 pp693ndash714 2005

[11] A D Fox J Madsen H Boyd et al ldquoEffects of agriculturalchange on abundance fitness components and distribution oftwo arctic-nesting goose populationsrdquo Global Change Biologyvol 11 no 6 pp 881ndash893 2005

[12] L D Kangah-Kesse D K Attuquayefio E H Owusu and FGbogbo ldquoBird species diversity and abundance in the abiriwsacred grove in the Eastern region of Ghanardquo West AfricanJournal of Applied Ecology vol 11 pp 41ndash50 2007

[13] G Niemi J Hanowski P Helle et al ldquoEcological sustainabilityof birds in boreal forestsrdquo Conservation Ecology vol 2 no 2article 17 1998

[14] J D Brawn S K Robinson and F RThompson III ldquoThe role ofdisturbance in the ecology and conservation of birdsrdquo Journal ofAnnual Review of Ecological Systems vol 32 pp 251ndash276 2001

[15] E H Owusu ldquoThe ornithological importance of the AmansuriCommunity Nature Reserve in the Western Region of GhanardquoJournal of Science and Technology vol 27 no 3 pp 72ndash85 2007

[16] E H Owusu ldquoThe perceptions of local communities towardsthe conservation of birds in an important bird area in GhanardquoWest African Journal of Applied Ecology vol 13 no 1 pp 111ndash1162008

[17] R Demey and A Hester ldquoFirst records of Nimba FlycatcherMelaenornis annamarulae for Ghanardquo Bulletin of the AfricanBird Club vol 15 no 1 pp 95ndash96 2008

[18] Y Ntiamoa-Baidu S K Nyame and A A Nuoh ldquoTrends inthe use of a small coastal lagoon by waterbirds Muni Lagoon(Ghana)rdquo Biodiversity amp Conservation vol 9 no 4 pp 527ndash5392000

[19] Y Ntiamoa-Baidu E H Owusu S Asamoah and K Owusu-Boateng ldquoDistribution and abundance of forest birds inGhanardquoOstrich vol 71 no 1-2 pp 262ndash267 2000

[20] Y Ntiamoa-Baidu S A Asamoah E HOwusu andKOwusu-Boateng ldquoAvifauna of two upland evergreen forest reserves theAtewa range and Tano Offin in Ghanardquo Ostrich vol 71 no 1-2pp 277ndash280 2000

[21] R H Suapim D K Attuquayefio F Gbogbo and E H OwusuldquoAspects of the feeding ecology of wintering water birds in theDensuDelta Ramsar Site GhanardquoGhana Journal of Science vol47 pp 17ndash34 2007

[22] F Gbogbo and D K Attuquayefio ldquoIssues arising from changesin water bird population estimates in coastal Ghanardquo Journal ofBird Populations vol 10 pp 79ndash87 2000

[23] E A Obodai and C A Nsor ldquoAspects of biodiversity and fishproduction in the Kukobila wetland in the Savelugu-NantonDistrict of the Northern Region of Ghanardquo Ethiopian Journal ofEnvironmental Studies andManagement vol 2 no 3 pp 27ndash352009


[25] Ministry of Environment and Science National BiodiversityStrategy for Ghana Report Ministry of Environment and Sci-ence Ghana 2002

[26] T Slaymaker and R M Blench Rethinking Natural ResourceDegradation in Sub-Saharan Africa Policies to Support Sustain-able Soil Fertility Management Soil and Water Conservationamong Resource Poor Farmers in Semi-Arid Areas CountryStudies I University of Development Studies Tamale Ghana2002

[27] W J Sutherland Ecological Census Techniques CambridgeUniversity Press Cambridge UK 2nd edition 2006

[28] S T Buckland D R Anderson K P Burnham and J LLaake Distance Sampling Estimating Abundance of BiologicalPopulations Chapman amp Hall New York NY USA 2003

[29] C J Bibby N D Burgess D A Hill and S H Mustoe BirdCensus Techniques Academic Press New York NY USA 2ndedition 2000

[30] Birds of Ghana Galleries 2010 httpwwwpbasecom[31] R J Hobbs and L F Huenneke ldquoDisturbance diversity and

invasion implications for conservationrdquo Conservation Biologyvol 6 no 3 pp 324ndash337 1992

[32] W J Sutherland The Conservation Handbook CAPmdashConservation Action Planning Blackwell Science Massachus-etts TNC-WWF (The Nature Conservancy World Wide Fund


for Nature) Massachusetts MassUSA 2000 httpconserve-onlineorgworkspacescbdgatewayresources

[33] N Salafsky R Margoluis K H Redford and J G Robin-son ldquoImproving the practice of conservation a conceptualframework and research agenda for conservation sciencerdquoConservation Biology vol 16 no 6 pp 1469ndash1479 2002

[34] N Salafsky D Salzer and J Ervin Conventions for defin-ing naming measuring combining and mapping threats inconservation An initial proposal for a standard system 2003httpwwwfosonlineorgresourceconventions-for-threats

[35] N Salafsky D Salzer A J Stattersfield et al ldquoA standard lexiconfor biodiversity conservation unified classifications of threatsand actionsrdquo Conservation Biology vol 22 no 4 pp 897ndash9112008

[36] C Battisti L Luiselli and C Teofili ldquoQuantifying threats in aMediterranean wetland are there any changes in their evalua-tion during a training courserdquo Biodiversity and Conservationvol 18 no 11 pp 3053ndash3060 2009

[37] C J F Ter Braak ldquoCanonical correspondence analysis a neweigenvector technique for multivariate direct gradient analysisrdquoEcology vol 67 no 5 pp 1167ndash1179 1986

[38] P A Henderson and R M Seaby Environmental CommunityAnalysis 13 Pisces Conservation Ltd Hampshire UK 2000

[39] C E Shannon and W Weaver The Mathematical Theory ofCommunication The University of Illinois Press Urbana IllUSA 1963

[40] E C Pielou An introduction to Mathematical Ecology JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1969

[41] R Margalef Perspective in Ecological Theory University ofChicago Press Chicago Ill USA 1968

[42] J A Kushland ldquoResponses of wading birds to seasonallyfluctuating water levels strategies and their limitsrdquo Journal ofColonial Water vol 9 pp 155ndash162 1987

[43] J E Austin ldquoResponses of dabbling ducks towetland conditionsin the Prairie Pothole regionrdquo Journal of Waterbirds vol 25 no4 pp 465ndash473 2002

[44] F Causarano C Battisti and A Sorace ldquoEffect of winter waterstress on the breeding bird assemblage of a remnant wetland inCentral Italyrdquo Revue drsquoEcologie vol 64 no 1 pp 61ndash72 2009

[45] D Zacchei C Battisti and G M Carpaneto ldquoContrastingeffects of water stress on wetland-obligated birds in a semi-natural Mediterranean wetlandrdquo Lakes and Reservoirs Researchand Management vol 16 no 4 pp 281ndash286 2011

[46] R J Vogl ldquoEffects of fire on the plants and animals of a Floridawetlandrdquo American Midland Naturalist vol 89 no 2 pp 334ndash347 1973

[47] A F L A Powell ldquoEffects of prescribed burns and bison (Bosbison) grazing on breeding bird abundances in tallgrass prairierdquoAuk vol 123 no 1 pp 183ndash197 2006

[48] M Allen ldquoWetlands and Fire Water and Rivers CommissionWater Notes for Wetlands Managers WNS2rdquo Natural HeritageTrust Australia 2000

[49] F Bibi and Z Ali ldquoMeasurement of diversity indices of aviancommunities at Taunsa Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary PakistanrdquoJournal of Animal and Plant Sciences vol 23 no 2 pp 469ndash4742013

[50] SH ButchartMWalpole B Collen et al ldquoGlobal biodiversityindicators of recent declinesrdquo Science vol 328 no 5982 pp1164ndash1168 2010

[51] F Von Euler ldquoSelective extinction and rapid loss of evolutionaryhistory in the bird faunardquo Proceedings of the Royal Society BBiological Sciences vol 268 no 1463 pp 127ndash130 2001

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of


Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology


Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of


The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of



Signal TransductionJournal of


BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of



Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


Genetics Research International


Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational



Enzyme Research



Microbiology


previously conducted in one of the wetlands under thecurrent study (Kukobila wetland) was to establish a baselineof the types of birds found in thewetland [23] Understandingoverall bird responses to disturbances will as well require theassessment of the various disturbance scenarios on a seasonalbasis since the impacts of environmental determinants aremany and vary along seasonal trends Ecological changes andland use activities within wetlands catchment in NorthernRegion of Ghana are seasonally driven and can potentiallyaffect bird assemblage composition and habitat preferenceOf the 728 bird species recorded in Ghana [18ndash20] six ofthem are considered threatened and 12 near threatened [24]For example the National Biodiversity Strategy for GhanaReport mentioned hornbill parrots and birds of prey asthe few keystone species under threat [25] Though thesefindings were largely from the southern sector of Ghana(ie forest belt and coastal zones) the phenomenon suggeststhat some birds in the Northern Savannah zone might beunder threat or at risk of extinction giving recent undoc-umented but observed environmental disturbances on thewetlands Therefore the absence of a scientific investigationmakes it impossible to determine the current state of birdpopulation composition and habitat preference (using theirproximate cues) on a seasonal basis among wetlands inthe Northern Savannah zone In this study we apply mul-tivariate ordination techniques to determine the influenceof three environmental factors on the seasonal variation ofbird population diversity and habitat preference among thewetlands The outcome of this investigation will help equipwetland managers with first-hand information on the typesof seasonal disturbance scenarios and how these disturbancescould potentially modify bird assemblage in the future andthe selection of appropriate conservation approach towardsenhancing the sustainability of their population

2 Methods

The study was carried out in six wetlands located in theNorthern Region of Ghana with their coordinates as follows(i) Wuntori (N09∘ 083351015840 W00∘1 09∘6851015840) (ii) Kukobila(N10∘ 087231015840W000∘ 481791015840) (iii) Tugu (N09∘ 225501015840W000∘350041015840) (iv) Bunglung (N09∘ 355761015840 W000∘ 474431015840) (v)Adayili (N09∘ 413911015840W000∘ 414801015840) and (vi) Nabogo (N09∘499411015840 W000∘519421015840) (Figure 1) The six sites lie on theextensive floodplain along the course of the White VoltaRiver which has over time become incised and modifiedthrough meandering and aligning along various topographicfeaturesThis has led to the development of streams that havediverted from the main White Volta [26] All six wetlandswere classified as close shallow marshes (Wuntori and Tuguwetlands) open deep marsh (Kukobila wetland) riparianwetlands (Adayili and Nabogo wetlands) and artificial wet-land (Bunglung wetland)The hydrological regimes of the sixwetlands under study were typical of permanent wetlandswhose depth at low tide did not exceed 2m on average Sizesof the wetlands were as follows (a) Wuntori = 77 ha (b)Kukobila = 5 ha Tugu (c) 27 ha (d) Nabogo = 79 ha (e)Adayili = 67 ha and (f) Bunglung = 115 ha

Annual rainfall is in the range of 1000ndash1300mmpa andthe wet season lasts from June to early October while thedry season last from November to May Average temperaturevaries between 14∘C and 40∘C [27] Altitude ranges between108 and 138meters abovemean sea levelThe vegetation coveris a mixture of grassland dominated by Leersia hexandraand woodland dominated byMahogany (Khaya senegalensis)and shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) interspersed with shrubbycommunities of Mitragyna inermis and Ziziphus abyssinicaThe trees are relatively short with thick bark and occlusionssignifying their adaptation to the cyclical dry season bushfires Crop farming livestock rearing and fishing are themain stay of activities among the inhabitants

21 Sampling Procedure for Bird Species Population moni-toring survey was used to determine the seasonal variationsin bird population using transects line approach [28] Tenplots in each of the six wetlands of 60m times 10m dimensionwere laid The distance between one sampling plot and theother was 5m Birds were counted each of the ten plotswith increasing five class distance scale (1ndash10 10ndash20 20ndash40 40ndash50 and 50ndash60m) from the base of the transect lineusing visual approach and vocally through bird soundingtechnique developed by [27 29] Bird sounding technique issoftware of recorded sounds of different birds accompanyingtheir names and photos This vocal technique was only usedto count birds that were hidden in dense vegetation and weredifficult to visualize This was made possible after observingand listening to the same bird screech chirps or tweet inthe open vegetation in previous sampling Repeated andcareful listening of the bird sound in the thick vegetationfor 5 minutes was followed by playing the composed soundin order to identify the right bird Also birds that werehidden in the thicket vegetation were counted through adeliberate agitation of the vegetation This was done bycarefully throwing a stone inside the dense vegetation inorder to force the hidden bird(s) to fly outTheywere countedafter settling on the open vegetation Counting of birds wasdone from 0700ndash01100 GMT when most of the birds werefeeding Counting was done once a week and hence fourtimes in month Birds were counted in the dry (harmattanmdasha period characterized by low humidity high temperaturesfoggy condition and sandy storms) and wet seasons (rainyperiod) The total number of birds recorded was compiledon a monthly basis Bird nest was not counted since itwas impossible to establish the type and number of birdscohabitating a nest A pair of Bushnell Falcon binoculars witha 10 times 50mm dimension was used to observe birds locatedbeyond 20m distance for morphological features like colourand structure of the beak colour of tail feather colour offeathers around the neck colour of the head feathers and thepresence of comb-like feathers (see [30])

22 Environmental Assessment Identifying how many andwhich types of human-induced disturbances or threats arepresent and their regime is important when assessing thestatus of wetlands of high conservation concern for efficientmanagement [31ndash34] In this regard four environmental


(km)0 5 10 20


RiverRoad








050

100150200250300350400450500


Deep openmarsh

Man-made


Num

ber o

f ind

ivid

uals

per w

etla

nd cl

ass

Dry season


002040608

112141618

2

Shan

non-

Wei

ner i

ndex

Wet season

Wun

tori

Tugu

Kuko

bila

Aday

ili

Nab

ogo

Bung

lung

Dry season




1198671015840

= minus

119904

sum

119894=1

119901119894 (ln119901119894) (1)


119869 =1198671015840

ln 119878 (2)



0

Wun

tori

Tugu

Kuko

bila

Aday

ili

Nab

ogo

Bung

lung

010203040506070809

1

Piel

o ev

enne

ss in

dex




0

05

Wun

tori

Tugu

Kuko

bila

Aday

ili

Nab

ogo

Bung

lung

1

15

2

25

Wet season

Mar

gale

f ric

hnes

s ind

ex

Dry season




3 Results









4 Discussion






(a)


(b)




(a)


(b)



3

3

2

2

1

1

0 0

005

01

015

02

025

0

Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2


Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

minus3 minus025

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

minus3

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1



Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

0

0

1

1

2

2

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1


Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2

005010150202503035

minus025

minus03

minus035

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

0






5 Conclusion






Acknowledgment


References





























































Volume 2014

Zoology






















Advances in

Virolog y



Volume 2014




Enzyme Research



Microbiology


(km)0 5 10 20


RiverRoad








050

100150200250300350400450500


Deep openmarsh

Man-made


Num

ber o

f ind

ivid

uals

per w

etla

nd cl

ass

Dry season


002040608

112141618

2

Shan

non-

Wei

ner i

ndex

Wet season

Wun

tori

Tugu

Kuko

bila

Aday

ili

Nab

ogo

Bung

lung

Dry season




1198671015840

= minus

119904

sum

119894=1

119901119894 (ln119901119894) (1)


119869 =1198671015840

ln 119878 (2)



0

Wun

tori

Tugu

Kuko

bila

Aday

ili

Nab

ogo

Bung

lung

010203040506070809

1

Piel

o ev

enne

ss in

dex




0

05

Wun

tori

Tugu

Kuko

bila

Aday

ili

Nab

ogo

Bung

lung

1

15

2

25

Wet season

Mar

gale

f ric

hnes

s ind

ex

Dry season




3 Results









4 Discussion






(a)


(b)




(a)


(b)



3

3

2

2

1

1

0 0

005

01

015

02

025

0

Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2


Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

minus3 minus025

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

minus3

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1



Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

0

0

1

1

2

2

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1


Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2

005010150202503035

minus025

minus03

minus035

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

0






5 Conclusion






Acknowledgment


References





























































Volume 2014

Zoology






















Advances in

Virolog y



Volume 2014




Enzyme Research



Microbiology


050

100150200250300350400450500


Deep openmarsh

Man-made


Num

ber o

f ind

ivid

uals

per w

etla

nd cl

ass

Dry season


002040608

112141618

2

Shan

non-

Wei

ner i

ndex

Wet season

Wun

tori

Tugu

Kuko

bila

Aday

ili

Nab

ogo

Bung

lung

Dry season




1198671015840

= minus

119904

sum

119894=1

119901119894 (ln119901119894) (1)


119869 =1198671015840

ln 119878 (2)



0

Wun

tori

Tugu

Kuko

bila

Aday

ili

Nab

ogo

Bung

lung

010203040506070809

1

Piel

o ev

enne

ss in

dex




0

05

Wun

tori

Tugu

Kuko

bila

Aday

ili

Nab

ogo

Bung

lung

1

15

2

25

Wet season

Mar

gale

f ric

hnes

s ind

ex

Dry season




3 Results









4 Discussion






(a)


(b)




(a)


(b)



3

3

2

2

1

1

0 0

005

01

015

02

025

0

Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2


Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

minus3 minus025

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

minus3

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1



Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

0

0

1

1

2

2

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1


Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2

005010150202503035

minus025

minus03

minus035

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

0






5 Conclusion






Acknowledgment


References





























































Volume 2014

Zoology






















Advances in

Virolog y



Volume 2014




Enzyme Research



Microbiology








4 Discussion






(a)


(b)




(a)


(b)



3

3

2

2

1

1

0 0

005

01

015

02

025

0

Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2


Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

minus3 minus025

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

minus3

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1



Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

0

0

1

1

2

2

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1


Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2

005010150202503035

minus025

minus03

minus035

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

0






5 Conclusion






Acknowledgment


References





























































Volume 2014

Zoology






















Advances in

Virolog y



Volume 2014




Enzyme Research



Microbiology





(a)


(b)




(a)


(b)



3

3

2

2

1

1

0 0

005

01

015

02

025

0

Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2


Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

minus3 minus025

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

minus3

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1



Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

0

0

1

1

2

2

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1


Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2

005010150202503035

minus025

minus03

minus035

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

0






5 Conclusion






Acknowledgment


References





























































Volume 2014

Zoology






















Advances in

Virolog y



Volume 2014




Enzyme Research



Microbiology



(a)


(b)



3

3

2

2

1

1

0 0

005

01

015

02

025

0

Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2


Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

minus3 minus025

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

minus3

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1



Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

0

0

1

1

2

2

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1


Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2

005010150202503035

minus025

minus03

minus035

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

0






5 Conclusion






Acknowledgment


References





























































Volume 2014

Zoology






















Advances in

Virolog y



Volume 2014




Enzyme Research



Microbiology


Spec

ies

sam

ples

axis

2

0

0

1

1

2

2

minus2

minus2

minus1

minus1


Envi

ronm

ent a

xis 2

005010150202503035

minus025

minus03

minus035

minus02

minus015

minus01

minus005

0






5 Conclusion






Acknowledgment


References





























































Volume 2014

Zoology






















Advances in

Virolog y



Volume 2014




Enzyme Research



Microbiology





Acknowledgment


References





























































Volume 2014

Zoology






















Advances in

Virolog y



Volume 2014




Enzyme Research



Microbiology





























Volume 2014

Zoology






















Advances in

Virolog y



Volume 2014




Enzyme Research



Microbiology








Volume 2014

Zoology






















Advances in

Virolog y



Volume 2014




Enzyme Research



Microbiology

Documents

Research Article Environmental Determinants Influencing Seasonal Variations of Bird Diversity and Abundance in Wetlands, Northern Region (Ghana