THE MANAGEMENT OF OIL SPILLAGE IN THENIGER DELTA REGION OF NIGERIA

A Dissertation submitted in part fulfilment of MSc Environmental Management

UGOCHI ELIZABETH, EKWUGHA12058556

Supervised byDr Trevor Price

Shane Galvin

University of South Wales

Faculty of Computer, Engineering and Sciences

May 2014

ABSTRACT

There has been a proliferation in the activities of crude oil

exploration across the globe as a result of increase in high

risk of oil spillage and the accompanying environmental

hazards. In Nigeria, this has been the order of the day since

the initiation of the first petroleum industry in country’s

Niger delta region. Oil spills have been recurrent and

impacting damaging effects on the environment particularly

within the oil-producing region. This research examines oil

spillage and their associative effects on the fauna and flora

of the Niger delta region of Nigeria. It seeks to assess how

the federal government and the oil firms manage oil spill

incidents and the degradation of environment brought about by

the oil spillage.

The results of the research have identified gaps and need for

improvement to manage oil spills incidents to protect the

environment. It has uncovered the need for the Nigerian

environmental laws and policy to be updated. It is proposed

that there is need for the government to set out strict

obligation for degradation of the environment. The oil

generating organisations in Nigeria should comply to

international best practices in exploitation of oil and the

Nigerian government should go past the limits of directive and

control methodology to contamination abatement and embrace

different suitable technology for oil spill control as well as

involving inhabitants of the Niger delta region in the

management of oil spill.

DECLARATIONThis is to certify that except where specific reference is

made, the work contained within this dissertation is the

result of my independent investigation and no part of this

work has been presented in candidature for any award in part

or in its entirety. All sources are duly referenced.

Name/Signature ___________________________________

Date ____________________________________________

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to

God Almighty, for guidance, knowledge and health during my

academic time. I would not have achieved my studies without

his love and mercy. Thank you Lord.

I would like to thank the management and employees of the

various organisations that assisted me in this research and

many thanks to residents of the Niger delta region of Nigeria

who participated immensely in the field survey aspect of this

research.

Furthermore, I am indebted to Nosike Amucheazi for the immense

support and timely information on my studies and during this

research. My utmost appreciation to my supervisor- Dr T Price

and Shane Galvin for the guide, direction and advice which

were very useful to achieve this research. I also appreciate

all other lecturers in my department for their effort in

preparing me for the research and to my colleague Mr Olayinka

Salau for all the assistance.

This acknowledgement will not be complete without my sincere

gratitude to my parent Mr and Mrs Sunny Ekwugha, my siblings

and entire relations for their tremendous encouragement and

support towards my education.

Finally, I would like to thank all my colleagues and friends

who were so helpful through the stages of the research. Thank

you all.

Table of ContentsABSTRACT...........................................................2DECLARATION........................................................3ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................4LIST OF TABLE......................................................6LIST OF FIGURES....................................................7LIST OF ACRONYMS...................................................7SECTION 1.0: INTRODUCTION..........................................81.1 Study Background............................................81.2 Statement of Problem........................................91.3 Aim and Objective..........................................101.4 Significance of the Study..................................111.5 Scope of Study.............................................11

SECTION 2.0: LITERATURE REVIEW....................................122.1 Crude oil and Oil spillage..................................122.1.1 Crude Oil...............................................132.1.2 Crude oil and Nigeria Economy...........................142.1.3 Oil spillage............................................14

2.2 Causes and Impacts of Oil spill.............................152.2.1 Causes of Oil spill.....................................152.2.2 Oil spill incidents In Niger Delta......................172.2.3 Impacts of Oil spill....................................18

2.3 Management of Oil spills....................................212.3.1 Bioremediation approach.................................232.3.2 International Co-operation..............................232.3.3 Mechanical Containment..................................24

2.3.4 Chemical and biological methods.........................242.3.5 Physical methods........................................25

SECTION 3: METHODOLOGY..........................................253.1. Introduction.............................................25

3.2. Research Philosophy........................................263.2.1 Epistemological and Ontological Assumption..............263.2.2 Phenomenology and Positivism............................263.2.3. Qualitative and Quantitative Research..................27

3.3. Overview about Interview and Questionnaires................273.4 Interviews..................................................283.5 Survey Questionnaire........................................293.5.1 Structure and design of questionnaire...................293.5.2 Pre-testing Questionnaires..............................303.5.3 Administering the Questionnaire.........................313.5.4 Ethics and Analysis.....................................31

3.6 Research Limitations........................................32SECTION 4: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS...................................324.1 Participants description....................................334.2 Awareness...................................................354.2.1 Knowledge of oil spill..................................354.2.2 Number of Oil spill.....................................36

4.3 Causes of oil spill.........................................384.3.1 Causes of Oil spill.....................................384.3.2 Factors responsible for the cause of oil spill..........39

4.4 Impact of oil spill.........................................404.4.1 Amount of Inhabitants affected by oil spill.............404.4.2 Main areas affected by oil spill........................404.4.3 Degree of oil spill impact..............................414.4.4 Duration of oil spill impact............................43

4.5 Management of oil spill.....................................444.5.1 Control of oil spill....................................444.5.2 Approach towards oil spill..............................454.5.3 Prevention and response to oil spill....................46

4.5.4 Social responsibility...................................484.5.5 Oil spill control performance...........................49

4.6 Summary.....................................................505.1 Conclusion..................................................525.2 Recommendations.............................................535.4 Reflective Analysis.........................................56

SECTION 6: REFERENCES AND BIBLOGRAPHY.............................586.1 References..................................................586.2 Bibliography................................................60

LIST OF TABLETable 1: Oil spill category......................................15

Table 2: Oil spill incidents in the Niger Delta..................18

Table 3: Respondents{participants} profile........................33

LIST OF FIGURESFigure 1. Knowledge of oil spill..................................35

Figure 2. Experience of oil spill incident........................36

Figure 3.Number of oil spill occurrence...........................36

Figure 4. Oil spill incidents.....................................37

Figure 5.Causes of oil spill......................................38

Figure 6. Factors responsible for oil spill.......................39

Figure 7. Amount of inhabitants affected by oil spill.............40

Figure 8. Main areas affected by oil spill........................41

Figure 9.Degree of oil spill impact...............................42

Figure 10. Quantity of oil spilled................................43

Figure 11. Duration of oil spill impact...........................44

Figure 12.Control of oil spill....................................45

Figure 13. Approach towards oil spill.............................46

Figure 14. Prevented oil spill....................................47

Figure 15. response to oil spill incident.........................48

Figure 16. Compensation for oil spill impact......................49

Figure 17. Oil spill control performance..........................50

LIST OF ACRONYMS

CNA Clean Nigeria Association

DPR Department of Petroleum Resources

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

FEPA Federal Environmental Protection Agency

NDDC Niger Delta Development Commission

NNPC Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation

NOSDRA National Oil Spill Detection

OPA Oil Pollution Act

LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gases

NEST National Environmental Study Team

SPDC Shell Petroleum Development Company

FEPA The Federal Environmental Protection Agency

EVOS Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

SECTION 1.0: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Study Background

In recent years, tremendous attention has been directed

towards environmental deterioration by man’s activities which

adversely affect the lives of plants and animals on land,

water and air and even livelihood of people (OECD, 1976). One

activity that has aroused considerable interest across the

globe and especially in oil producing countries like Nigeria

especially in the Niger Delta region is crude oil exploration.

Crude oil exploration is one of such activity that can affect

the environment negatively especially when accidents occur in

operations resulting to spillage of oil. As a result of the

impacts of crude oil operations to the environment, there have

been actions in the activities of crude oil exploration across

the globe to prevent the high risk of oil spillage and the

accompanying environmental hazards (Ojakorotu and Gilbert,

2010). However, the exposure to risk has not been helped by

the players in the oil industry who jostle for the ‘liquid

gold’ thereby putting pressure on the oil producing

communities and the surrounding environment. According to Egwu

(2012), one of the factors that cause discharge of oil to the

environmental is the unethical engineering operations

practiced by the industries involved.

An example of the catastrophic impact of oil spill is the

Exxon Valdez oil spill which occurred in Prince William Sound,

Alaska, on March 24, 1989 with an estimated crude oil spill of

260,000 to 750,000 barrels and more recently the BP deep-water

horizon oil spill on 20 April 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico

caused by the explosion and sinking of the Deepwater Horizon

oil rig. It caused an oil discharge for 87 days with an

estimated the total discharge at 4.9 million barrels, (Egwu,

2012). As a result of lessons learnt from these and other oil

spills, the prevention, response and management of oil spills

is being given top priority worldwide especially in oil

producing countries such as Nigeria in order to circumvent the

economic and environmental hazards of an oil spill. To this

end, several initiatives have come to the fore. One of such

initiatives is to make and enforce laws and contingency plans

for the prevention and control of oil spills. It is however

curious that in most developing oil producing nations

including Nigeria, the management of oil spill to prevent and

respond to unwanted oil discharge even after so many years of

petroleum exploration and production activities have not seen

a reduction in the number of spillage occurrence. This has

caused the government to resolve to grossly inadequate measure

of monetary compensation to the victims of oil spill rather

than concerning itself with the more appropriate solution of

prevention and management to safeguard the environment,

society and economy from the menace that is an oil spill.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Spillage of oil from exploration activities in the many parts

of the world has lead to massive environmental degradation in

the past decades. Such problems include contamination of water

bodies, danger to aquatic life, destruction of flora and

farmlands which includes resort centers, destruction of

properties, loss of lives and many more (Badejo and Nwilo,

2008).

In addition, oil spillage impacts to the environment can lead

to unwanted migration of people from the areas. According to

Nwilo and Badejo (2005), the consequences of oil spill is far-

reaching as it impacts negatively on the economy of a region,

pollutes water thereby health of the local community,

contaminates soils rendering it useless for farming and the

reputation of the oil companies involved. These environmental

consequences are some of the impacts of oil spillage observed

in the Niger delta region of Nigeria but could be more.

Therefore the need for measures to prevent and control oil

spillage in Nigeria cannot be overemphasized. The first step

in managing crisis like oil spills would be identifying the

factors responsible for the spillage and similar incidents

management’s methods. With the outcome, better managerial

approach can be adopted to prevent and respond to oil spills.

The question that therefore arises are;

A) What are the causes of oil spill occurrence in the

Niger delta region of Nigeria?

B) What are the impacts of oil Spillage in the Niger

Delta region of Nigeria?

C) What are the management systems adopted for control of

oil spill in Nigeria?

Investigating these matters can also expose serious gaps in

the management system for control of oil spill in the Niger

delta region of Nigeria. This increases demand for suitable

systems to address the issue of oil spill in the Niger-delta

region of Nigeria by the government and oil industries.

1.3 Aim and Objective

1.3.1 Aims

This research aims to investigate the causes and impacts of

oil spill in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria and to identify

the suitable management systems for the control of oil

spillage so as to reduce oil spills in the Niger delta region

of Nigeria

1.3.2 Objectives

To attain the above stated aim, the objectives stated below

will be achieved:

Review of appropriate literatures pertaining to the study

Investigation of the various causes and impacts of oil

spills in the Niger delta region.

Investigation of the management systems used in

controlling oil spills in the Niger delta region.

Analysing acquired data and information of the subject

matter.

Identifying the main factors affecting the effectiveness

of management systems to reduce oil spills in the region.

Proffering suitable management systems and providing

recommendations to improve the management of oil spillage

in the Niger delta region.

1.4 Significance of the Study

Research has a significant role to play in discovering

approaches to prevent, respond, and manage issues like such

presented by oil spillage in oil production activities in The

Niger delta region of Nigeria. This study will critically

investigate and analyse the causes, and provide

recommendations for the improvement of the oil spills

management in the Niger delta region of Nigeria, in order to

reduce and where possible prevent the occurrence of oil

spillages in the region.

1.5 Scope of Study

This study is focused on oil spillage in the Niger delta

region of Nigeria but particularly on causes and impacts of

Oil spillage in the region and the management systems

practiced in controlling oil spills in the area. This study

is necessary at the time considering the increasing

environmental deterioration in the Niger delta region and

presently the increase of migration of people from the rural

areas to urban area.

The Niger delta region of Nigeria is the source of over 90 per

cent of crude oil, which is the main stay of the Nigerian

economy. Oil accounts for over 90 per cent of the country’s

export earnings and some 80 percent of government revenue.

More than four decades of oil exploration and production

activities have left a severely degraded environment in

Nigeria's Niger Delta oil region, through uncontrolled

discharge of oil or its by-products including chemicals and

wastes, The Niger Delta is located on the Atlantic Coast of

Southern Nigeria. It is the second largest delta in the world

with a coastline spanning about 450 kilometers and it has been

described as the largest wetland in Africa and among the three

largest in the world (NDES, 1997).

About 2,370 square kilometers of the Niger Delta area consist

of rivers, creeks and estuaries with stagnant swamp covering

about 1900 sq. km. This is largest Mangrove swamp in Africa;

the region also falls within the tropical rain forest zone.

The ecosystem of the area is highly diverse and supportive of

numerous species of terrestrial aquatic flora and fauna in

addition to human life. The Niger Delta region cuts across

nine states in Southern Nigeria which includes Bayelsa, Abia,

Cross-River, Akwa-Ibom, Imo, Delta, Edo, Rivers, and Ondo

States. The region has emerged as one of the most ecologically

sensitive regions in Nigeria.

SECTION 2.0: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Crude oil and Oil spillage

The importance of various resources including crude oil to the

economy of a country cannot be over empathised however some of

these resources are dangerous to the environment if not

properly managed. This section provides an in-depth

understanding of crude oil natural resources.

2.1.1 Crude Oil

Crude oil also referred to as Oil is the term for

"unprocessed" oil that can be found in porous rock formations

in the upper strata of some areas of the Earth’s crust (CERA,

2006). It is also found in semi-solid form mixed with sand and

water. Crude oil is a fossil fuel, a natural resource from

decaying plants and animals over millions of years ago (in

most places; crude oil can be found along sea beds). Crude oil

varies in colour, from clear to tar-black, and in viscosity,

from water to almost solid (Oil sands-Glossary, 2007).

Although, oil was used to keep fires ablaze in early human

history, its importance in the world economy evolved slowly.

Oil is of great importance to the world at large. Oil has

become the world’s most important source of energy since the

mid-1950s. This is as a result of its relative abundance, high

energy density and easy transportability to different areas.

Generally, oil is vital to industries and it accounts for a

large percentage of the world’s energy consumption (CERA,

2006). The world at large consumes 30 billion barrels (4.8km³)

of oil per year and top oil consumers largely consist of

developed nations. This makes it one of the world’s most

important commodities (International Energy Annual, (2004),

2008).

Additionally, oil (in the form of petroleum) serves as raw

material for many chemical products, including fertilizers,

pharmaceuticals, plastics, pesticides and solvents (Wikipedia,

2009). It is also an energy source powering the vast majority

of vehicles. Oil consists of hydrocarbons, which include

mostly various aromatic hydrocarbons, cycloalkanes and alkanes

while other organic compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and

sulphur, as well as trace amounts of metals such as nickel,

iron, vanadium and copper (Speight, 1999). Crude oil could be

classified in various forms such as light crude oil or heavy

crude oil. Each crude oil has unique molecular

characteristics, which are understood by the use of crude oil

assay analyses in petroleum laboratories (Wikipedia, 2009).

Crude oil is sent to the refinery after it is removed from the

ground, and at the refinery, different parts of the crude oil

are separated into useable petroleum products. The petroleum

Industry is involved in this process, as well as with

exploration, extraction, transportation and marketing of the

entire petroleum product. The industry is divided into three

major components, namely the upstream, midstream and

downstream. Some of the products of crude oil include

Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG), heavy fuel oil, diesel,

gasoline, etc (EIA, 2009). The products are stored on-site

until they can be delivered to various markets such as gas

stations, airports and chemical plants.

2.1.2 Crude oil and Nigeria Economy

The development of the human environment worldwide has been

accompanied by industrialization. The oil industry has

remained the leading sector of the Nigerian economy for many

decades now. According to EIA (2009), the Nigerian economy is

heavily dependent on the oil sector, which accounts for over

95 percent of export earnings and about 85 percent of

government revenues. The oil industry is primarily located in

the Niger Delta area of the country. In addition, Nigeria had

an estimated 36.2 billion barrels of proven oil reserves as of

January 2009.

In 2008, Crude oil production in Nigerian reached a mark of

about 1.94 million barrels per day (bbl/d), making it the

largest crude oil producer in Africa. And also being an

important oil supplier to most developed countries. Over half

of the country’s oil production is exported to the United

States. In 2008, Nigeria exported about 2.17 million bbl/d of

oil production of this, 990,000bbl/d (44 percent) was exported

to the United States, making Nigeria the fifth largest foreign

oil supplier to the United States. The major foreign producers

in Nigeria are Shell, Chevron, ExxonMobil, Total and Eni/Agip

(Experts column, 2010).

Nigeria is greatly endowed with abundant natural resources and

the weather supports year round agricultural production. In

the past, Nigeria has depended largely on industrial and

manufacturing sectors, as well as agricultural production and

the export of cash crops like

groundnut, millets, maize, cocoa and palm oil, which had a

positive growth rate for its income, until oil was discovered

in Nigeria. However the activities of oil exploration are not

without some undesirable spin offs on the environment such as

oil spills. This is the case in the Niger delta region of

Nigeria where majority of the crude oil exploration activities

are conducted.

2.1.3 Oil spillage

Oil spills are discharges of oil (crude or refined) into the

environment which normally occurs as a result of accident

caused by the malfunctioning of equipment or through human

error. According to U.S Environmental Protection agency

(2004), oil spill can be defined as discrete event in which

oil is discharged through neglect, by accident or with intent

over a relatively short time. It does not include operational

spillages allowed or permitted by international or national

regulations (such as MARPOL discharges from tankers) or that,

which occur over a relatively long period of time (such as

above >5 ppm oil discharge in refinery effluents) even if

those discharges violate pollution regulations. According to

Ifunanya (2010), Oil spillages are forms of industrial

pollution caused by the unwanted release of crude oil

associated with exploration and transportation of petroleum.

Considering oil spillage as oil pollution, the United Nations

Convention defined pollution as the introduction by man,

directly to indirectly of substances or energy into the

environment which results or is likely to result in such

deleterious effects as harm to living resources and marine

life, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities

and other impairment of quality for the use of sea water and

reduction of amenities (Islam and Tanaka, 2004). Considering

these views, oil spill is quantified and categorized as

follows to represent degree of spills.

Table 1: Oil spill categoryCATEGORY QUANTITY ENVIRONMENTMinor Less than 25

barrels

Less than 250

barrels

Inland waters

Onshore, offshore or

coastal regions

Medium Between 25-250

barrels

Between 250-2500

barrels

Inland waters

Onshore, offshore or

coastal regions

Major Over 250 barrels

Over 2500 barrels

Inland waters

Onshore, offshore or

coastal regionsSource: Ifeadi and Nwankwo, (1987)

2.2 Causes and Impacts of Oil spill

The following sections will outline further the causes and impacts of Oil spill.

2.2.1 Causes of Oil spill

Since the discovery of oil in the 1950s in the Niger delta

region of Nigeria, there have been varying adverse

environmental implications brought about by oil production

activities in the region. The rapid development and production

of its newly discovered resources in terms of crude oil

coupled with an explosive increase in population have resulted

in environmental degradation in oil producing states in

Nigeria, particularly in the Niger Delta which comprises of

nine states and being the region with the most oil reserves

(Badejo and Nwilo, 2004)

Earlier surveys in Nigeria have shown an increasing number of

recorded oil spills leading to the damage of environment.

According to the National Environmental Study Team (NEST)

(1991), the greatest single environmental problem connected

with petroleum exploitation in Nigeria is oil spillage, both

onshore and offshore. The rate of spills has been rising with

the increasing operations of petroleum production. In the

Niger delta region, due to the rise in energy consumption

around the world, oil exploration in the region has seen a

rise and in turn a increase in the number of oil spills. In

1970, only one spill of 150bbl was reported in the country,

whereas a year later the number shot up to 15 incidents

involving 15, 110bbl. In 1974, there were 105 spills, another

154 in 1978, 241 in 1980 and 216 in 1982. In the 13th year

period a total of 1,581 spills involving nearly two million

barrels of oil were reported in Nigeria (NEST, 1991: 440).

According to the department of petroleum resources, from the

period of 1976 to 1996 around 2.4million barrels of oil have

been spilled in Nigeria in 4,835 episodes.

The period 1976-1996 witnessed a great number of oil spillage

which (Nwilo and Badejo 2005a, 2005b, 2004) have suggested

being in the figure of 4647 and thus lead to an estimate of

2,369,470 barrels of oil liberated and polluting the resulting

environment. A greater part of these oil spill episodes

according to (Twamasi and Merem, 2006; Uyigue and Agho 2007)

transpired on land within the Niger Delta region and the

prevailing offshore environment.

In order words, the highest quantity of spilled oil was

recorded between the year 1978 to 1980 and of these spillages

three were of major magnitude firstly in 1978, there was the

GUCON’S Escravos spill resulting in a loss of approximately

300,000 barrels, the second in the same year which was of

greater magnitude was as a result of a terminal tank failure

at SPDC Forcades with a loss of about 580,000 barrels and

lastly in 1980, a blow out from one of Texaco’s unit

specifically Texaco Funiwa – 5 resulted in an oil spillage of

approximately 400,000 barrels of oil (Nwilo and Badejo

(2005b).

Oil spills ravages the livelihood of many inhabitants in the

oil producing areas in general and Niger Delta in particular.

Most spillages occur as a result of corrosion in the pipelines

used for oil production. Spillages could sometimes be quite

devastating on people and environment. Egbe and Thompson

(2010) grouped the various causes of oil spills under eight

headings as follow:

1. Blow Outs: Oil well blow out occurs when the well is not

kept under control that is to behave in such a way that

the hydrostatic mud head counter balances the formation

pressure and prevents the formation fluid from entering

the well formation during drilling operations.

2. Sabotage: When the cause of spill is mischievously

deliberate and not accidental.

3. Corrosion: When the cause of leakage is rusty equipment.

4. Equipment Malfunction: Breakdown and failure of equipment

are often the most frequent causes of separator and tank

over-flow

5. Operations / Maintenance Error: Bad oil operation

practices like untrained personnel and lack of

maintenance of the equipment

6. Natural causes: Oil spillage: Oil spill could occur as a

result of natural causes; they are causes which are not

manmade or induced thus, occurring without any fault of

man (Examples motion of tectonic plates, rain, flood,

etc.)

7. Accident from third party

8. Unknown Causes.

2.2.2 Oil spill incidents In Niger Delta

Different parts of the world have experienced oil spill

incidents due to varying circumstances on different occasions

and the Niger Delta region of Nigeria is no exception. The

Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) suggested that a total

of 4647 oil spill incidents occurred between 1976 and 1996 in

the Niger delta region of Nigeria and these incidents

contributed to oil spill in the amount of 2,369,470 barrels in

which only about (23%) was recovered.

Prominent Oil spill incidents of note in the Niger delta

region include the GOCON’s Escravos spill in 1978 spilling out

approximately 300,000 barrels of oil, the 580,000 barrels of

oil spilled in 1978 as well from SPDC’s Forcados Terminal tank

failure (Cited in Okoroji, L.I et all, 2005), and the 1980

blow out from Texaco Funiwa-5 with an estimated 400,000

barrels spilled (Tolulope, 2004, Ukoli, 2005). A few other oil

spill incidents of far less impact include the 1982 episode

resulting in 18,818 barrels of oil spilled from the Abudu

pipeline, the January 1998 Idoho Oil Spill with a loss of

approximately 40,000 barrels and the fire episode which lead

to the death of over a thousand lives in Jesse. Inarguably,

the year between 1979 and 1980 recorded the most excessive oil

spill having lost about 694,117.13 barrels and 600,511.02

barrels of oil apiece to the environment (Nwilo and Badejo

(2005b).

According to (International, 2008) oil spill incidents in the

Niger delta region of Nigeria have become a matter of regular

occurrence with an appraisal from the United Kingdom World

Wildfire Federation in 2006 citing that the Niger delta has

experienced oil spilled in the region for decades and within

this period the quantity of oil spilled has been suggested to

be roughly 50 times the quantity (10.7million gallons) spilled

by Exxon Valdez in Alaska in 1989. A huge amount, specifically

2405 oil spill episodes were recorded by the federal

government between the year 2000 and 2006, bringing the

average annual oil spill incidents to 600 per year (Punch

Newspaper, 2010). Another 2,405 spill was recorded by the

National Oil Spill Detention Agency (NOSDRA) between 2006 and

mid-2010, with an expanding pattern year-on-year: 252 in 2006,

598 in 2007, 927 in 2008 and 628 in 2009(Ezigbo, 2010a).

According to Egwu (2012) it is only through government

fulfilling its responsibilities of protecting life and

creating gainful means of livelihood as being effected in

other major oil producing countries will the amount of oil

spill in the Niger-Delta diminish.

Below are the recent significant spills that occurred in the

Niger Delta:

Table 2: Oil spill incidents in the Niger DeltaDate Location Gallons (quantity) Company

Vessels/oil01/5/2001 Ogoniland Unknown (but

significant)

Shell

25/08/200

1

Ogbodo 2,926,000 Shell

11/2008 Ogoniland 1,640 Shell2/2009 Ogoniland 311,000 Shell01/05/201

0

Niger delta 29,414,000 Exxon Mobil

21/12/201

1

Bonga field 1,694,000 Shell

21/06/201

2

Bonga field Unknown (but

significant)

Shell

(Source: Tim cocks, 2012), (The Guardian, 2012).

2.2.3 Impacts of Oil spill

Oil spills have leads to adverse environmental impact on the

soil, forest and water of oil producing communities. According

to Worgu (2000), Oil spills from Oil exploration and

production activities affect the physical, biological and

aesthetic value of the environment and the economic life and

health of the local people and even distant environment. Some

of the adverse impacts of oil spill are; Environment, Socio

economic and health impact.

2.2.3.1 Environment

According to Worgu (2000), oil spill in rural communities such

as Niger delta region can have serious effects on the lives of

residents in that community. He highlighted that oil spill

ultimately affects land fertility, thereby agriculture in a

variety of ways. Chindah (2000) went further ahead to say that

Oil spill contamination of the topsoil has rendered the soil

in the surrounding areas unsuitable for plant growth by

reducing the availability of nutrients or by increasing toxic

contents in the soil. Apart from soil infertility, the oil

spills have also smothered economic trees and food crops, out

rightly killing them or reducing their yield. This has caused

a reduction in household food security. The predominant

occupation of the people in the Niger delta includes: trading

(17%), education and health (7%), agricultural and fishing

(48%), services (10%) (Badejo and Nwilo, 2005).

In a case where the community residents rely on farming, most

farmers are likely to migrate to more fertile lands in other

communities, putting pressure on scarce fertile lands. While

some of the displaced farmers out-migrate to the urban areas

in search of other means of livelihood. Hassan et al (2002)

added that in farming communities the most severe problem of

such communities are poor quality soils and other serious

problems related to their farming operations which are found

to be lack of inputs, insufficient capital and inadequate

extension services. As such, if the community should

experience oil spills with the already existing problems to

farming, the situation becomes even worst.

Various harmful and toxic organic compounds when introduced

into the natural environment as result of oil spill changes

the geo-chemical composition of the soil, river and other

components of the environment leading to deforestation and

erosion of the top soil. This in turn affects agriculture and

leads to a drastic decline in output in both farming and

fishing activities.

Stanley (1990) identified from conducted interviews on oil

spill in several communities in developing nations that

farmland pollution was a major problem. The peasants were very

reactive to farmland pollution because of the unavailability

of modern farming techniques to meet the challenges of

declining soil resources. Additionally, the drastic fall in

output of the agricultural product means they cannot meet

their needs, leading to intensive exploitation of other

fertile land. The long run effect of the oil spill is land

degradation and out-migration to other rural and urban areas,

where pressure is exerted on the often inadequate and

dilapidated infrastructure, leading to increased poverty and

penury as more displaced inhabitants move to other particular

areas in search of non-existent jobs.

2.2.3.2 Socio-economic impact

(Gbadegesin.A, 1997) stated that apart from loss of farms, oil

can seriously affect the socio-economic state of a locality.

He highlighted that the main socio-economic impact of oil

spill commences from the farmers and fishers but extends to

affect the society at large. ITOPE (2009) stated that oil

spill pollution of land and water leads to interference and

loss of recreational activities such as diving and sporting

events. Businesses that make use of the rivers and sea for

their normal operations can also be adversely affected by the

oil spill.

Another negative effect caused by oil spills includes the loss

of tourism such as polluted beach and reserves. This leads to

decreased resident and non-resident vacation/pleasures

visitors in the spill affected areas in turn affecting

businesses such as restaurants, hotels or charter boats.

According to Owabukeruyele (2009), oil spill impacts

disastrously on the socio –physical environment as it

threatens the fragile subsistent peasant economy and

biodiversity and hence the social livelihood and very survival

of the people. He buttressed further that oil-producing

communities along coastal area basically remained dependent on

these businesses as means of survival. Hence the deteriorating

standards of living, some of which include lack of clean

water, social amenities and loss of jobs results to chaos in

the locality. This is because numerous oil spills have

devastated some of the businesses of the community members,

which is their main source of income. Without better

alternatives, the people are left to drink contaminated water

and live in polluted environments. For this reason, the oil

producing community member’s conducts protests, demanding

compensation from the oil companies located in and around

their communities and if not managed properly results to

insecurity in the area (Stepping Stone Nigeria, 2009).

2.2.3.3 Health

According to Izeogu (1986), crude oil is a toxic substance,

which is harmful to most species of flora and fauna, and when

oil spills, it contaminates the environment, affects the

health and general living conditions of the affected locality.

Evidence of health situations of communities that experienced

oil spillage has been attributed to the direct consequences of

the oil. Some of the health problems arise from both

environmental negative impacts such as pollution of water

sources upon which communities depend. The pollution of rivers

which exposes the locality inhabitants to water borne related

diseases such as; typhoid and malaria with the creation of

standing waters, diarrhoea and other skin diseases. For

instance, in some communities, the pipeline traverses the

village stream, which serves as water source for the

inhabitants. Also, when oil spill occurs, the community as

well as the oil company workers can be exposed to it through

inhalation, dermal or direct impact. The dermal and

inhalational routes of exposure tend to produce exposures to

different components of crude oil. In other words, people may

be dermally exposed to both volatile and non-volatile

components, some of which are capable of being absorbed

through the skin causing skin irritations or dermatitis. The

obvious source of inhalation exposure is volatile chemicals,

of which the main classes are alkanes, aromatics and sulphur

compounds (Park and Holliday). The health effects associated

with the exposure of crude oil includes the overt signs of

acute intoxication in humans – dizziness, nausea, shortness of

breath, headaches, fatigue in coordination, as well as

irritation of the eyes. It has also been found that prolonged

exposure to high doses of these compounds leads to

irreversible bone marrow damage causing aplastic anaemia and

leukemic diseases (Park and Holliday, 1999).

2.3 Management of Oil spills

A number of management measures to prevent and respond to oil

spill already exist in various countries including Nigeria.

Different policies and mechanics are being put in place to

avert or react to oil spill episodes with the policies usually

aimed at giving structure to oil production and exploration

activities of organisations laying ground rules with regards

to oil spill incidents (Salu, 1999). A few of the communal

laws and universal understandings in place suggested by the

Federal Environmental Protection Agency of Nigeria (FEPA) to

help protect the environment particularly from activities

resulting in pollution by oil companies include:

a. Endangered Species Decree Cap 108 LFN 1990, b. Federal

Environmental protection Agency Act Cap 131 LFN 1990, c.

Harmful Waste Cap 165 LFN 1990, d. Petroleum (Drilling and

Production) Regulations, 1969, e. Mineral Oil (Safety)

Regulations, 1963, f. International Convention on the

Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for

Oil Pollution Damage, 1971, g. Convention on the Prevention of

Marine pollution Damage, 1972, h. African Convention on the

Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources,1968, i.

International Convention on the Establishment of an

International Fund for the Compensation for Oil Pollution

Damage, 1971.

Other acts and regulations in line with controlling oil

spillage as suggested by (Oshineye, 2000) include:

i) The Mineral Oil (Safety) Regulations 1963, focuses on safety in the emission of

inflammable gases and impose punishments for violation and defiance.

ii) Petroleum Regulations 1967, that is against the emission of fossil oil into waters

within port areas and makes available precautionary measures in the conveyance of

petroleum and guidelines for safe operation of lines.

iii) Petroleum Drilling and Production Regulation 1969, that requires holders of

production licence to safety, including the provision of current approved equipment

to prevent contamination of midland waters, river water courses, the territorial

waters of the Federal Republic of Nigeria or the high seas by oil or other fluids.

iv) Oil in Navigable Waters Act 1968, which prohibits the emission of petroleum or

any mixture containing oil into the territorial reserve or navigable inland waters.

v) Oil Terminal Dues Act 1969, that precludes the emission of oil to regions in the

mainland where oil terminals are located.

vi) Petroleum Refining Regulations 1974, which besides other activities deals with

necessary development requirements for stockpiling oil tanks to reduce harm from

spillage.

vii) Associated Gas Re-Injection Act 1979 that enforces the re-infusion of such

cohorted gas or oil not used in a streamlined venture. This is to eliminate gas

flaring.

viii) Oil Pipeline Act 1956 (as amended by Oil pipelines Act 1965) which kicks against

the contamination of all areas including waters bodies.

The Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA), which in

addition is an arm of the Ministry of the Environment is

legitimately vested with the obligation of ensuring and

maintaining the Nigerian environment through definition and

usage of administrative policies. The National Policy on the

Environment contains one of the instruments created by the

body to accomplish its tasks, depicting the rules and methods

for attaining the objective of ecological assurance (Ntukekpo,

1996).

Because of the rate of oil spill episodes and need to

forestall and react to oil slicks in Nigeria, the Clean

Nigeria Associates (C.N.A.) came into existence in November

1981. The C.N.A. is an association of eleven oil producing

organizations working in Nigeria, including N.N.P.C. The basic

role of making the C.N.A is to keep up competence in the

battle against spilling of liquid hydrocarbons or toxins by

and large. The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) decree No

86 of 1992 was declared to secure and manage the biological

community. This decree makes EIA obligatory for any extensive

oil venture that may have antagonistic consequences on the

environment (Ntukekpo, 1996; Olagoke, 1996).

The decree came into existence to oversee production

activities of organisations that may distort the natural

existence of environments inhabited by people, encouraging and

implementing laid down policies. It endeavours to survey the

presumable or potential ecological effects of proposed

exercises, including their immediate or collateral, combined,

fleeting and long haul impacts, and to distinguish the

measures accessible to alleviate antagonistic natural effects

of proposed exercises, and evaluation of these measures. The

rules made accommodation for seaward operations, security

measures, fulfilling obligations and required payments

(Ozekhome, 2001).

Additionally in the situation of overseeing oil slick

incidents, the Federal Government of Nigeria has noted that

future boring rights will be "strictly decided by"

organizations' ecological consistence, notwithstanding their

producing a natural environmental effect appraisal for the

proposed site. In July 2002, the Nigerian government requested

oil organizations working in the nation to follow the

Environmental Guidelines and Standards for the Oil Industry,

distributed by the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR),

the screening arm of the Nigeria National Petroleum

Corporation (NNPC), or face the consequence of paying a fine.

The rules brought about standards to reducing contamination

from oil spills and methods for ecological protection. Also,

new innovation are being utilized in managing incidents of oil

slicks. A few of the engineering solutions used in overseeing

oil slick in addition to other bylaws include;

2.3.1 Bioremediation approach

Bioremediation is an approach that may be helpful in

evacuating spilled oil under certain geographic and climatic

conditions. Bioremediation is a demonstrated elective

management apparatus that could be utilized to treat certain

vigorous oil-defiled situations. Ordinarily, it is utilized as

a cleaning agent after routine mechanical clean-up

alternatives have been carried out. It is a moderately abate

methodology, taking weeks or months to complete clean up. In

the event that its done appropriately, it might be

exceptionally savvy, in spite of the fact that an in-

profundity budgetary examination has not been led to date. It

has the upper hand that the dangerous hydrocarbon mixtures are

obliterated instead of basically moving them to a different

area of the environment. (Nwilo and Badejo, 2004)

2.3.2 International Co-operation

Apprehending smugglers has remained nearly impossible, since

numerous individuals blame the central government for

pocketing a significant part of the oil fortune, and the oil

organizations of looting indigenous resources while forsaking

the Delta people to contamination, destitution, unemployment

and malady. To shore up the battle against illegal oil dealers

in Nigeria, the US has given three 56 meter (180ft) refitted

World War two-time watch oats to the naval force with another

alternate four vessels to be conveyed by December, as stated

by the United Nations. The Pentagon is financing the

restoration each vessel to the tune of $3.5m. (Nwilo and

Badejo, 2004)

2.3.3 Mechanical Containment

There are several instruments used as response mechanisms to

control oil spills and minimize their impacts on human health

and environment. These instruments include booms and barriers,

skimmers, natural and synthetic sorbents materials. (Badejo et

al 2003)

Booms: Booms are used in the clean-up process and are

constructed as solid-floatation unit. There are

containment booms and storage reels for quick response

and containment after a spill. Booms are built from a

variety of marine grade materials that can handle

constant exposure and use in water locations. Oil

absorbent booms are designed to specifically absorb oil

in both land and water based locations. (Badejo et al

2003)

Skimmers: Skimmers are items that are designed for the

recovery of oil and can be used for both clean up in both

inshore and offshore areas. Skimmers are often used in

conjunction with booms. A skimmer is a device that

collects and removes oil from the surface of the water.

Skimmers can be towed, self-propelled, moored in river

currents, or even used from shore. Many types of skimmers

are available for use, depending on the kind of oil

spilled and the weather conditions. (Adelana, Adeosun,

Adesina, & Ojuroye 2011)

2.3.4 Chemical and biological methods 

These are methods that are used together with the mechanical

means for containment and clean up of oil. These include

dispersing and gelling agents that are useful in preventing

oil from reaching shorelines and sensitive habitats. The

biological agents that are used help in the recovery of

shorelines, marshes and wetlands.(Egberongbe Nwilo & Badejo

2006)

2.3.5 Physical methods

These are applied to clean up shorelines when oil spills

spread over. There is the application of natural methods such

as evaporation, oxidation and biodegradation that can be used

to start up the clean-up process.  However, these methods are

mainly too slow for environmental recovery therefore there is

application of physical processes applied to assist the

natural processes. These include; wiping with sorbent

materials, pressure washing, and raking and bulldozing can be

used to assist these natural processes. (Adelana et al 2011).

Remediation is a longer-term process aimed at returning the

site to its previous state. There are several ways to achieve

international standards of restoration depending on whether the

spill is on Land or Swamp terrain. Three methods of Remediation

are in use on Land- Remediation by Enhanced Natural Attenuation

(RENA), Remediation by Stabilization/ Solidification and Low

Temperature Thermal Desorption. The RENA technique is the

predominant method in use and may be applied in-situ, which

implies treating the soil on site or ex-situ; removing the soil

to be cleaned elsewhere and returned site. After completion of

the remediation process, the site is handed over for closeout

inspection and certification by the relevant Government

agencies. The entire spill response process is governed by

performance standards, as prescribed by Nigerian Law, in

particular as defined in the DPR EGASPIN 2002. This standard is

applied to all spills, regardless of the cause. (Shell

International 2014)

SECTION 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction

This segment shall take into consideration the different

underlying methodological point of view and logic for the

research project. The segment begins with the illustration of

the different suppositions (Epistemology and cosmology). On

the off chance it further identified and examined particular

information accumulation strategy and afterward finished by

exploring the research limitations

In a research exercise, there is need for an efficient and

systematic method for obtaining, recording and breaking down

information and after that settle on an update choice focused

around the effect and conclusion of the exploration. Yin

(1994) suggests that research methodology ought to be picked

with a focus around the exploration point and goal. In line

with this view, this study adopts a legitimate venture to

accomplish the examination objective and the mode of

exploration chosen with a focus around the suitability to the

examination point and destination while also demonstrating the

limits of the technique.

An overview of the different underlying methodological point

of view and logic for the examination venture is provided in

this segment, including stages involved in creating an

examination approach and likewise gives sufficient

illustrations to the exploration technique utilized. As stated

by Whisker (2008) the embracing of the pertinent exploration

technique is the way to leading excellent and honest to

goodness research.

This section gives an outline on the stages included in

creating an examination approach and likewise gave a

sufficient illustration to the exploration technique utilized.

As stated by Whisker (2008) utilizing a pertinent exploration

technique is the best way to achieving an excellent and good

research quality. Therefore, to determine the appropriate

method to be used for this research, it is crucial to examine

different exploration procedures, particularly those that have

been utilized within comparable situations.

3.2. Research Philosophy

Research philosophy is the development of a research or

research knowledge and its nature. (Saunders and Thornhill,

2007). It is a term relating to the development of knowledge

and the nature of that knowledge in a basic set of beliefs

that guide action such as individual different perception,

beliefs and understanding towards reality.

3.2.1 Epistemological and Ontological Assumption

The theory of the method used in a research is known as the

Epistemological consideration, which is one of the core areas

of philosophy underling, any research. As stated by (Blaikie,

2000) and (Eldabi, 2002), the creators concludes that

epistemology is a case relating to conceivable methods for

gaining learning. It bears three fundamental areas in the

approach they are the Structure, the source and the constraint

of the information. It doubts the likelihood of distinguishing

and imparting the way of learning as being genuine. Yet then

again, Ontodology manages the way of actuality (i.e. presence

of actuality in a topic, particularly in a natural domain)

these two presumptions have positions or methodologies to be

specific; Positivism and Phenomenology, both of which have an

alternate point of view in every standard.

3.2.2 Phenomenology and Positivism

According to Hines (2000), researchers usually consider two

basic diametrical opposing philosophical positions.

Phenomenology and positivism may be viewed as unlike positions

in a methodological continuum. Phenomenology, which is also

known as interpretivism, is interested in the perception of

people about the world. It is assumed that individuals

initiate their own subject as they view the world around them

interact. This in all makes interpretivism subjective

(Orlikowski and Baroudi, 1991) because its epistemological

root is constructive allowing the individual to interpret

observation and meanings in a subjective manner (Saunders et

al, 2000). On the other hand, Positivism is of the belief

that ‘real life’ is independent of humans and seeks to find

theories from observation and experiment carried out (Collins

and Hussey, 2009). With these views, Crilly et al (2004)

noted that a shift from the positivist approach to scientific

enquiry and towards the interpretive science, some scholars

now suggest phenomenology as suitable in the act of knowledge

development. Heidegger (1998) added in support that

phenomenology allows proper focus of the researcher as an

individual and not as a tool in obtaining data as integral

part of the study field

3.2.3. Qualitative and Quantitative Research

All qualitative research use words and perception to express

actuality and endeavours to depict individuals in

characteristic circumstance while then again, quantitative

exploration adopt the use of numbers to represent notions or

ideas (Amaratunga, 2002). Qualitative examination looks to

comprehend distinct recognitions about issues or subject and

profound knowledge into it rather than Quantitative research

that reflects on measurable statistical parts of the research

(Strauss and Corbin, 1990)

The applied model in this research implements both qualitative

and quantitative data. This model was used in light of the

fact that the research included exploring participants'

opinion towards issues of oil spill considering the causes and

impact as well as the management of oil spill in the region.

Qualitative data gathered were broken down and the

quantitative information investigation comprised of

enlightening details including associations amongst variables.

The fusion of both research strategies gives a clearer

understanding of the subject matter such as the causes,

impacts and management of oil spillage in the Niger delta

region of Nigeria.

3.3. Overview about Interview and Questionnaires

One of the greatest advantages of an interview is that it

gives the researcher an avenue to meet with the subjects of

the research. However the structure fluctuates, in the sense

that in an organized meeting, there are predefined inquiries

that are presented one after the other, while an unstructured

meeting involves concentrating on a predefined range of

inquiries and gives room for discussion to occur between the

analyst and the interviewee on the specified subject (Davies,

2007). Most interviews are a mixture of both organized and

unstructured. On the other hand, to achieve the goals of this

research, an unstructured method of interview was embraced, to

expand the views of issues of the research problem which are

causes and impact of oil spills and the effectiveness of the

management approach being applied. Questionnaires acquire data

specifically by asking individuals’ questions and utilizing

the responses as analysed information (Wisker, 2008). They are

frequently used to accumulate data about uncertainties,

dispositions, practices, exercises and reactions to

situations, and typically comprise of a rundown of composed

inquiries (Wisker, 2008). The questions need to be clear,

concise and easily understandable.

After several considerations into the different types of

research methodology that can be used in obtaining data, the

researcher concluded that both interviews and questionnaires

will be the most appropriate method for gathering data for

this research. The researcher collected both theoretical data

from the articles and practical data from the targeted

community population.

The research is focused on the Niger delta region of Nigeria,

investigating the causes and impacts of oil spill within the

Niger delta region in order to recommend solution for

improvement for adopted management approach of oil spill in

the area. The population of interest covered in the research

involved affected community population both male and females

and oil company workers with work place in the region.

3.4 Interviews

Interviews permit current circumstance to be affirmed and

detailed reactions to be acquired from the intended interest

group (Dennis et al 2009). Two (2) employees top position

officers who work for the oil industries were interviewed.

Issues concerning the management of oil spillage in the Niger

delta region of Nigeria were quite compelling. The inquiries

of the interview were intended to run across the effectiveness

of management approaches to oil spill in Nigeria such as

training, technologies and policies set up for overseeing oil

spill. Because of time stipulations not every enquiry was

delved into within the target group. All processes however

considered the methodology to directing the interview which

allowed the interviewee to help perspectives and support in

exact recording of data. They were guaranteed that data given

will remain anonymous and they were additionally given

different ways of contacting the researcher if they have other

data with respect to the subject.

3.5 Survey Questionnaire

Utilizing questionnaire is one of the immediate strategies for

gathering valuable data (Saunders et al, 2000). Moreover, with

cautious planning, checking and testing, the flaws of a

questionnaire could be significantly decreased. Questionnaires

are frequently utilized when there are numerous individuals

from whom data is required. Data accumulated from the

interviews, audit reports and information picked up from prior

studies were the structure applied to forming the

questionnaire on the grounds that it had proved to be the best

system of approach in achieving the research objectives.

Advantages;

It provides an efficient way of collecting responses from

a large sample prior to analysis because each respondent

was asked to respond to the same set of questions;

It is comprehensive and has a wide coverage;

Cheap and easy to administer; and

Suitable for workplace based research

Disadvantages;

Accuracy of responses cannot be guaranteed;

Design and piloting are crucial for success; and

Limited length.

Lower turnover

The aim of the questionnaire was to understand and determine

the factors responsible for oil spills within the Niger delta

region and the impacts of oil spill as well as effectiveness

of the management of oil spill by the responsible authorities.

The questionnaire explored; Causes of oil spill, Impacts of

oil spill and Management of oil spill in the Niger delta

region

3.5.1 Structure and design of questionnaire

The questionnaire has been designed to meet the research

objectives and the requirements stated above. In order to

develop an effective and appropriate questionnaire, the

questions were easily comprehensible and laid out in a proper

sequence. The questionnaire consisted of the following

sections:

1. Individual and occupation details - this was the opening

section, easy and non threatening general questions of the

individual’s brief history and job experience;

2. Oil spill Awareness: these questions were designed to know

the knowledge of oil spill (participant)

3. Causes and impact of oil spill: this aspect of the

questionnaire is designed to identify the causes of oil

spill and the impacts to the community

4. Management of oil spill: the questions of this aspect was

to identify the effectiveness of the management approach

of oil spill by the locality

5. Comments: this section is designed for respondents to

make any comment or contribution for the research

The questions were mainly closed questions, for easy coding of

the questionnaire results while other categories were included

appropriate areas. The advantages of using closed questions

are as follows:

Easy and quick to fill in;

Minimise discrimination against the less literate (in

self administered questionnaire) or the less articulate

(in interview questionnaire);

Easy to code, record, and analyse results quantitatively;

and

Easy to report results.

3.5.2 Pre-testing Questionnaires

During the research work, a draft copy of the questionnaire

was shown to the supervisor in charge, Dr Trevor Price. This

was done in order to get his views on the questionnaire. He

gave several comments during those sessions and those comments

were incorporated into the final draft. Several individual

were selected for pre-testing of the questionnaire and it was

successfully carried out. The pre-testing stage was carried

out to find out how clear the instructions on the

questionnaires were and determine how long it will take to

complete each questionnaire and then find the aggregate for

all. It also showed how clear and attractive or how unclear

and ambiguous its will have appear to the respondent. After

this stage was completed, it was found at that responded found

it engaging and educational. It took twelve minutes to fill

and complete. The draft questionnaire was eventually left

unedited after the pre-testing stage. . A copy of the final

questionnaire used is shown in Appendix.

3.5.3 Administering the Questionnaire

The questionnaire was distributed to respondents utilizing the

stratified arbitrary testing methodology between community

member and authorities and oil company workers. The method

allows for the stratification of population sampling into

stratum (Kumar, 2005). The strategy for stratified random

sampling was exclusively embraced, so all groups in the

district will be properly spoken to in the study to avoid

predisposition.

A written request explaining the purpose of the research was

sent to the community inhabitants, oil workers and

authorities; the participants were further briefed about the

reason for the research and their verbal consent was gained.

Immediately a written consent was gained from the responsible

authorities, the data collection process followed. In

addition, individuals who took part in the activity were

apprized on the fact that the information received would be

kept classified and it was recommended that they finish the

survey at their own convenience. Five days was given to

participants to finish the questionnaire and after that

gathered by the researcher.

However, the conveying technique made it troublesome to figure

any type of reaction rate from this figure on the grounds that

the questionnaires were likewise distributed to other

participants through emails accordingly and a few other

existing sources. All the information were gathered between

April 1th and April 20th 2014.

3.5.4 Ethics and Analysis

As suggested by Mackey and Gass, (2005) the manner through

which data is passed on is as essential as the data itself.

The researcher recognizes the obligation of educating

potential participants to enable them to make cognizant

opinions. The participants were not constrained into partaking

in the questionnaire neither was there any kind of prize to be

won which could prompt an inclined outcome and subsequently,

influence the research. Consequently, the respondents support

in the survey were voluntary and without undue weight or

intimidation. Participants were guaranteed that they would not

be recognized by through their notions and this cultivated

trust between the participants and the researcher. Voluntary

cooperation, confidentiality and anonymity were the most

paramount moral standards for this research.

For analyses of the data from the questionnaires, the results

were grouped and entered into the computer. A spreadsheet

package (Microsoft Office Excel, 2007 edition) was utilized to

investigate the information because it is generally easy to

use and understand; good for organising and analysing data;

and can analyse a large volume of data.

Additionally, a detailed review of existing literature was

undertaken to establish the focus of the research, to

formulate specific research question and to obtain background

information from the interview in order to have an

understanding grounded in reality and a feel for the issue.

The Secondary data were gathered from a wide range of sources;

Articles, Textbooks, scholarly Articles, Web database, oil

spill management authority.

3.6 Research Limitations

Some limitations to this dissertation include:

The sample size was limited due to time constraints. The

interview and questionnaire survey to be conducted for

the various location of impacted by oil spill lacked

sufficient time to cover the majority of populace in the

communities. However the findings are satisfactory to

make recommendations and build subsequent work on.

Challenges identifying with making arrangements for

interviews with organization senior officers and

representatives came about, however fruitful in the long

run.

Difficulty in obtaining secondary information from

companies because of nondisclosure agreements as they

don't give sufficient access and data to third parties

because of nature of their business.

SECTION 4: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

In order to identify the causes and impacts of oil spill in

the Niger delta region of Nigeria, it is necessary to assess

the feedbacks from the questionnaires dispensed to the region

inhabitants and oil company workers and government authority

responsible for oil spills in the Nigeria. This section seeks

to identify the causes of oil spill incidents in the Niger

delta region, determine the impact to the environment and also

the effectiveness of the management approaches for oil spill

occurrences in the Niger delta region. The discussions are

based on the analysis of the collective feedbacks from the

distributed questionnaires supported with interviews conducted

on the subject matter.

4.1 Participants description

This section of the questionnaire deals with general enquiries

of the respondents. Questions in this section include: age,

duration of stay in the Niger delta region and work status in

the region.

A total of 400 questionnaires were dispensed to the

inhabitants of the Niger delta region in Nigeria. Out of the

400 questionnaires that were distributed, 376 were returned.

Out of the amount returned, 6 were incomplete and 20 were

blank indicating that the individual might have decided not to

participate while 350 were fully completed. The

characteristics of the 350 participants are as detailed below

in Table 3:

Table 3: Respondents{participants} profile

Categories Number of respondents (N) %GenderFemale 98 28Male 252 72Age18-25 112 3226-35 210 6036-45 28 846+ 0 0Duration of stay in

region2-3years 28 83-4years 42 124+ Years 280 80Job TypeFishing/farming 231 66Trading/Business 49 14Wage earner 35 10Other 35 10Work statusPermanent 49 14Temporarily 126 36Unemployed 175 50Education qualificationPrimary 91 26Secondary 77 22Tertiary 42 12Others 140 40

Table 3, gives a description of the attributes of the

participants. The profile of the 350 individuals demonstrates

that all respondents have stayed in the Niger delta region for

at least two years.

72% (n=252) out of the aggregate respondents were male and 28%

(n=28) were female. 32% (n=112) were matured individuals

between 18 and 25 years of age; 60% (n=210) were between 26

and 35 years of age; 8% (n=28) were between 36 and 45 years of

age; none was recorded for 46 years and over. As shown in

table 3, a large volume of response obtained shows that 66%

(n=231) of the total respondents fishers and farmers. This is

closely followed by the trading/business with 14%(n=49), while

wage earners are 10%(n=35) and other types of jobs 10%(n=35)

respectively. These identified job types are in accordance

with the literature as common job types of majority of the

Niger delta region inhabitants. The table also shows the

education qualification and current work status of the

respondents.

4.2 Awareness

The question in this sub sub-section is to ascertain the

knowledge or understanding of oil spill incidents of the

respondents. This is to identify whether the respondent is

qualified to complete the survey for the research.

4.2.1 Knowledge of oil spill

From the survey responses gathered, all respondents have

knowledge of oil spill. 70% of the respondents indicated that

they have a good knowledge of oil spill, while 20% have

average knowledge of oil spill and 10% have just basic

knowledge of oil spill as can be seen in figure 1 below. This

was necessary as to justify that the respondent have

understanding of the subject and questions in the survey to be

answered.

Good Average Basic No0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%70%

20%

10%

0%

Figure 1. Knowledge of oil spill.

Additionally, the survey went further to find out how many

respondents have experienced or witnessed oil spill incident.

The outcome of this particular question was shocking as all

respondents (100%) indicated that they have experienced oil

spill occurrence. The interviews confirmed this as normal to

the inhabitants in the region. This is because most of the

pipelines for transporting extracted crude oil are suited

along residential areas or beside the roads that can be easily

sighted by people. As such it is easy for one to see oil spill

occurring when incidents such as pipeline leakage occurs.

1

YesNo

Figure 2. Experience of oil spill incident

4.2.2 Number of Oil spill

This section seeks to identify the amount and then the rate of

oil spill occurrence in the Nigger delta region.

0 1 to 10 11 to 20 21 above0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%

0% 4% 6%

90%

Figure 3.Number of oil spill occurrence

From the graph above 4% of the respondents indicated they have

experienced 1 to 10 incidents since their stay in the Niger

delta region, 6% indicated that they have experienced about 11

to 20 oil spill incidents in their period in the Niger delta

region while an enormous percentage of 90% indicated that they

have experienced above 21 oil spill incidents since their stay

in the Niger delta. These results from the questionnaire

survey can be verified from a data obtained from the

Department of Petroleum Resources of Nigeria as can be seen

below in (Figure 4) indicating the amount of oil spill

occurrence in the Niger delta region in a particular period

from 1997 to 2013. The data shows that oil spill incidents in

the region exceed 100 incidents in a particular year since

1997 to 2013. The outcome corresponds with finding in this

research as respondents noted that oil spill incidents are

enormous from the survey. The interview section also obtained

same finding as the interviewees concluded that the rate of

oil spill incidents in the region can be classified as high.

1977

1979

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009

2011

2013

0100200300400500600700800900

Spill Incidents 1976-2013

Year

No. of Spills

Figure 4. Oil spill incidents

This enormous occurring event of oil spill over the years is

of great concern. Generally from this section, it means

majority of the inhabitants have sufficient knowledge of oil

spill occurrence in the Niger delta region of Nigeria. From

the field survey, the interviewed participants admitted that

majority of the inhabitants of the Niger delta region of

Nigeria have knowledge of oil spill as many of them have

experienced the occurrences.

4.3 Causes of oil spill

4.3.1 Causes of Oil spill

As noted in the literature, there are eight major causes of

oil spill (). The research on this note seeks to identify the

cause of oil spill in the Niger delta region especially

regarding the amount and rate of oil spill occurrence in the

region as gathered from the previous section.

Blowout

Sabotage

Corrosion

Equipment

Operations/maintenance error

Nature

Accident

Unknown

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

2%

58%

15%7% 6%

0%6% 6%

Figure 5.Causes of oil spill

From Figure 4 above, it was gathered that the major cause of

oil spill in the Niger delta region is the act of pipe

sabotage. 58% of the respondents attributed the major cause of

oil spill incident to Sabotage on a scale of 1 to 8 where 1 is

the least cause of oil spill incident and 8 is the highest

cause of oil spill incident in the region. The result also

agreed with the literature as Egbe and Thompson (2010) grouped

sabotage as one of the causes of oil spillage in Nigeria oil

producing area. The result from the respondents also coincides

with the data obtained from the Department of Petroleum

Resources of Nigeria (2014) showing the causes of oil spillage

from 2011 to 2013 (see in APPENDIX F). Sabotage was identified

to be the major cause of oil spill incident in the region.

4.3.2 Factors responsible for the cause of oil spill

As gathered from the literature, the causes of oil spill are

due to several reasons as such the survey seeks to identify

the reasons for control where possible. The question for this

section was grouped into 7 subjects to identify the reason or

factors responsible for the cause of oil spill in the Niger

delta region.

Poverty

Policy

Technology

Competency

Negligence

Orientation

Dont know

0%5%10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%

43%

16% 14%

5% 7%10%

5%

Figure 6. Factors responsible for oil spill

From figure 6, the research gathered poverty to be the major

factor responsible for the cause of oil spill. 45% of the

respondents of the region inhabitants attributed the cause of

oil spill to poverty while 16% and 14% of the respondents

respectively indicated policy and technology as responsible

factors leading to the cause of oil spillage. 4% of the

respondents indicated competency in terms of personnel to

conduct oil and gas operations in the area, while 5% indicated

Negligence by responsible parties of the oil and gas sector in

the region, and 10% attributed the cause to Orientation of

people. From the interview section, Poverty was also gathered

as the leading factor responsible for oil spill.

This is due to destruction of farmland and water by oil which

majority of the inhabitant rely on for their livelihood such

as farming, fishing and other form of businesses. This is also

in accordance with the literature as highlighted by Worgu

(200) that oil spill ultimately affects land fertility. When

pollution of farm land and water occurs in such region, the

inhabitants have little or no means of income which then

results to other means of survival such as sabotage of pipes

to extort and sell oil for income or to get back parties

involved in oil and gas operation in the area.

4.4 Impact of oil spill

As detailed in the literature, oil spill cause pollution to

the environment in several ways such as contamination of water

or land pollution and can also lead to illness due to its

chemical composition. This section of the questionnaire seeks

to find out the impact of oil spill in the region, how it

affects the inhabitants of the region and to what degree.

4.4.1 Amount of Inhabitants affected by oil spill

From the survey as detailed below in figure 7, all respondents

indicated that they have been affected by oil spill. This goes

to mean that majority of the region inhabitants feels the

consequence of oil spill in the region.

100%

YesNo

Figure 7. Amount of inhabitants affected by oil spill

As seen from Figure 7, the survey went further ahead to find

out if the region has been affected in one way or the other by

oil spillage.100% of the respondents indicated that there have

been in one way or the other affected by oil spillage

incident.

4.4.2 Main areas affected by oil spill

As gathered from the above sub-section in figure 7, all

respondents indicated to they felt the consequence of oil

spill. The survey then went further to find out what has been

affected mainly in the area and life of the inhabitants. The

outcome is detailed in the graph below (see figure 8)

Health Environment Socio-economic None0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

12%

45%43%

0%

Figure 8. Main areas affected by oil spill

From Figure 8, majority of the respondents indicated that the

environment has been mainly affected. This is obvious as

majority of the habitants in the Niger delta region are

farmers and fishermen. More so this is evident in the

literature review where Badejo and Nwilo stated 48% of the

occupation in the Niger delta is agriculture and fishing, this

in turn affects the economy of the region. Businesses like

restaurants and hotels face decline in profits as oil spill

incidents leads to low turn up of tourists. This is due to the

pollution of the beaches and reserves from the oil spill. This

coincides with the literature research from ITOPE (2009),

which noted that oil spill pollution of land and water leads

to interference and loss of recreational activities such as

diving and sporting events. Businesses that make use of the

rivers and sea for their normal operations can also be

adversely affected by the oil spill. Health of the inhabitants

was also indicated as been affected by oil spill but not as

the major concern as discovered by this research.

4.4.3 Degree of oil spill impact

From this question it was identified that majority of the oil

spill incident in the region are high oil spill incidents. 95%

of the respondents rated the impact of the oil spill incidents

in the region as high while only 5% rated it as low but none

indicated the impacts as low experienced as low impact. These

rates can be associated with the amount of barrels of the oil

spilled into the environment when the occurrence takes place.

High Medium Low0102030405060708090100

95

50

Figure 9.Degree of oil spill impact

These results gathered from the questionnaire agreed with the

interview section as majority of the interviewee noted that

not only is oil spill high in terms of the quantity of oil

barrels spilled into the environment but the rate of

occurrence is also alarming. This section corresponds with

data obtained from the Department of Petroleum Resources of

Nigeria (see below in Figure10) indicating the rate of oil

spill incidents and barrels of oil spilled in a particular

year in the region which is identified as high going by the

classification of oil spill incident.1977

1979

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009

2011

2013

0100,000200,000300,000400,000500,000600,000700,000800,000

Quantity of Oil Spilled (bbls) from 1976-2013

Year

Qty Spilled (bbls)

Figure 10. Quantity of oil spilled

4.4.4 Duration of oil spill impact

Oil spill impact can be quite devastating to the environment,

economy and health of persons in a particular region. In this

section, the research seeks to find out the duration of the

oil spill impacts to the Niger delta region for management

improvements. From the survey, it was gathered from majority

of respondents that the consequence of oil spill incidents in

the region can take above six months in most occasion before

controlled while only 1% indicated it takes between three (3)

to six (6) months to stop or control oil spill impacts and

none indicated less than 3 months.

0-3months 3-6months Above 6months0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%

0% 1%

99%

Figure 11. Duration of oil spill impact

From this section, it can generally be seen that majority of

the respondents have been affected by the impacts of oil spill

and these impacts can be rated high due to the quantity of

barrels spilled and rate of oil spill incidents and even more

the duration it takes to control majority of incident/impact.

The oil spill incident has affected the environment, socio-

economy and health of person residents in the region, but has

mainly affected the regions environment.

4.5 Management of oil spill

In this section, the research took a different approach to

find out the perception of the respondents towards the

management of oil spill in the region in order to close gaps

for improvement of the management of oil spill in the region.

4.5.1 Control of oil spill

This question seeks to identify how serious the responsible

oil and gas-operating parties take the management of oil

spill. From the questionnaire survey, the perception of the

inhabitants of the region is that the responsible party are

not doing enough to address the matter of oil spill. An

overwhelming majority of the respondents (96%) indicated that

enough is not being done to manage oil spill in the region

while only 4% indicate that the management of oil spill in the

region as average. From the interview section, similar outcome

was gathered as management of oil spill was perceived low in

the region while also noting that so much more needs to be

done regarding oil spill management in the Niger delta region.

High Average Low0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%

0% 4%

96%

Figure 12.Control of oil spill

4.5.2 Approach towards oil spill

The management of oil spill can be proactive or reactive.

While proactive management of oil spill are measure taken to

prevent oil spill occurrence, reactive management are control

measures to respond to oil spill occurrence. Hence the

research took a step to identify which approach is practiced

mainly in management of oil spill in Nigeria through the

inhabitants of the region. From the gathered results, it was

discovered that the reactive approach is practiced more than

the proactive as 2% out of all respondents indicated that the

responsible parties are more proactive to the situation of oil

spill than reactive while 98% indicated the responsible

parties are more reactive.

2%

98%

ProactiveReactive

Figure 13. Approach towards oil spill

Same outcome was also gathered from the interview as one of

the interviewee stated that although there are existing

management systems in place, the responsible parties are more

reactive in terms of tackling oil spill incidence that

proactive.

4.5.3 Prevention and response to oil spill

To verify the outcome of the management approach mainly

adopted for oil spill in the Niger delta region, a question

was put through to find out the amount of oil spill any of the

respondents could recall that have been prevented. From the

results, 94% of the respondents indicated that of all oil

spill incidents they have experienced, non have been prevented

while 4% indicated that of all experienced oil spill incident

that one has been prevent and 2% of the respondents indicated

that they can recall 2 oil spill incident prevented but none

indicated 3 prevented oil spill incidents as can be seen in

figure 14 below;

0prevented 1prevented 2prevented 3prevented0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%

94%

4% 2% 0%

Figure 14. Prevented oil spill

For the response of oil spill, a different approach was taken

to discover the response to oil spill incident from the

inhabitants participating in the survey. The outcome showed

that despite the responsive approach adopted for oil spill

incidents, majority of the incidents take so long to address.

From the questionnaire it 2% indicated of knowing about oil

spills that have been controlled in 1 to 7days, 4% indicated

of controlled oil spill incidents in 7 to 14days but a

majority of the respondents indicated that most of the spills

take more than 2 weeks to be addressed (see figure 15 below).

This is in accordance with the interview section of this

research survey as the interviewees noted that most of the oil

spill incidents in the region take months or years to address.

However, it was interesting to discover some challenges

responsible for the management standard of oil spill in this

region. The interviewees have noted in addition to the time

taken to respond to oil spill incident that some of the

factors responsible for these response delay are due to

resistance from the inhabitants of the region when repair or

clean up is to take place while another major challenge is the

swampy terrain.

1-7days 7-14days More0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%

2% 4%

94%

Figure 15. Response to oil spill incident

4.5.4 Social responsibility

According to Smith 2003, social responsibility is a vital tool

and an obligation of an organisation to the society or

stakeholders (those affected by the organisation’s policies

and practices). This covers responsibility such as protecting

the society or environment of the company operations. However,

from the survey, it was identified that most of the region

inhabitants are not being compensated due to damages caused by

the oil spill. 90% out of the total respondents indicated that

they have not received any form of compensation from the

responsible parties involved in oil and gas activities in the

area due to damage of the environment from the oil spill

incidents emanating from the activity while 10% admitted to

have been compensated for the damage

10%

90%

Yes No

Figure 16. Compensation for oil spill impact

This was supported by the interviewee section, however with

more detail regarding the results obtained about the subject

in the questionnaire. From the interview section, it was

gathered that most compensation are in funds for the

inhabitants affected through authorities in the localities.

But in most situations, the funds do not get across to the

affected person or it is inadequate or insufficient for the

amount affected or damaged caused.

4.5.5 Oil spill control performance

In general to find out how the management of oil spilled is

being practiced, response was gathered from the regarding the

performance of managing oil spill incident in the region. From

the outcome of the survey by the respondents, 90% rated the

performance of managing oil spill incidents in the Niger delta

region as poor while 10% rated it as average and no rating was

received for high (see figure 17 below).

High Average Low0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%

94%

Figure 17. Oil spill control performance

This outcome is an agreement with the interview section with

the interviewees suggesting that the management of oil spill

incident in the Niger delta region is poor. However, they

attributed the poor performance to terrain and violence they

encounter from the habitants and in some occasion illegitimate

tax they are asked to pay before an oil spill clean up or

prevention activity. It was also gathered from the interview

that many environmental agencies exist leading up to

misappropriation of funds and in turn poor management of oil

spill in the Niger delta region of Nigeria.

4.6 Summary

From the results, it can be seen that the issue of oil spill

management in the Niger delta region of Nigeria is poor. From

the outcomes of the questionnaire survey, interview and data

obtained from responsible party, the highlights of the

findings regarding the oil spill issue in the Niger delta

region are:

Causes of oil spill in the Niger delta region : the major

cause of oil spill in the Niger delta region is sabotage

and the responsible factor can be attributed to poverty.

Impact of oil spill in the Niger delta region : The impact

of oil spill in the Niger delta region is so devastating

and the main area that has been affected is the

environment (farm land, and water) which is the main

source of income as majority of the inhabitants of the

region are farmers

Management of oil spill in the Niger delta region : The

management of oil spill in the Niger delta region was

identified as poor but due to challenges such as terrain,

misappropriation of funds, too many agencies, policy and

even more the violence towards the responsible parties to

control incidents in event of oil spill.

A positive aspect of this research finding is the fact that

all participants in this survey are habitants in the Niger

delta region and have knowledge of oil spillage. This

signifies that they have understanding of the subject matter

in responding to the question. Another impressive aspect from

the survey is the detail obtained from the interview section.

The interview part of the survey has been quite revealing and

informative. It provided in-depth details of the challenges

confronting the management of oil spill, the causes and

impacts of oil spill incidents in the Niger delta region of

Nigeria. These have been very helpful in achieving the aim and

objectives of this research work. The implication of all

findings in this research considering the rate of oil spill

incidents, the adverse impact and the management challenges of

oil spillage in the Niger delta region is troubling. Based on

these findings, conclusion and recommendation for this

research are made.

SECTION 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

Oil spillage has had a major negative impact on the citizens

of Nigeria, and the economy as a whole. An illustration of

this can be seen in the friction caused between the oil

producing/servicing companies and resident communities

resulting in frustrations, finger pointing, clashes, general

resentment and mistrust. Management and control of spills have

been handled poorly and this has directly contributed to an

escalation of the negative impacts on all involved. Central to

the poor state of affairs are the largely obsolete laws and

regulations in the Nigerian oil industry which have been

outpaced by the prevailing technology for crude oil

development and use. There is therefore an urgent need to

review the existing oil industry laws and create new ones. The

new laws to be promulgated must be relevant to the current

state of affairs and strictly enforced to deal with every

aspect of the industry, and very importantly, oil spillage.

The cause of oil spill can lead to very disastrous situation

as such should be treated as national emergency by the

Nigerian government whenever it occurs. Not just because this

is the case in other oil producing zones of the world but

because it is the responsible thing to do.  The government

needs to provide effective capacity building at all levels by

acquiring basic oil spill response assets and equipment, in

addition to recruiting trained personnel to manage and control

oil spills. At the moment, the Nigerian oil industry is to a

large extent dependent on foreign experts, international oil

companies and other foreign organizations for spill

management. This approach cannot add local content value with

regards to the development and transfer of relevant technology

and only degrades the country’s ability to promptly and

effectively deal with oil spills. Well-developed spill

management must involve expanded local knowledge of spills and

a clear national spill contingency plan, provision of trained

personnel and massive investment in response/clean up assets,

equipment and technology.

Effective public and private sector partnership is crucial to

deal with the occurrence of oil spills in Nigeria with the

government playing a major role.  The private companies cannot

be left out and so far have not demonstrated commendable

corporate social responsibilities in either their operations

or their relationship with host communities regarding the

effects of their activities on the environment. Decades of

operations in Nigeria Niger Delta oil producing areas have not

translated into necessary development of the operating

communities and several grievances exist between involved

parties. With regards to oil spills, the offending companies

have a responsibility to ensure that oil spills are cleaned up

within the little window of opportunity. Companies must be

held accountable for their actions and host communities cannot

continue to be taken for granted.

The Nigerian government have for their reference several oil

spillage cases that were handled appropriately and with the

best interests of the citizens in mind. Classical examples are

the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill and BP Deep water Horizon oil spill

disasters both of which have given insights on how to deal

with spills of enormous magnitudes. At the peak of the EVOS

crisis, the United States government provided response of

11,000 personnel, 85 aircrafts, and 1,400 vessels for cleanup

operations. Within 3 weeks of the BP Deep water Horizon Oil

Spill, it provided 520 vessels and other equipment and

personnel to contain and stem the spill. Exxon Mobil within 3

years of the crisis spent over $2billion and in the BP deep

Horizon case, $32billion was set aside for cleanup and

compensation. Nigeria should copy compensation processes of

the United States with regard to EVOS and Deep-water Horizon

experiences.

5.2 Recommendations

Based on the research findings, the following recommendations

encompassing the government, oil companies and the public are

hereby rendered:

The public or inhabitants (Farmers, Traders, women

groups, school children and the youths) of the Niger

delta should be enlightened on the negative effects of

pipeline sabotage on the environment and the issues of

health and safety hazards of oil when it spills by

communicating with them through various seminars,

conferences and workshops and engaging them in security

and surveillance activities and duties.

Adequate technologies for oil spill should be embraced

without delay by oil operators in the Niger delta region

and the Nigerian government and also resources should be

put into the rehabilitation of infrastructure/facilities

used in oil production. Responsive measures such as

bioremediation should be maintained and encouraged

however proactive measures of managing oil spill such as

using technology should be imbibed to prevent oil spill

incidents, (for example, Pipes with high resistance to

corrosion, pipe leak detective gadgets, etc.)

Training of personnel for oil spill management should be

improved to meet up to modern approaches. The Nigerian

government should continuously employ and train personnel

at all levels for oil spill emergencies. Additionally the

Department of Petroleum Resources responsible for

petroleum activities should be properly and adequately

staffed so as to be able to play its inspectorate and

enforcement role to achieve the competency standard for

oil spill management.

The oil organization should have free emergency national

numbers in place this way the habitants in the region can

call when there is an event of an oil spill and also when

any individual is seen digging a pipeline route, These

calls are very important as they play a role to aid fasten

emergency response and also help avoid bursting or

breaking of pipelines arising from digging.

The emergency responses procedures should be designed to

swiftly take measures to protect the safety of the

public, employees and the environment. The various

environmental agencies in Nigeria should be reduced and

given a clearer regulation and objectives in order to

manage oil spill events and cleanup more quickly and

effectively. There should be in charge of oil spill clean

up while the oil organization (polluter) should play a

secondary role by drawing resources for the clean up.

Additionally the government and the oil organizations

should incorporate the fire services, air marshals and

the police into the emergency response plan, and regional

spill response centers should be created along

coastlines, this will help in overseeing oil spill

problems.

Without delay the Nigerian Government should implement

effective national oil spill contingency plan at State

and Federal levels for effective control of oil spill

incidents in the Niger delta region. The oil spill

contingency plan should take into consideration, the

nature of the terrain in the Niger delta region to carry

out the plans.

Stiff penalty should be provided in the new petroleum

industry legislation for saboteurs and polluter. Oil

spill incidents should prompt Fines, penalties, and

payment of compensation due at all times and should be

set out for the operators and inhabitants of the Niger

delta region.

.

The Nigerian government must be proactive in both regards

to control of oil pollution, management and biodiversity

conservation by enforcing existing regulation, laws and

policies in place, this can be achieved by enormous

political support - the determination to enforce the

regulations and strengthening the judiciary system

especially in oil spill related cases.

The implementation of the following recommendation will bring

about the following benefits to the management of oil spill in

the Niger delta region; reduction of causes of oil spill in

the region which results mainly from sabotage based on factors

such as poverty due to loss of jobs, saving the environment on

time from spilled oil when it occurs as a result reducing the

impact to the inhabitants of the region and most importantly

enabling proper management of oil spill in the Niger delta

region such as being proactive to prevent oil spill or

responding to it as the case may be, saving cost as agencies

are reduced and allowing sufficient compensation to affected

inhabitants, responsible parties will in turn gain good

reputation and in all the Improvement of economy around the

region and Nigeria as a whole

5.3 Further research

Due to certain limitation in the course of this research work,

further research is needed to deal with some of the issues

that will aid in addressing the challenges confronted by the

responsible parties in managing oil spillage in the Niger

delta region. The future research concerning oil spill in the

Niger delta region of Nigeria should consider addressing the

following;

The challenges of managing oil spill in difficult terrain

in the Niger delta region of Nigeria.

The challenges of oil pipe corrosion by using new advance

technology in the Niger Delta region.

Research in this areas will address some of the potential

challenges in the near future as oil exploration activities

expands with the increasing demand of energy across the

country and around the world.

5.4 Reflective Analysis

Moon, (1999) stated that we reflect in order to: consider the

process of our own learning and improvement; make decisions

and resolve issues. Hence, reflecting on and learning from

personal experiences and mistakes during this research

process, can help the researcher avoid repeated mistakes and,

at the same time, identify successful aspects of experiences

and useful principles which might usefully be applied in other

or similar situation.

For the research, the Niger delta region of Nigeria was chosen

as the case study because the researcher has worked in an

organisation in the area. During the time of employment, the

researcher became familiar with lots of issues concerning the

management of oil spill in the region. And most these have

resulted to the high rate of oil spill incidents occurrence in

the Niger delta region.

Due to this personal experience the researcher was able to

establish good relationship with the affected and responsible

parties in this region; this enabled the researcher to acquire

the information and materials needed to accomplish the

research.

However, executing this research was not problem-free for the

researcher. The researcher encountered various challenges

particularly during the field survey (interview). The

researcher encountered challenges when interviewing some of

the participants on the subject of the research due to

language barrier. This is due to diverse tribe and nationality

of inhabitants and workers in the oil producing Niger delta

region of Nigeria. What would be done differently next time

would be to provide the various tribes and nationalities with

a translated copy of the question for their different

languages to obtain a more satisfying result without any doubt

as to lack of understanding by the participant unless he/she

is proficient in the use of English.

As Gibbs (1998) reported, the feeling and thought that emerge

from reflection allow generalisation, which allow new

situations to be tackled effectively. The researcher is very

much convinced that this research will benefit all responsible

parties in oil and gas activity in the Niger delta region

(Region inhabitants, companies and government) if implemented.

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.

APPENDIX A: Data Collection Letter

University of South wales,

Faculty of computing, engineering and science,Treffrorest, Wales. United Kingdom.Date....................

........

Sir/Ma,

My name is Elizabeth Ekwugha, I am a student of theUniversity of South wales undergoing a master’s programme inEnvironmental Management. I am presently carrying out aresearch on The management of oil spill in the Niger delta region of Nigeria. Iam here by appealing to you to participate in a survey whichwill be beneficial to make the research a success. The resultswill be used to identify areas for improvement.

I will appreciate if you answer the questions honestly andaccurately as possible. The information provided will betreated and respected as strictly confidential. Thanks for thetime you will make out to complete the questionnaire.

Instructions: When responding to the questionnaire, pleasetick the box that is most appropriate to you or write youranswers in the spaces that have been provided. On completion,please return the questionnaires to the address below:

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If you have any queries pertaining to the questions, please contact the researcher viaEmail: meetekwughaelizabeth@yahoo.com.

SECTION 1: ABOUT YOU (Please tick all that apply to you)

1. Are you? Female [ ] Male [ ]

2. Age? 18-25 [ ] 26-35 [ ] 36-45 [ ] 46+ [ ]

3. Do you reside in the Niger delta region? Yes [ ] No [ ]

If Yes- How long? 2– 3yrs [ ], 3–4yrs [ ], 4+ yrs[ ]

4. Which of the option best describes your job type? --(Please tickall that applies to you) Fishing/Faming [ ] Trading/ Business [ ] Wage-earner [ ] other.....................

5. What is your work status? Permanent [ ] Temporarily [] Unemployed [ ]

6. Education Qualification? Primary [ ] Secondary [ ] Tertiary [ ] Others........................

SECTION 2: AWARENESS (Please tick only the box that most apply)

7. Do you have knowledge of oil spill? Good [ ] Average [ ] Basic [ ] No [ ]

8. Have you experienced an oil spill incident? Yes [ ] No [ ]

9. How many oil spill incident(s) can you recall since your stay in the Niger-delta region? 0 [ ] 1-10[ ] 11-20 [ ] 21above [ ]

SECTION 3: CAUSES OF OIL SPILL (Please tick only the box that most apply)

10. Which of these are the causes of oil spill in your area? Fixingnumbers 1 to 8 in the boxes. Where 1 is the main cause and 8 is the least causeBlow out [ ] Sabotage [ ] Corrosion [ ] Equipment malfunction [ ] Operation/maintenance error [ ] Natural causes [ ] Accidents [ ] Unknown [ ]

11. What do you consider as responsible for the oil spill incidents?Fixing numbers 1 to 7 in the boxes. Where 1 is the main issue and 7 is the least issue Poverty [ ] Policy [ ] Technology [ ] Competency [ ] Negligence [ ] Orientation [ ] Dont Know

SECTION 4: IMPACT OF OIL SPILL (Please tick only the box that most apply)

12. Have you been affected by oil spill incident? Yes [ ] No [ ]

13. In what way have oil spill incident affected you mainly?Health (illness) [ ]Environment (land or water pollution) [ ]Socio-Economy (finance, style of living) [ ]

None [ ]

14. How would you rate the impacts of all the oil spill incidents you have experienced?High [ ] Medium [ ] low [ ]

15. In the past 2 years, how long did the impact of the oil spill affect you? 0-3months [ ] 3-6months [ ] Above 6 months [ ]

SECTION 5: MANAGEMENT OF OIL SPILL (Please tick only the box that most apply)

16. How do you consider the responsible parties (Government, companies etc) as doing enough to stop oil spill incident? High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ] 17. How do you view the actions towards oil spillage? Proactive [ ] Reactive [ ]

18. How many prevented oil spill incidents can you recall? 0 [ ] 1 [ ] 2 [ ] 3 [ ] Enter number...............

19. Based on oil spill incidents you have witnessed, how long on average does it take to stop the spillage? 1-7 day [ ] 7-14 days [ ] More...................

20. Have you been compensated for oil spill pollution? Yes [ ] No [ ]

21. How would you rate the performance of management of oil spill incident? High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ]

SECTION 6: COMMENTS

22. Please feel free to add any further comments

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

APPENDIX B: Interview Questions

What do you know about oil spill?

Who is responsible for the oil spill

What is responsible for the oil spill incidents

What is the priority management approach for oil spill between

proactive and reactive approach

What challenges are you experiencing in carrying out the

approach?

Are community members involved?

Do they receive same training as the company workers?

Do you view indigene involvement as a good option to reducing

oil spill?

How would you rate the management of oil spill

Do you compensate the area for oil spill incident

What approaches have you applied mostly in managing oil spill

What would you do differently knowing the amount of oil spill

over some years

APPENDIX C: Completed Questionnaire Sample

APPENDIX D: Completed Questionnaire Sample.

APPENDIX E: Completed Questionnaire Sample.

APPENDIX F: Causes of Oil Spill

Sabotage

Corrosion

Equipment failure

Operations/maintenance error

Others

Unknown

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

201120122013

Source: (Department of petroleum resources, 2014)

APPENDIX G: A Table Showing the Yearly Spill From 1976 to 2013

Yearly Spill Data- 1976 to 2013

S/NO. YEAR NO. OF

SPILLS

QTYSPILLED(BARRELS)

1 1976 128 26157.002 1977 104 32879.003 1978 154 489294.004 1979 157 694170.005 1980 241 600511.006 1981 238 42722.007 1982 252 42841.008 1983 173 48351.309 1984 151 40209.0010 1985 187 11876.6011 1986 155 12905.0012 1987 129 31866.0013 1988 208 9172.0014 1989 195 7628.1615 1990 160 14940.8216 1991 201 106827.9817 1992 378 51187.9618 1993 428 9752.2219 1994 515 30282.6720 1995 417 63677.1721 1996 435 46353.1222 1997 339 81727.8523 1998 399 99885.3524 1999 225 16903.9625 2000 637 84071.9126 2001 412 120976.1627 2002 446 241617.5528 2003 609 35284.4329 2004 543 17104.0030 2005 496 10734.5931 2006 461 13772.9232 2007 482 10848.0033 2008 740 49524.80

34 2009 849 43648.8235 2010 537 17658.1036 2011 582 28210.9537 2012 871 15552.18

38 2013 998 4,783.53APPENDIX H: Oil Spill Effect on Mangroves

APPENDIX I: Loss of Potable and Industrial Water Resources

Source: (Chris Pleasance, 2013)

A river can be seen with fluorescent trickles of oil and by the side Precious Mangrove Destroyed and Blackened by oil spill.

APPENDIX J: Oil Spill Effect on Marine