Tourism Analysis Vol 14 pp 85ndash101 1083-542309 $6000 + 00Printed in the USA All rights reserved Copyright 2009 Cognizant Comm Corp

wwwcognizantcommunicationcom

TOURISTSrsquo ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE

OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS

AMIR SHANI and ABRAHAM PIZAMdagger

Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Eilat Campus Eilat IsraeldaggerRosen College of Hospitality Management University of Central Florida Orlando FL USA

To identify touristsrsquo opinions and attitudes on the use of animals in tourist attractions a qualitativeexploratory study was conducted with three focus groups of tourists who visited Orlando FloridaThe findings indicated that the participantsrsquo ethical perceptions of animal-based tourist attractionswere made up of three hierarchically ordered layers (1) general justifications for operating suchvenues (2) a belief in the driving forces leading to an ethical operation and (3) the specificconditions required for the ethical operation of animal-based tourist attractions The results andtheir meanings are discussed as a framework for future research in this field

Key words Animals Animal-based tourist attractions Ethical perceptions

Introduction confinement experienced by the wildlife (Shack-ley 1996) Most of the animal-based tourist attrac-tions in captive settings are typically referred to asObserving wildlife in captive settings has long

been an important leisure activity in contemporary zoos although they include a variety of sites suchas conventional zoos marine parks aquariumssociety (Tribe amp Booth 2003) Shackley (1996)

explained that for many market segments watch- theme parks safari parks and sea pens (Orams2002)ing wildlife in their natural habitat is often expen-

sive andor dangerous and requires traveling to While zoo attendance patterns in the past de-cades vary for different regions and countries theremote destinations Therefore tourist attractions

that include a collection of wildlife in some kind analysis of Davey (2007a) reveals that visits tozoos in the United States and the United Kingdomof captivity were established constituting a central

institutional location of wildlife presentation for have increased in the past 20 years According tothe World Association of Zoos and Aquariumsthe wide public (Beardsworth amp Bryman 2001)

While they all involve the display of captive wild- (2007) more than 10000 zoos and aquariums op-erate worldwide serving over 600 million peoplelife these attractions are not homogeneous and

differ based on their objectives species emphasis each year It is estimated that in the US there areapproximately 355 zoos of which 29 receive moreactivities offered to the visitors and the level of

Address correspondence to Abraham Pizam Rosen College of Hospitality Management University of Central Florida 9907 UniversalBlvd Orlando FL 32819 USA Tel 407-903-8010 Fax 407-903-8105 E-mail apizammailucfedu

85

86 SHANI AND PIZAM

than 1 million visitors annually For example the tivists little is known about the perceptions of thetourists themselvesmdashand of the public at largemdash10 theme parks of Anheuser-Busch in the United

States (eg SeaWorld Discovery Cove and Busch regarding the use of animals in tourist attractionsTheir ethical approach to the issue remains there-Gardens) received 22 million guests in 2007 (An-

heuser-Busch 2008) and generated a revenue of fore ambiguous and speculative As recently ar-gued by various researchers (Davey 2007b Frost$11 billion in 2005 (Luck amp Jiang 2007) It

should be noted that zoos and other animal-based amp Roehl 2007 Jiang Luck amp Parsons 2007)there is a need for more studies investigating thetourist attractions include both profit and nonprofit

institutions and are often accessible to wide seg- ethical views and perceptions of visitors towardanimal-based tourist attractions Since animal-ments of the US population (Cain amp Meritt 2007)

Stone Tucker and Dornan (2007) also showed based tourist attractions heavily depend on payingvisitors to offset their operational costs and fi-that the offering of interactions with animals as

part of itineraries can positively contribute to peo- nance their education and conservation programs(eg Catibog-Sinha 2008 Mason 2007) empiri-plersquos selection of vacation packages

Nevertheless despite their popularity animal- cal evidence on this issue is of necessary for theirbased tourist attractions have received harsh cri- marketing and operational decisions Moreover aticism over the years Among the prominent ar- better understanding of touristsrsquo attitudes towardguments against zoos are the violation of the such attractions can also be used by animal rightsanimalsrsquo right to enjoy freedom the disruption of organizations to design effective campaigns aimedanimal family and social groups during transport at increasing public awareness of their messagesdeath during transport poor captive surroundings Therefore the objective of this study was towith little consideration of the animalsrsquo welfare investigate tourist attitudes toward the use of ani-encouraging unnatural behavior through training mals in various types of tourist attractions and toand generally speaking the perpetuation of the uncover their ethical perceptions of the various an-human dominion over animals (Agaramoorthy imal activities that take place in such attractions2004 Hughes 2001 Regan 1995 Wickins-Drazi- Note that although many definitions of attitudeslova 2006) As a result one can notice a funda- have been proposed the current study refers to at-mental change in the role played by modern zoos titudes as the touristsrsquo ethical evaluation and judg-to a large extent as a result of the aforementioned ment of the entity in question (ie animal-basedcriticism Rather than providing solely entertain- tourist attractions) as expressed by some degreement and amusement to visitors most zoos today of favor or disfavor (see Ajzen amp Fishbein 1977emphasize their function in education scientific Fazio 1986)research and species conservation (Mason 2007Moscardo 2007) thereby rebranding themselves Background Literatureas contributing to the common good rather than

Exploring the attitudes toward animal-basedbeing merely profit-oriented entertainment venuestourist attractions has recently gained some atten-In addition significant techniques are being im-tion from tourism and hospitality researchers al-plemented to improve the welfare and quality ofthough often without relating to the entire spec-life of captive animals in tourist attractions in-trum of ethical questions involved Howevercluding providing naturalistic exhibit designs anduseful initial indications of the way visitors andbehavioral and environmental enrichment (Ben-nonvisitors perceive animal-based tourist attrac-Ari 2001 Davey 2006) Yet the use of captivetions are already found in the literature Turleyanimals in tourist attractions is still perceived by(1999) and Ryan and Saward (2004) found thatmany critics as unjustified while others passion-despite new management philosophies that em-ately advocate it (eg Bostock 1993 Hutchinsbrace education research and conservation as de-Dresser amp Wemmer 1995 Jamieson 2006)scribed below visitors still mainly appreciate theAlthough the use of animals in the tourism in-zoo as a recreational tourist attraction Turleydustry has come under growing scrutiny espe-

cially on the part of scholars and animal rights ac- (1999) added that in her research in the United

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 87

Kingdom ldquonot one visiting respondent denied that shift from circus-type presentations to more natu-ralistic presentations of animals with captivehaving a pleasurable day out was important in in-

fluencing the decision to visit (a zoo)rdquo (p 348) In wildlife occurring in spacious areas in contrivedldquonaturalrdquo environment (see also Tomas Scott ampaddition the zoo was perceived mostly as a fam-

ily-oriented recreational site mostly appropriate Crompton 2002)In a recent study conducted among Chinese zoofor children who often need more entertaining ac-

tivities while visiting a zoo such as a petting ani- visitors it was found that the participants spentmore time in natural-design exhibits compared tomals and the like (Benkenstein Yavas amp For-

berger 2003 Turley 2001) traditional exhibits (eg cages) Therefore Davey(2007b) concluded that the international trend inNevertheless Turley (1999 2001) found that

when children were accompanied to the zoo their zoos of improving animal welfare through envi-ronmental enrichments is valuable (in addition toparents were much more likely to attribute impor-

tance to the educational aspects of the zoo In ad- ensuring the animalsrsquo well-being) for creatingmore acceptable pleasant and interesting zoo visitdition the roles of zoos in education and conserva-

tion are perceived by visitors as central to their experiences Indeed McPhee Foster Sevenichand Saunders (1998) found that zoo visitors recog-operation and coincide with relaxation and serv-

ing as venues for family outings (Davey 2007b nized the goals of behavioral enrichment and itsimportance for the animalsrsquo well-being Ryan andMason 2007 Mowen amp Graefe 2006) However

the educational component in zoos was not found Saward (2004) also showed that the friendly de-sign of zoos contributed to the visitorsrsquo enjoymentto be the primary reason for visiting them as was

argued by other researchers (Hayward amp Rothen- of the visit although it was found that visitors stillattributed more importance to getting a close lookberg 2004 Stoinski Allen Bloosmith Forthman

amp Maple 2002) Note that in Turleyrsquos study (1999) at the animals than to the latterrsquos right to privacyDespite these contributions to our knowledgeconservation was only ranked third among the rea-

sons for visiting a zoo and there are some indica- about peoplersquos attitudes toward animals in enter-tainment they are mostly based on specific casetions that the latter is not likely to increase the

knowledge about and awareness of conservation studies and anecdotes and do not offer a holisticview on what constructs their attitudes and whatand environmental issues among visitors (Jiang et

al 2007 Moscardo 2007) However these find- the major influencing factors are In addition theresearch settings in these and other related studiesings are not consistent with all studies carried out

in zoos (eg Lukas amp Ross 2005 Smith amp are typically conventional zoos while they neglectother attractions where captive animals are viewedBroad 2007) Benkenstein et al (2003) therefore

recommended improving the delivery of educa- (eg theme parks bullfights or sporting contests)One major contemporary contribution toward ational services for example in the provision and

display of information about the species holistic understanding of humanndashanimal interac-tion in the tourism context was brought by CurtinDespite the strong importance of the recre-

ational component visitors attribute to zoos there (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) who con-ducted in-depth interviews with people who swamis some evidence that the public cares to some ex-

tent about the visual representation of animals and with dolphins both in captivity and in the wildUndoubtedly swimming with dolphins was reportedabout their well-being In an early experimental-

designed study Rhoads and Goldsworthy (1979) by the participants in both groups as a powerfulmeaningful and emotional experience Howevershowed students slides of animals in natural and

semi-natural settings and zoos The results indi- those who swam with the dolphins in the wilddemonstrated a greater ethical sensitivity towardcated that animals in zoos were seen as less digni-

fied as confined unhappy unnatural tame and keeping dolphins in captivity Those who swamwith captive dolphins on the other hand demon-dependent compared to animals in semi-natural

and natural settings Indeed Hughes Newsome strated cognitive dissonance As noted by Curtin(2006) ldquoall had concerns regarding captivity yetand Macbeth (2005) argued that what visitors find

to be entertaining has changed over time with a they tried to reduce this concern by accentuating

88 SHANI AND PIZAM

the positives and denying the negativesrdquo (p 312) many participants would not have reflected deeplyon the topic of ethical aspects of animal-basedThe swimmers found comfort in the fact that cap-

tivity is the only setting they could swim in with tourist attractions beforehand and may thereforefeel reluctant to be interviewed As noted by Mar-dolphins although they would rather swim with

them in the wild In addition they were convinced shall and Rossman (2006) in such cases the focusgroup setting is more likely to get the participantsthat the dolphins and their trainers love each other

and that the shows they watched where different to express their views as the encounters take placewithin a supportive environment In addition fo-from circus shows Curtin and Wilkes (2007) also

found that the themes of education research and cus groups as a more socially-oriented methodenable the researchers to study the participants inconservation helped cover up the fact that the dol-

phins were exhibited for profit thereby allowing a more natural and relaxed atmosphere Variousresearchers advocate the use of focus groups forthe swimmers to develop less feelings of guilt of-

ten associated with the activity To conclude the the purpose of gaining insights regarding attitudesopinions and beliefs of people (eg Gibbs 1997swimmers with captive dolphins did feel ethical

concerns yet the desire to participate in the expe- McLafferty 2004) Focus group research usuallyrience led them to use cognitive and emotional include six to ten participants in each sessiontechniques in order to reduce this cognitive disso- (Glesne 2006) which lasts not longer than twonance However these studies focused only on the hours (Weeden 2005)special segment of swimming with dolphins Although they are clearly gaining increasing

At this stage it is possible to conclude that the popularity in social science research focus groupssubject of the ethical treatment of animals in tour- also have their weaknesses Becken (2007 p 353)ist attractions has not been studied extensively and mentions that ldquofocus groups do not represent natu-therefore there is a need for a holistic approach to ral discussions and the viewpoints presented byexplore the themes concerns and issues involved participants are verbal self-reporting (ie hypo-in the attitudes of tourists toward animal-based thetical) hence real behavior can only be inferredtourist attractions from participantsrsquo statementsrdquo In addition there

is a constant concern that the presence of otherMethodology people will influence the responses of certain par-

ticipants which might lead to social willfulness orThe Nature of Focus Groupsa hesitation to speak (Stewart Shamdasani amp

Because of the exploratory nature of this study Rook 2007) However when the purpose of aa qualitative research design was chosen Peterson study is to develop a wide range of views and atti-(1994) stated that one of the major purposes of tudes as in the current study this represents a mi-qualitative research is to explore the full range of nor problem (Peterson 1994) Finally valuableviews on a certain subject and to develop the time can be lost due to loss of control of the con-range of issues to be investigated in future re- versation and irrelevant topics being discussedsearch Specifically this study used focus group (Marshall amp Rossman 2006) However a traineddiscussions as the main method of data collection and experienced moderator can minimize theseA focus group is defined as ldquoa group of individu- concerns and maximize the effectiveness of theals selected and assembled by researchers to dis- sessionscuss and comment on from personal experiencethe topic that is the subject of the researchldquo (Pow- Samplingell Single amp Lloyd 1996 p 499) As noted by

In the current study three focus groups wereWeeden (2005) the aim of focus groups is to useconducted with tourists in Orlando Florida Allgroup integrations to gain rich and insightful datathe participants were recruited from a large hotelabout a topic of interest that would be less accessi-located in the main tourist zone of the city Forble using some other qualitative method A focusthe purpose of the current study a visitor was de-group method was chosen for this study rather

than one-to-one interviews because it is likely that fined as a person who stayed in the hotel regard-

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 89

less of the distance traveled In the hotel the 4 Their views and opinions about different typesof species in animal-based tourist attractionsguests were approached according to the principle

of purposive sampling (Barbour 2001 Finn El-liott-White amp Walton 2000) which aims to re- In addition follow-up questions were broughtflect the diversity among the guests in terms of up if participants raised interesting points of vieworigin gender and age Although for some pur- Note that in an attempt to avoid socially desirableposes homogeneous groups are preferred various answers on behalf of the participants [which isresearchers argue that heterogeneity is required in prevalent in ethics research (Randall amp Fernandesorder to reveal diverse opinions and experiences 1991)] the participants were not asked specificas participants explain their positions to the other questions about their ethical attitudes toward ani-members of the focus group (Gibbs 1997 Hol- mal-based tourist attractions but rather to freelylander 2004 McLafferty 2004) Fifty dollars and express their views on the issue Their attitudesa dinner certificate for two were offered as incen- toward such attractions as well as the structure oftives Both the first and the second focus group these attitudes were deduced from the partici-were composed of seven tourists each while the pantsrsquo accounts based on the interpretation of thethird group included eight tourists which resulted researchers During the sessions the moderators at-in a total of 22 participants (13 females and 9 tempted to generate a discussion and to challengemales) The sample included 14 participants from the participants and in all three focus groups athe continental United States (from five different dynamic conversation ensued Each focus groupstates) three from Puerto Rico four from Britain lasted approximately two hours and the sessionsand one from Canada Five participants were aged were recorded and transcribed into Microsoft20ndash29 four were aged 30ndash39 four were aged 40ndash Word format To ensure the anonymity of the par-49 and the remainder of the sample (nine partici- ticipants all the focus groupsrsquo tapes once tran-pants) were aged 50 and above scribed were destroyed and the participants are

presented in this article with pseudonymsProcedure

At the beginning of the focus group sessions Data Analysisparticipants were informed about the objectives of

The transcripts were examined to identify a the-the study and that they could leave the session atmatic framework of attitudes toward animal-basedany time Based on the recommendation made bytourist attractions As noted by Fossey HarveyGlesne (2006) four main questions guided theMcDermott and Davidson (2002) a thematicsemistructured focus groups These questions wereanalysis involves the process of classifying cate-based on general themes that emerged from thegorizing and grouping text segments to create andliterature they were taken from the general viewsthen clarify the definitions and contents of themesregarding animal-based tourist attractions and ap-within the transcript The end product of the the-plied to more specific aspects of their operationsmatic analysis ldquois a detailed index of data whichAfter introducing themselves (including age andlabels the data into manageable chunks for subse-where they were from) the participants were askedquent retrieval and explorationrdquo (Pope Zieblandto discuss the followingamp Mays 2000 p 116) In keeping with these prin-ciples of thematic analysis the prominent con-1 Their views and opinions regarding various an-cepts and aspects of the participantsrsquo accountsimal-based tourist attractions (eg traditionalwere highlighted and then integrated to generatezoos theme parks with animals safari parkscore themes that constitute the structure of thebullfighting and rodeos)touristsrsquo attitudes toward animal-based tourist at-2 Their previous experiences with animal-basedtractions Note that typically the goal of qualitativetourist attractionsthematic analysis is not to quantify data but rather3 Their views and opinions on the different typesto explore the variety and structure of themesof activities in animal attractions (eg petting

zoos encounters with animals) and around the investigated phenomenon The results

90 SHANI AND PIZAM

are therefore not reported in relative frequencies quently wildlife conservation through animal-based tourist attractions was repeated by manyas this can be misleading (Pope et al 2000)participants as a justification for operating themTo name a few comments in this regard 25-year-Findingsold Jake from Canada said

The analysis of the focus groups revealed threemajor themes that emerged in the course of the I was watching the Discovery Channel the othersessions night Some of the species in the wild are go-

ing to be totally extinct How many species havewe lost in the past 20 to 30 years Zoos are defi-1 General justifications for having animal-basednitely doing something to preserve endangeredtourist attractions species

2 Driving forces responsible for ethical use of an-imals in tourist attractions and Liza (54 Michigan) claimed

3 Conditions for the ethical operation of animal-based tourist attractions I think this [the existence of animal attractions]

helps to keep some of the species alive Imean animals that are in danger if you canMost of the participantsrsquo comments related tointervene even if it is situation like that and therethese issues although they were not asked directlyis a controlled environment you can still help to

about them They were mentioned and described keep the species aliveby participants as central factors in their ethicalevaluation of animal-based tourist attractions Dana (50 Wisconsin) also agreed

General Justifications for Having Animal-Based The nature of the panda bear is going extinct un-less they start breeding it in the zoos It is betterTourist Attractionsthis way than not breeding them at all it keeps

The vast majority of the participants in the the species alivestudy were supportive of animal-based tourist at-tractions and drew much pleasure from visiting The concept of conservation also gives some ofthem Stories about enjoyable and exciting experi- the participants the impression (or the belief) thatences in animal-based tourist attractions were told captivity of endangered species is a temporary so-in the three focus groups However the partici- lution until they are eventually released into thepants did acknowledge the ethical dilemmas in- wild As mentioned by Mark (43 Maryland)volved in keeping animals for entertainment pur-

[Animal attractions] are unnatural habitationsposes alone thus they raised other reasons forbut theyrsquore helping preserve animals A lot of en-justifying the necessity to operate them Some ofdangered species have being brought out becausethe following arguments in favor of animal-basedof the way they have been bredmdashwhether it was

attractions have appeared previously in the litera- in captivity or in conservatories in the wildture although in most cases they were not sug-

Education Most of the participants stressedgested by tourists but rather by advocates of ani-the importance of the role animal-based tourist at-mal-based attractionstractions play in education especially in the devel-

Conservation Many animal-based tourist at- opment of awareness of wildlife among childrentractions highlight their role in the conservation Visiting animal-based tourist attractions with chil-and preservation of endangered species and this dren was perceived by parents and nonparentsmessage seems to have trickled down into peo- alike as an entertainment activity but as one withplersquos hearts and minds The participants suggested educational benefits This view was exemplifiedthat popular nature TV channels such as National by Liza (54 Michigan) who statedGeographic and Animal Planet were responsiblefor the increase in awareness and knowledge on This is the third time [that we have visited Or-

lando] and we have not yet seen Disney World Iconservation and preservation measures Conse-

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 91

donrsquot think there is anything wrong with some of that was one of the coolest things Irsquove everdonemdashalthough it was only for two minutes the man-made attractions but I think itrsquos nice

when they encompass nature and you can teach So I got to hold this little gator in my hands andthat for me was I went to see alligators atyour kids something as wellnight before and it was a cool experience but Inever got so close to one and I never consideredA similar argument of the crucial function of ani-them as animals I think that people need to real-mal attractions for the development of childrenize that theyrsquore also a part of the animal society

was illustrated by Heather (26 Florida) a nonpar-ent who claimed that animal attractions if operat-

A similar notion was expressed by Mark (43ing ethically play an important role in preventing

Maryland)other cruel forms of use made of animals by serv-ing as an example of the responsible way of treat-

The killer whalersquos a good example of an animaling animalsthat has a much better reputation [nowadays] be-cause of its controlled environment [in animal

People need to realize that kids are really our fu- attractions] Yoursquore thinking about Shamu [theture and we need to educate and show them the name of the Sea World iconic orca show] but ifgood ways of treating animals and the good you watch National Geographic yoursquoll see theways of raising animals and interacting with them killer whale bite the seal with his teeth and throwand preserving and everything else Because him aroundotherwise if we let it slip we will see peopletreat dogs wrong animals will be beaten Research Some participants also referred tocockfighting and bullfighting They will think itrsquos the role of animal-based tourist attractions in re-OK search One of these participants was Keith (50

Detroit) who statedIn this line of argument the responsible use ofanimals in attractions is more ethically sound than

I agree that they [animal attractions] bring ani-not using them at all Mark (43 Maryland) alsomals mainly for entertainment purposes but I

stressed that the educational contributions of ani- think of biology whenever I see an opportunitymal attractions are for the benefits of the animals for research I am always thinking about it in

the back of my head Having that polar bear herethemselvesis an opportunity to do research or learn some-thing about it Itrsquos an opportunity to learn moreI think that itrsquoll be worse for the animals if youabout that speciesstop that kind of thing [animal attractions] and

therersquoll be no education and awareness about thisThe zoos and theme parksmdashtheyrsquore making you According to Kristina (30 Florida)aware of it They educate a little bit about theanimals while if you will not have it and people

Some of the theme parks use animals for enter-will not be exposed to animalsmdashwho will caretainment purposes but they may also use them(about the animals)for research purposes or [to learn] how to savethe species from getting extinct I think there are

Finally animal-based tourist attractions were per- some good attributes to these attractions in thisceived by some participants to contribute toward respectsoftening the negative image of certain animals(especially predators) making them less intimidat- The idea that research in captivity conditions ising and more appealing to the wide public In this sometimes the only way scientists can learn aboutregard close encounters with animals with nega- wildlife was illustrated by Liza (54 Michigan)tive associations in attractions might make them who argued thatlegitimate members of ldquoanimal societyrdquo For ex-ample Kristin (27 Michigan) spoke of a personal No one whorsquos involved with zoological or marineexperience she had research will ever get that type of knowledge of

interaction with any of those animals unless hecan do it in a controlled and well-maintained en-When I went to Gatorland a couple of years ago

I had the opportunity to hold a baby gator and vironment

92 SHANI AND PIZAM

aries are in some cases unlimited and the animalsHowever it should be noted that this type of argu-can roam free in their own habitat When yoursquorement was relatively rare during the focus groupin Animal Kingdom you donrsquot feel like yoursquore

sessions in Orlando Florida so well done for that job

Alternative to Nature Many participants in theAnother benefit of animal-based tourist attractionsstudy viewed animal-based tourist attractions as anthat the participants mentioned was that they allowaffordable and friendly way to see wildlife Be-ordinary people to experience what is usually ex-cause seeing wildlife in their natural habitat (egclusively reserved for wildlife professionals or forsafari tours in Africa) is perceived as a very ex-people who spend considerable funds in animal-pensive and dangerous adventure protected touristrelated leisure activities For example Jake (25settings represent a safe and inexpensive solutionCanada) who is a scuba diving instructor arguedto the desire to watch wildlife Liza (54 Michi-thatgan) for example argued

We [scuba divers] have the opportunity to seeWho else can see a polar bear unless you go to coral reef and fish in the ocean not like peoplethe zoo a lot of people canrsquot afford to go to who donrsquot dive They donrsquot have the opportunitythe Arctic Pole and see a polar bear to see that for them going to Sea World is the

closest thing they can get to see something I cansee normallyWendy (66 Britain) also noted that

The security and safety factors were also acknowl-[Animal attractions] allow people who canrsquot goedged by some participants in the sense that ani-on safaris to see wildlife it gives them a feeling

of what itrsquos like mal-based tourist attractions are a safe alternativeto tours in natural settings which might be risky

Although many of the participants stated that natu- In this regard Heather (26 Florida) mentionedral sites are preferable to contrived ones the latter

My cousin visited Animal Kingdom with mestill constitute a reasonable alternative and it iswhen she was 4 years old and we went on a sa-certainly better than not to see wildlife at all Mi-fari tour there Then a giraffe got very close tochael (36 Britain) for example mentionedthe jeep and she [my cousin] thought that it wascool to stare at the animal In a real safari this

For me personally the Everglades National Park could be dangerous You canrsquot have this kind ofis the place Irsquod like to see animals and alligators experiencemdashstanding so close to an animalmdashinIt wouldnrsquot be man-made attractions with ani- the natural sidemals It would be something thatrsquos natural likethe Everglades Itrsquos all swamps and the animals Finally in addition to the role of animal-basedlive there because itrsquos their habitat not because

tourist attractions as an alternative to watching an-theyrsquove been put there and fed but my chil-imals in the wild they can also be perceived as adren never get the chance to see killer whales insubstitute for natural places in general becausenature so itrsquos something nice for them to see in

the parks they provide a more relaxed atmosphere than otherentertaining attractions As Kristin (27 Michigan)

In this regard some of the participants indicated pointed outtheir preference for animal theme parks over tradi-

Animal attractions like Sea World or Animaltional zoos because of their more naturalistic pre-Kingdom are more for a relaxing day These aresentation of the animals and the ldquoopen spacerdquo de-pretty much all the natural attractions that yousign of the exhibits Patrick (41 Miami) statedhave here [in Orlando] because the beaches areabout an hour and half from here Sea World

When I visited the San Diego Zoo I couldnrsquot is like a nice day at the beachmdashif you donrsquot wantimagine myself in a savanna whereas in Animal to drive to the beachKingdom I certainly canmdashwithin a split second

Benefits to Individual Animals In addition toYou just become immersed when yoursquore inthese expanded theme parks when the bound- the justifications for having animal attractions that

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 93

cities You gotta have some control of the ani-focus on their benefits to humans or to the ecosys-mals and their environmenttem as a whole (such as conservation) some par-

ticipants also argued that confined environmentsThis ideas was continued by Mark (43 Maryland)offer advantages to the exhibited animals them-who statedselves This view is explained by arguing that cap-

tive wildlife are free from predators and have noI think that when you see them [the animals] infood concerns Michael (36 Britain) stated that hethe parks you kind of gain respect for their con-

had no problem with petting zoos although this trolled environment if you didnrsquot have thatkind of activity might cause discomfort to the ani- controlled environment yoursquod have heard on the

six o-clock news all the time ldquoa lion attackedmals becausetodayrdquo

the sorts of animals we are talking about are atthe bottom of the food chain so a kid petting Driving Forces for Ethical Animal-Basedthem is a better life [than living in nature] Tourist Attractions

Throughout the focus group sessions althoughKeith (50 Detroit) expanded on the idea that amost the participants were supporters of animal-confined setting provides a secure environment forbased tourist attractions they also expressed somethe animals by giving a personal exampleconcerns over the welfare of the animals exhibitedand over the ethical aspects of keeping them inI got a 750-gallon salt water aquarium I lookcaptivity However there was also a clear percep-at them [the fish] and I think that I give them a

better life than if they were in the ocean because tion among most of the participants that contem-they might not have survived that long I have porary animal-based tourist attractions are funda-fish that lived 8 to 10 years and if they were in mentally different from this type of attraction inthe open water they would be a meal for some-

the past This way the belief that the present at-body elsetractions embody drastic improvements in the ethi-cal treatment of animals helps alleviate some ofAnother argument put forward by some of the par-the feelings of discomfort that might arise whileticipants was that the conditions of the animals invisiting animal-based tourist attractions or think-the attractions are much better than those in othering about animals in captivity and is an importantforms of captivity which could have been the fatefactor in their ethical approval This perceptionof some of these animals For example Dana (50was clearly apparent in statements like that of JakeWisconsin) argued that people who support the(25 Canada)abolishment of animal-based tourist attractions need

Yes Irsquom a little concerned about that [keepingto turn on and look at the SPCA [Society of theanimals in captivity] but then again when IPrevention of Cruelty to Animals] shelters wheresaw SeaWorld when I was a kid it was not any-they have their dogsmdashsix dogs in a cage andthing like it is nowthey fight all the time and they pee on the floor

and itrsquos not cleaned up until the next day Theyare kept in very close and small cages and of Kim (55 Michigan)

Regulation of Wildlife Although this issue was[the attractions today] are first-class operations

only raised by two participants it is interesting to Since the old days of the sea aquarium in Miaminote that animal-based tourist attractions might wersquove come a long wayalso be perceived as a means to regulate and su-

Public Opinion A common view among thepervise the natural environment and the wildlifeparticipants was that because the general public isJim (52 Michigan) illustrated this point by sayingmore concerned about animal welfare today thanin the past the ldquofree-marketrdquo approach will natu-If we let the animals just do what they want itrsquollrally mean that the attractions will be more ethi-be chaos In some countries you got cows and

horses and chickens walking all through the cally sensitive in their treatment of animals In

94 SHANI AND PIZAM

I think that circuses are getting bad publicity Irsquomother words the concern about bad public rela-sure that there is animal abuse there as was his-tions or negative reactions on the part of visitorstorically but Irsquod like to thinkmdashmaybe Irsquom just

regarding animal abuse has led to the appearance living in Happy Landmdashthat animals are treated aof a self-regulation mechanism in the attractions little more humanely nowadays just because all

of the things that were brought up in the newsthemselves Since visitors expect today to seeAnd if theyrsquore not if something came out to thewell-treated animals it is in the interest of the at-press then that circus would be done with busi-tractions to meet this expectation Keith (50 De-ness Because there are so many people out there

troit) illustrated this view that care

Legal System and Institutional SupervisionI think that public awareness has probably madeAnother factor that helped to ease some of the par-animal attractions change their attitudes because

that is their livelihood The attractions know ticipantsrsquo ethical concerns regarding animal-basedthat the animals are their bread and butter so tourist attractions was their trust in the legal sys-theyrsquore going to do everything they can to make tem and in the power and influence of animal wel-a friendly place for them

fare organizations For example when the issue ofrodeos and circuses arose in one of the sessions

The role of the demand for ethical treatment in theDana (50 Wisconsin) said

perceived changing nature of animal-based touristattractions was heavily emphasized For example

Rodeos like we have here in the States I donrsquotLiza (54 Michigan) argued believe they kill the horses do they I guess

therersquos a certain amount of governmental control Is thereThey [the attractions] seem to have more knowl-

edge of how to manage animals but they alsohave something to protect because if they donrsquot However some participants felt that more tightdo it [act ethically] they will be out of business external control should be put on the attractionsAnd this is caused by the consumers who put

as stated by Katie (25 Illinois)more pressure They [the attractions] have toplease the public and the almighty dollar to keepthe operation going If we continue to have these attractions and con-

tinue to visit them I think we should have stricterregulations to protect the animals so theyrsquoll beThe view that fear of negative public opinion leadsin a more natural environment The laws are

to ethical behavior seemed to be strengthened by stricter in this countrymdashthe animals look wellthe belief in the power of the mass media In this kept especially in the big organizations that ownrespect the perception was that in times of ldquoopen these establishments But for local zoos and cir-

cuses the law is not there They look OK but youinformationrdquo and wide media coverage unethicaljust donrsquot know we need stricter lawsoperations will not be able to survive long As

noted by Keith (50 Detroit)Conditions for Ethical Operationof Animal-Based Tourist AttractionsTelevision cameras might sneak into zoos and see

the elephant trainers using whips and hit the ele- The participants in the study made a clear dis-phants it can destroy the operation real quick tinction between ethical and nonethical animal- All you have to do today is get the news in-

based tourist attractions while elaborating on thevolved and say ldquoLook what theyrsquore doing necessary or desirable conditions for such sites tothey are feeding that koala bear vanilla ice cream

all day long and that is not rightrdquo So they are be considered ethical In addition they also pro-going to make the public aware and go on the vided information on the standards for how toChannel 7 news then people will start reading measure if an attraction in general or a certainthe editorial in the paper and it will escalate

display in particular could be perceived as beingethical

When the issue of circuses and their negative im-age was mentioned during one of the sessions Natural Environment The designing of con-

trived natural environments in the animal displaysHeather (26 Florida) stated

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 95

and exhibits was one of the main factors leading Training Methods Another factor that was re-peated during the focus group sessions was theto more positive attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions This notion was illustrated in ethical requirement that performing animals betrained gently without being inflicted any painthe words of Patrick (41 Miami)suffering or distress It is important to note thatanimal shows were not perceived as unethical inAttractions with animals are great to be around

and great to spend time with But I always themselves but only when associated with themind to the fact that they are caged You know cruel treatment of animals This perception wasthey try to make them as natural as possible but

exemplified by Kristin (27 Michigan)they have borders They are unnatural environ-ments and the animals must be aware of thatmdash

A lot of people thinkmdashoh training animals andthey can sense things like that I love to go thereteaching them tricks is cruel but you canrsquot teachbut you canrsquot help wondermdashare they feelinga trick if the animal doesnrsquot want to learn it un-trapped in this environment I prefer the moreless yoursquore harsh to it [In reference to a pet showupdated parks when the boundaries have beenshe saw]mdashThey have so many kinds of animalsincreased and enlarged and they try to bringthere Theyrsquore all rescued animals but the train-them back to their original habitaters donrsquot use whips and they donrsquot use any kind

Natural Behavior The negative public rela- of punishment only positive reinforcement MyGod I donrsquot like to see whips like they use intions that circuses and circus-like shows have beensome of the dinner shows As I said if the ani-absorbing in recent years was clearly expressed inmals want to perform itrsquos a different story A lot

the preference of some of the participants for of the dolphin attractions the dolphins like towatching (what they perceived as) natural behav- perform itrsquos fun itrsquos a game for them You donrsquotior of animals It should be noted that in some need to use a whip and you donrsquot need to use

something that is not a positive reinforcementcases even animal shows which have been criti-[In reference to a dinner show she had been to]cized in the past might be perceived as allowing

the performing animals to express natural behav-In this regard the common impression of theior For example Liza (54 Michigan) when refer-closeness between performing animals and theirring to dolphin shows argued thattrainers was for some of the participants a reassur-ance that the animals were not being abused This

When you see a whale jump out of the water andperception was strengthened by their reliance oncome by the trainermdashthatrsquos actually natural pred-their own eyes in the sense of ldquoseeing is believ-atory type of behavior for him when hunting

seals in the ocean ingrdquo For example Jim (52 Michigan) argued that

at Sea World you look at the people and theyrsquoreSome cases however might be judged differentlyall having a good time and the trainers look closeas illustrated by Michael (36 Britain) regardingto the animals and it looks like the animals are inbird exhibits a friendly environment

I find it harder to see a bird in a cage than any This notion was also illustrated by Heather (26other animal because of the nature of a bird Hersquos Florida)a flyer

When I was a kid my parents took me to a cir-Another reference to this issue was made by Kris- cus but I havenrsquot gone since I like it when theretin (27 Michigan) who stressed the importance of is more human interaction In regard to shows

like the Pet Ahoy and the dolphin showsmdashthethe animalrsquos free willanimals want to be there because theyrsquore [the an-imals and the trainers] friends for life You canAnything you do to instigate a reactionmdashridingsee the closeness and the bond between the ani-a bull or cockfightingmdashyou need to instigatemals and the trainersthem to do that Thatrsquos unnatural and unneces-

sary Itrsquos one thing if the animal wants to do itNevertheless some of the participants recognizedand itrsquos a different thing if you stab him with a

stick their limitations in judging whether an animal was

96 SHANI AND PIZAM

being abused during its training For example part of the visitors This point was illustrated byMark (43 Maryland) who statedBruno (53 Michigan) noted that

It upsets me to see in zoos teenagers whorsquore try-[in animal shows] you only see the finished prod-ing to impress their friends by throwing some-uct you donrsquot see the training You actually havething at the animals I think why wonrsquot you getto be there when the training is been conductedon the other side of the fence and do thatHowever from what I see on TV it seems that

the animals are pretty well trained and not abusedat all Another prominent example was given by Dana

(50 Wisconsin) regarding a dinner show she par-The Concept of Fairness Some of the partici-ticipated inpants brought up the point that certain uses of ani-

mals in attractions even if controversial becauseAfter the dinner they have a place where you canof the violence involvedmdashsuch as alligator wres-meet and greet the riders and the horses They let

tling bullfighting and rodeosmdashmight seem ethi- people sit on the top of the horses and these peo-cal if it is perceived that the animals receive a fair ple are sitting on the horses kicking and snap-chance during the activity Liza (54 Michigan) ping them The kids were pulling their mane

the parents sat there and let the kids do it It hasfor example told about her experience at a bull-a sign which says ldquoplease do not feed the ani-fight in Spainmalsrdquo But I have never seen anybody out therean employee who watches that nobody tries to

Well I donrsquot think that the bull even started with feed the horses popcorn nachos or potato chipsa chance I mean if yoursquore going to get in the which I saw the horses being fedring and fight that bull then the bull should notbe sent out of the pen already stabbed with a cou- Other A few other factors were mentioned asple of daggers and already wounded coming at conditions for the ethical operation of animal-you If you choose to take on that animal you based tourist attractionsmdashor at least it was notedshould take that creature at its maximum You

that their presence increases the chances for thedonrsquot paralyze it and then take him onattractions to be positively judged Among these

[Regarding gator wrestling] I donrsquot object to factors werethat I mean if they [the wrestlers] lose they

bull The provision of sufficient food and medicallose If yoursquore going to wrestle alligators at leastdo not have an unfair advantage As long as you care to the animalsdonrsquot wrestle with the alligator with his mouth or bull Employing educated people who will be sensi-his legs taped if you want to wrestle an alliga- tive enough to the animalstor and you have a 50ndash50 chance go for it bull A strong preference to see rescued animals inSafety Negative perceptions of certain animal the exhibits over animals that were simply cap-

displays and shows were also mentioned when tured in the wild andparticipants sensed that the activity involved some bull Decent working conditions for the animals es-form of risk Regarding alligator wrestling shows pecially in regard to reasonable number offor example Gloria (33 Puerto Rico) stated working hours a day

I donrsquot like it I think itrsquos dangerous for the peo- Discussion and Conclusionsple that do that work [the wrestlers] and for the

As previously indicated the purpose of this ex-people that look at it These animals donrsquot haveploratory study was to examine the attitudes ofthe intelligence of a man so they donrsquot under-

stand the difference between a baby or a boy or tourists toward the use of animals in tourist attrac-girl I heard that once an alligator bit a trainer tions while identifying the structure of these atti- I donrsquot like it

tudes The focus group sessions revealed that thevast majority of the participants were aware of theVisitorsrsquo Behavior Some participants men-

tioned that the ethical operation of animal-based ethical difficulties of keeping animals in captivityHowever the participants also viewed animal-basedtourist attractions does not depend only on the site

itself but also on the respectful behavior on the tourist attractions as a positive phenomenon in

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 97

general and raised various justifications for their and education (see Hutchins et al 1995 Jamie-son 2006 Mason 2000 2007 Snyder et alexistence In this regard similar to the findings of

Curtin (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) about 1996) Yet even in relation to these well-discussedissues the participants had some interesting in-people who swam with captive dolphins the par-

ticipants in this study demonstrated cognitive dis- sights The role of animal attractions in educationamong others was found especially relevant tosonance The awareness of the ethical dilemmas

involved in seeing animals in captivity led the par- children and to the development of their aware-ness of nature similar to the findings of Turleyticipants to raise various reasons for the impor-

tance of their presence and in which terms animal (1999 2001) In addition the attractions were alsoperceived as contributing toward softening theattractions can be considered ethical The partici-

pantsrsquo ethical evaluation of animal-based tourist negative image of certain animalsmdashbecause oftheir behavior in the wild andor their negativeattractions was found to consist of three main lay-

ers (see Figure 1) characteristicsHowever the participants also raised justifica-First ethical attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions were based on general argu- tions that to this day have been relatively littlediscussed To many participants the attractionsments in favor of (or against) their existence In

order to develop a favorable ethical attitude to- served as a safe socioeconomic alternative to au-thentic nature tours which are often perceived asward animal attractions one should be convinced

of the validity of the ethical arguments in favor of being expensive and dangerous (see Shackley1996 for a similar argument) They were also per-their presence in the first place These arguments

did not point toward a specific attraction but ceived as enabling ldquoordinaryrdquo people to participatein activities that are reserved exclusively forrather served as an ideological basis for justifying

the use of animals in entertainment ventures in wealthy tourists or wildlife professionals thusleading to a form of ldquosocial justicerdquo Another im-general Some of the justifications raised by par-

ticipants have been discussed in the academic lit- portant justification that emerged in the focusgroups was the perception that the animals exhib-erature Those justifications that are both men-

tioned in the literature and by many of the focus ited in the attractions are better off in captivitywhere they are free of the fear of predators or ofgroup participants included conservation research

Figure 1 The three layers of ethical perceptions of animal-based tourist attractions

98 SHANI AND PIZAM

the need to search for food Finally the attractions tence of these factors partially or completely af-fects the chances of an animal-based attraction toalso created the impression among some partici-

pants that they act as another form of wildlife reg- be considered ethicalThe structure of the ethical perception of ani-ulation which is necessary for the safety and secu-

rity of human society mal-based tourist attractions as identified in thisstudy seems hierarchical in nature A person whoAlthough many of the participants in the study

justified the existence of animal-based tourist at- rejects any justification for having these attrac-tions that is who favors the abolishment of alltractions in general they also recognize that these

are not always ethically operated especially in use of animals for entertainment is expected tohave a negative attitude toward an attraction evenhistorical context The second layer which consti-

tutes the ethical perception of animal-based tourist if it adopts an ethical and responsible treatment ofthe animals On the other hand even if the exis-attractions includes driving forces that are be-

lieved to cause the attractions to treat the animals tence of animal attractions is accepted by a personand heshe believes that contemporary attractionsresponsibly The belief that contemporary animal-

based tourist attractions are considerably more are controlled by both self- and external regula-ethical than in the past derives from two factors tions there are still specific conditions that needthe power of the media and public opinion which to be fulfilled in order for this person to have ais perceived to have major impact on the operation positive attitude toward each specific attractionof the attractions and the legal and enforcement To conclude although the tourism industry re-system which is trusted to supervise their opera- lies heavily on the incorporation of animals in itstions While the former creates a form of self- attractions to date there have been no serious at-regulationmdashit is worthwhile being ethical because tempts to investigate the issue in a holistic wayit prevents negative publicitymdashthe latter repre- Specifically the ethical attitudes of the visitorssents external regulation which ensures ethical and nonvisitors toward these attractions were onlyoperation The perception that both of these driv- ambiguous and speculative The current explor-ing forces have a crucial impact on the attractions atory study found that an ethical approach towardwas significant in accounting for the participantsrsquo animal-based tourist attractions is constructedreduced ethical concerns with regard to the ways along three main levels general justifications foranimals might be treated ldquobackstagerdquo having these attractions a belief in the driving

The last layer that determined visitorsrsquo ethical forces for ethical behavior on behalf of the attrac-attitudes toward animal-based tourist attractions is tions and certain conditions for the ethical opera-linked to their judgment of each specific attrac- tion of each specific attraction This can be seention The participants in this study clearly distin- as an additional step toward a deeper understand-guished between ethical and unethical attractions ing of the ethical perceptions and judgment of ani-and provided useful indications of which condi- mal-based tourist attractions on the part of the vis-tions need to be fulfilled in order for an attraction itorsto be considered ethical The core conditions men-tioned were the natural design of the animal dis- Managerial Implicationsplays and the perception that the animals perform

Beyond the theoretical contributions the find-natural behavior factors that have already beenings of this study can also assist specific animal-addressed by many animal-based tourist attrac-based tourist attractions in their operational andtions (eg Davey 2006 Hughes et al 2005 To-marketing functions The repositioning of manymas et al 2002) Among the other prominent con-animal-based tourist attractions as sites for educa-ditions mentioned were gentle training methodstion scientific research and conservation is clearlythe perception of a ldquofair chancerdquo given to the ani-effective in providing legitimacy to their exis-mals in sport or contest situations ensuring thetence The extra attention given nowadays to natu-safety of employees and visitors and respectfulral presentation of the animals (Hughes et albehavior on the part of the visitors The views ex-

pressed by the participants suggest that the exis- 2005 Ryan amp Saward 2004) also seems to pay

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 87

Kingdom ldquonot one visiting respondent denied that shift from circus-type presentations to more natu-ralistic presentations of animals with captivehaving a pleasurable day out was important in in-

fluencing the decision to visit (a zoo)rdquo (p 348) In wildlife occurring in spacious areas in contrivedldquonaturalrdquo environment (see also Tomas Scott ampaddition the zoo was perceived mostly as a fam-

ily-oriented recreational site mostly appropriate Crompton 2002)In a recent study conducted among Chinese zoofor children who often need more entertaining ac-

tivities while visiting a zoo such as a petting ani- visitors it was found that the participants spentmore time in natural-design exhibits compared tomals and the like (Benkenstein Yavas amp For-

berger 2003 Turley 2001) traditional exhibits (eg cages) Therefore Davey(2007b) concluded that the international trend inNevertheless Turley (1999 2001) found that

when children were accompanied to the zoo their zoos of improving animal welfare through envi-ronmental enrichments is valuable (in addition toparents were much more likely to attribute impor-

tance to the educational aspects of the zoo In ad- ensuring the animalsrsquo well-being) for creatingmore acceptable pleasant and interesting zoo visitdition the roles of zoos in education and conserva-

tion are perceived by visitors as central to their experiences Indeed McPhee Foster Sevenichand Saunders (1998) found that zoo visitors recog-operation and coincide with relaxation and serv-

ing as venues for family outings (Davey 2007b nized the goals of behavioral enrichment and itsimportance for the animalsrsquo well-being Ryan andMason 2007 Mowen amp Graefe 2006) However

the educational component in zoos was not found Saward (2004) also showed that the friendly de-sign of zoos contributed to the visitorsrsquo enjoymentto be the primary reason for visiting them as was

argued by other researchers (Hayward amp Rothen- of the visit although it was found that visitors stillattributed more importance to getting a close lookberg 2004 Stoinski Allen Bloosmith Forthman

amp Maple 2002) Note that in Turleyrsquos study (1999) at the animals than to the latterrsquos right to privacyDespite these contributions to our knowledgeconservation was only ranked third among the rea-

sons for visiting a zoo and there are some indica- about peoplersquos attitudes toward animals in enter-tainment they are mostly based on specific casetions that the latter is not likely to increase the

knowledge about and awareness of conservation studies and anecdotes and do not offer a holisticview on what constructs their attitudes and whatand environmental issues among visitors (Jiang et

al 2007 Moscardo 2007) However these find- the major influencing factors are In addition theresearch settings in these and other related studiesings are not consistent with all studies carried out

in zoos (eg Lukas amp Ross 2005 Smith amp are typically conventional zoos while they neglectother attractions where captive animals are viewedBroad 2007) Benkenstein et al (2003) therefore

recommended improving the delivery of educa- (eg theme parks bullfights or sporting contests)One major contemporary contribution toward ational services for example in the provision and

display of information about the species holistic understanding of humanndashanimal interac-tion in the tourism context was brought by CurtinDespite the strong importance of the recre-

ational component visitors attribute to zoos there (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) who con-ducted in-depth interviews with people who swamis some evidence that the public cares to some ex-

tent about the visual representation of animals and with dolphins both in captivity and in the wildUndoubtedly swimming with dolphins was reportedabout their well-being In an early experimental-

designed study Rhoads and Goldsworthy (1979) by the participants in both groups as a powerfulmeaningful and emotional experience Howevershowed students slides of animals in natural and

semi-natural settings and zoos The results indi- those who swam with the dolphins in the wilddemonstrated a greater ethical sensitivity towardcated that animals in zoos were seen as less digni-

fied as confined unhappy unnatural tame and keeping dolphins in captivity Those who swamwith captive dolphins on the other hand demon-dependent compared to animals in semi-natural

and natural settings Indeed Hughes Newsome strated cognitive dissonance As noted by Curtin(2006) ldquoall had concerns regarding captivity yetand Macbeth (2005) argued that what visitors find

to be entertaining has changed over time with a they tried to reduce this concern by accentuating

88 SHANI AND PIZAM

the positives and denying the negativesrdquo (p 312) many participants would not have reflected deeplyon the topic of ethical aspects of animal-basedThe swimmers found comfort in the fact that cap-

tivity is the only setting they could swim in with tourist attractions beforehand and may thereforefeel reluctant to be interviewed As noted by Mar-dolphins although they would rather swim with

them in the wild In addition they were convinced shall and Rossman (2006) in such cases the focusgroup setting is more likely to get the participantsthat the dolphins and their trainers love each other

and that the shows they watched where different to express their views as the encounters take placewithin a supportive environment In addition fo-from circus shows Curtin and Wilkes (2007) also

found that the themes of education research and cus groups as a more socially-oriented methodenable the researchers to study the participants inconservation helped cover up the fact that the dol-

phins were exhibited for profit thereby allowing a more natural and relaxed atmosphere Variousresearchers advocate the use of focus groups forthe swimmers to develop less feelings of guilt of-

ten associated with the activity To conclude the the purpose of gaining insights regarding attitudesopinions and beliefs of people (eg Gibbs 1997swimmers with captive dolphins did feel ethical

concerns yet the desire to participate in the expe- McLafferty 2004) Focus group research usuallyrience led them to use cognitive and emotional include six to ten participants in each sessiontechniques in order to reduce this cognitive disso- (Glesne 2006) which lasts not longer than twonance However these studies focused only on the hours (Weeden 2005)special segment of swimming with dolphins Although they are clearly gaining increasing

At this stage it is possible to conclude that the popularity in social science research focus groupssubject of the ethical treatment of animals in tour- also have their weaknesses Becken (2007 p 353)ist attractions has not been studied extensively and mentions that ldquofocus groups do not represent natu-therefore there is a need for a holistic approach to ral discussions and the viewpoints presented byexplore the themes concerns and issues involved participants are verbal self-reporting (ie hypo-in the attitudes of tourists toward animal-based thetical) hence real behavior can only be inferredtourist attractions from participantsrsquo statementsrdquo In addition there

is a constant concern that the presence of otherMethodology people will influence the responses of certain par-

ticipants which might lead to social willfulness orThe Nature of Focus Groupsa hesitation to speak (Stewart Shamdasani amp

Because of the exploratory nature of this study Rook 2007) However when the purpose of aa qualitative research design was chosen Peterson study is to develop a wide range of views and atti-(1994) stated that one of the major purposes of tudes as in the current study this represents a mi-qualitative research is to explore the full range of nor problem (Peterson 1994) Finally valuableviews on a certain subject and to develop the time can be lost due to loss of control of the con-range of issues to be investigated in future re- versation and irrelevant topics being discussedsearch Specifically this study used focus group (Marshall amp Rossman 2006) However a traineddiscussions as the main method of data collection and experienced moderator can minimize theseA focus group is defined as ldquoa group of individu- concerns and maximize the effectiveness of theals selected and assembled by researchers to dis- sessionscuss and comment on from personal experiencethe topic that is the subject of the researchldquo (Pow- Samplingell Single amp Lloyd 1996 p 499) As noted by

In the current study three focus groups wereWeeden (2005) the aim of focus groups is to useconducted with tourists in Orlando Florida Allgroup integrations to gain rich and insightful datathe participants were recruited from a large hotelabout a topic of interest that would be less accessi-located in the main tourist zone of the city Forble using some other qualitative method A focusthe purpose of the current study a visitor was de-group method was chosen for this study rather

than one-to-one interviews because it is likely that fined as a person who stayed in the hotel regard-

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 89

less of the distance traveled In the hotel the 4 Their views and opinions about different typesof species in animal-based tourist attractionsguests were approached according to the principle

of purposive sampling (Barbour 2001 Finn El-liott-White amp Walton 2000) which aims to re- In addition follow-up questions were broughtflect the diversity among the guests in terms of up if participants raised interesting points of vieworigin gender and age Although for some pur- Note that in an attempt to avoid socially desirableposes homogeneous groups are preferred various answers on behalf of the participants [which isresearchers argue that heterogeneity is required in prevalent in ethics research (Randall amp Fernandesorder to reveal diverse opinions and experiences 1991)] the participants were not asked specificas participants explain their positions to the other questions about their ethical attitudes toward ani-members of the focus group (Gibbs 1997 Hol- mal-based tourist attractions but rather to freelylander 2004 McLafferty 2004) Fifty dollars and express their views on the issue Their attitudesa dinner certificate for two were offered as incen- toward such attractions as well as the structure oftives Both the first and the second focus group these attitudes were deduced from the partici-were composed of seven tourists each while the pantsrsquo accounts based on the interpretation of thethird group included eight tourists which resulted researchers During the sessions the moderators at-in a total of 22 participants (13 females and 9 tempted to generate a discussion and to challengemales) The sample included 14 participants from the participants and in all three focus groups athe continental United States (from five different dynamic conversation ensued Each focus groupstates) three from Puerto Rico four from Britain lasted approximately two hours and the sessionsand one from Canada Five participants were aged were recorded and transcribed into Microsoft20ndash29 four were aged 30ndash39 four were aged 40ndash Word format To ensure the anonymity of the par-49 and the remainder of the sample (nine partici- ticipants all the focus groupsrsquo tapes once tran-pants) were aged 50 and above scribed were destroyed and the participants are

presented in this article with pseudonymsProcedure

At the beginning of the focus group sessions Data Analysisparticipants were informed about the objectives of

The transcripts were examined to identify a the-the study and that they could leave the session atmatic framework of attitudes toward animal-basedany time Based on the recommendation made bytourist attractions As noted by Fossey HarveyGlesne (2006) four main questions guided theMcDermott and Davidson (2002) a thematicsemistructured focus groups These questions wereanalysis involves the process of classifying cate-based on general themes that emerged from thegorizing and grouping text segments to create andliterature they were taken from the general viewsthen clarify the definitions and contents of themesregarding animal-based tourist attractions and ap-within the transcript The end product of the the-plied to more specific aspects of their operationsmatic analysis ldquois a detailed index of data whichAfter introducing themselves (including age andlabels the data into manageable chunks for subse-where they were from) the participants were askedquent retrieval and explorationrdquo (Pope Zieblandto discuss the followingamp Mays 2000 p 116) In keeping with these prin-ciples of thematic analysis the prominent con-1 Their views and opinions regarding various an-cepts and aspects of the participantsrsquo accountsimal-based tourist attractions (eg traditionalwere highlighted and then integrated to generatezoos theme parks with animals safari parkscore themes that constitute the structure of thebullfighting and rodeos)touristsrsquo attitudes toward animal-based tourist at-2 Their previous experiences with animal-basedtractions Note that typically the goal of qualitativetourist attractionsthematic analysis is not to quantify data but rather3 Their views and opinions on the different typesto explore the variety and structure of themesof activities in animal attractions (eg petting

zoos encounters with animals) and around the investigated phenomenon The results

90 SHANI AND PIZAM

are therefore not reported in relative frequencies quently wildlife conservation through animal-based tourist attractions was repeated by manyas this can be misleading (Pope et al 2000)participants as a justification for operating themTo name a few comments in this regard 25-year-Findingsold Jake from Canada said

The analysis of the focus groups revealed threemajor themes that emerged in the course of the I was watching the Discovery Channel the othersessions night Some of the species in the wild are go-

ing to be totally extinct How many species havewe lost in the past 20 to 30 years Zoos are defi-1 General justifications for having animal-basednitely doing something to preserve endangeredtourist attractions species

2 Driving forces responsible for ethical use of an-imals in tourist attractions and Liza (54 Michigan) claimed

3 Conditions for the ethical operation of animal-based tourist attractions I think this [the existence of animal attractions]

helps to keep some of the species alive Imean animals that are in danger if you canMost of the participantsrsquo comments related tointervene even if it is situation like that and therethese issues although they were not asked directlyis a controlled environment you can still help to

about them They were mentioned and described keep the species aliveby participants as central factors in their ethicalevaluation of animal-based tourist attractions Dana (50 Wisconsin) also agreed

General Justifications for Having Animal-Based The nature of the panda bear is going extinct un-less they start breeding it in the zoos It is betterTourist Attractionsthis way than not breeding them at all it keeps

The vast majority of the participants in the the species alivestudy were supportive of animal-based tourist at-tractions and drew much pleasure from visiting The concept of conservation also gives some ofthem Stories about enjoyable and exciting experi- the participants the impression (or the belief) thatences in animal-based tourist attractions were told captivity of endangered species is a temporary so-in the three focus groups However the partici- lution until they are eventually released into thepants did acknowledge the ethical dilemmas in- wild As mentioned by Mark (43 Maryland)volved in keeping animals for entertainment pur-

[Animal attractions] are unnatural habitationsposes alone thus they raised other reasons forbut theyrsquore helping preserve animals A lot of en-justifying the necessity to operate them Some ofdangered species have being brought out becausethe following arguments in favor of animal-basedof the way they have been bredmdashwhether it was

attractions have appeared previously in the litera- in captivity or in conservatories in the wildture although in most cases they were not sug-

Education Most of the participants stressedgested by tourists but rather by advocates of ani-the importance of the role animal-based tourist at-mal-based attractionstractions play in education especially in the devel-

Conservation Many animal-based tourist at- opment of awareness of wildlife among childrentractions highlight their role in the conservation Visiting animal-based tourist attractions with chil-and preservation of endangered species and this dren was perceived by parents and nonparentsmessage seems to have trickled down into peo- alike as an entertainment activity but as one withplersquos hearts and minds The participants suggested educational benefits This view was exemplifiedthat popular nature TV channels such as National by Liza (54 Michigan) who statedGeographic and Animal Planet were responsiblefor the increase in awareness and knowledge on This is the third time [that we have visited Or-

lando] and we have not yet seen Disney World Iconservation and preservation measures Conse-

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 91

donrsquot think there is anything wrong with some of that was one of the coolest things Irsquove everdonemdashalthough it was only for two minutes the man-made attractions but I think itrsquos nice

when they encompass nature and you can teach So I got to hold this little gator in my hands andthat for me was I went to see alligators atyour kids something as wellnight before and it was a cool experience but Inever got so close to one and I never consideredA similar argument of the crucial function of ani-them as animals I think that people need to real-mal attractions for the development of childrenize that theyrsquore also a part of the animal society

was illustrated by Heather (26 Florida) a nonpar-ent who claimed that animal attractions if operat-

A similar notion was expressed by Mark (43ing ethically play an important role in preventing

Maryland)other cruel forms of use made of animals by serv-ing as an example of the responsible way of treat-

The killer whalersquos a good example of an animaling animalsthat has a much better reputation [nowadays] be-cause of its controlled environment [in animal

People need to realize that kids are really our fu- attractions] Yoursquore thinking about Shamu [theture and we need to educate and show them the name of the Sea World iconic orca show] but ifgood ways of treating animals and the good you watch National Geographic yoursquoll see theways of raising animals and interacting with them killer whale bite the seal with his teeth and throwand preserving and everything else Because him aroundotherwise if we let it slip we will see peopletreat dogs wrong animals will be beaten Research Some participants also referred tocockfighting and bullfighting They will think itrsquos the role of animal-based tourist attractions in re-OK search One of these participants was Keith (50

Detroit) who statedIn this line of argument the responsible use ofanimals in attractions is more ethically sound than

I agree that they [animal attractions] bring ani-not using them at all Mark (43 Maryland) alsomals mainly for entertainment purposes but I

stressed that the educational contributions of ani- think of biology whenever I see an opportunitymal attractions are for the benefits of the animals for research I am always thinking about it in

the back of my head Having that polar bear herethemselvesis an opportunity to do research or learn some-thing about it Itrsquos an opportunity to learn moreI think that itrsquoll be worse for the animals if youabout that speciesstop that kind of thing [animal attractions] and

therersquoll be no education and awareness about thisThe zoos and theme parksmdashtheyrsquore making you According to Kristina (30 Florida)aware of it They educate a little bit about theanimals while if you will not have it and people

Some of the theme parks use animals for enter-will not be exposed to animalsmdashwho will caretainment purposes but they may also use them(about the animals)for research purposes or [to learn] how to savethe species from getting extinct I think there are

Finally animal-based tourist attractions were per- some good attributes to these attractions in thisceived by some participants to contribute toward respectsoftening the negative image of certain animals(especially predators) making them less intimidat- The idea that research in captivity conditions ising and more appealing to the wide public In this sometimes the only way scientists can learn aboutregard close encounters with animals with nega- wildlife was illustrated by Liza (54 Michigan)tive associations in attractions might make them who argued thatlegitimate members of ldquoanimal societyrdquo For ex-ample Kristin (27 Michigan) spoke of a personal No one whorsquos involved with zoological or marineexperience she had research will ever get that type of knowledge of

interaction with any of those animals unless hecan do it in a controlled and well-maintained en-When I went to Gatorland a couple of years ago

I had the opportunity to hold a baby gator and vironment

92 SHANI AND PIZAM

aries are in some cases unlimited and the animalsHowever it should be noted that this type of argu-can roam free in their own habitat When yoursquorement was relatively rare during the focus groupin Animal Kingdom you donrsquot feel like yoursquore

sessions in Orlando Florida so well done for that job

Alternative to Nature Many participants in theAnother benefit of animal-based tourist attractionsstudy viewed animal-based tourist attractions as anthat the participants mentioned was that they allowaffordable and friendly way to see wildlife Be-ordinary people to experience what is usually ex-cause seeing wildlife in their natural habitat (egclusively reserved for wildlife professionals or forsafari tours in Africa) is perceived as a very ex-people who spend considerable funds in animal-pensive and dangerous adventure protected touristrelated leisure activities For example Jake (25settings represent a safe and inexpensive solutionCanada) who is a scuba diving instructor arguedto the desire to watch wildlife Liza (54 Michi-thatgan) for example argued

We [scuba divers] have the opportunity to seeWho else can see a polar bear unless you go to coral reef and fish in the ocean not like peoplethe zoo a lot of people canrsquot afford to go to who donrsquot dive They donrsquot have the opportunitythe Arctic Pole and see a polar bear to see that for them going to Sea World is the

closest thing they can get to see something I cansee normallyWendy (66 Britain) also noted that

The security and safety factors were also acknowl-[Animal attractions] allow people who canrsquot goedged by some participants in the sense that ani-on safaris to see wildlife it gives them a feeling

of what itrsquos like mal-based tourist attractions are a safe alternativeto tours in natural settings which might be risky

Although many of the participants stated that natu- In this regard Heather (26 Florida) mentionedral sites are preferable to contrived ones the latter

My cousin visited Animal Kingdom with mestill constitute a reasonable alternative and it iswhen she was 4 years old and we went on a sa-certainly better than not to see wildlife at all Mi-fari tour there Then a giraffe got very close tochael (36 Britain) for example mentionedthe jeep and she [my cousin] thought that it wascool to stare at the animal In a real safari this

For me personally the Everglades National Park could be dangerous You canrsquot have this kind ofis the place Irsquod like to see animals and alligators experiencemdashstanding so close to an animalmdashinIt wouldnrsquot be man-made attractions with ani- the natural sidemals It would be something thatrsquos natural likethe Everglades Itrsquos all swamps and the animals Finally in addition to the role of animal-basedlive there because itrsquos their habitat not because

tourist attractions as an alternative to watching an-theyrsquove been put there and fed but my chil-imals in the wild they can also be perceived as adren never get the chance to see killer whales insubstitute for natural places in general becausenature so itrsquos something nice for them to see in

the parks they provide a more relaxed atmosphere than otherentertaining attractions As Kristin (27 Michigan)

In this regard some of the participants indicated pointed outtheir preference for animal theme parks over tradi-

Animal attractions like Sea World or Animaltional zoos because of their more naturalistic pre-Kingdom are more for a relaxing day These aresentation of the animals and the ldquoopen spacerdquo de-pretty much all the natural attractions that yousign of the exhibits Patrick (41 Miami) statedhave here [in Orlando] because the beaches areabout an hour and half from here Sea World

When I visited the San Diego Zoo I couldnrsquot is like a nice day at the beachmdashif you donrsquot wantimagine myself in a savanna whereas in Animal to drive to the beachKingdom I certainly canmdashwithin a split second

Benefits to Individual Animals In addition toYou just become immersed when yoursquore inthese expanded theme parks when the bound- the justifications for having animal attractions that

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 93

cities You gotta have some control of the ani-focus on their benefits to humans or to the ecosys-mals and their environmenttem as a whole (such as conservation) some par-

ticipants also argued that confined environmentsThis ideas was continued by Mark (43 Maryland)offer advantages to the exhibited animals them-who statedselves This view is explained by arguing that cap-

tive wildlife are free from predators and have noI think that when you see them [the animals] infood concerns Michael (36 Britain) stated that hethe parks you kind of gain respect for their con-

had no problem with petting zoos although this trolled environment if you didnrsquot have thatkind of activity might cause discomfort to the ani- controlled environment yoursquod have heard on the

six o-clock news all the time ldquoa lion attackedmals becausetodayrdquo

the sorts of animals we are talking about are atthe bottom of the food chain so a kid petting Driving Forces for Ethical Animal-Basedthem is a better life [than living in nature] Tourist Attractions

Throughout the focus group sessions althoughKeith (50 Detroit) expanded on the idea that amost the participants were supporters of animal-confined setting provides a secure environment forbased tourist attractions they also expressed somethe animals by giving a personal exampleconcerns over the welfare of the animals exhibitedand over the ethical aspects of keeping them inI got a 750-gallon salt water aquarium I lookcaptivity However there was also a clear percep-at them [the fish] and I think that I give them a

better life than if they were in the ocean because tion among most of the participants that contem-they might not have survived that long I have porary animal-based tourist attractions are funda-fish that lived 8 to 10 years and if they were in mentally different from this type of attraction inthe open water they would be a meal for some-

the past This way the belief that the present at-body elsetractions embody drastic improvements in the ethi-cal treatment of animals helps alleviate some ofAnother argument put forward by some of the par-the feelings of discomfort that might arise whileticipants was that the conditions of the animals invisiting animal-based tourist attractions or think-the attractions are much better than those in othering about animals in captivity and is an importantforms of captivity which could have been the fatefactor in their ethical approval This perceptionof some of these animals For example Dana (50was clearly apparent in statements like that of JakeWisconsin) argued that people who support the(25 Canada)abolishment of animal-based tourist attractions need

Yes Irsquom a little concerned about that [keepingto turn on and look at the SPCA [Society of theanimals in captivity] but then again when IPrevention of Cruelty to Animals] shelters wheresaw SeaWorld when I was a kid it was not any-they have their dogsmdashsix dogs in a cage andthing like it is nowthey fight all the time and they pee on the floor

and itrsquos not cleaned up until the next day Theyare kept in very close and small cages and of Kim (55 Michigan)

Regulation of Wildlife Although this issue was[the attractions today] are first-class operations

only raised by two participants it is interesting to Since the old days of the sea aquarium in Miaminote that animal-based tourist attractions might wersquove come a long wayalso be perceived as a means to regulate and su-

Public Opinion A common view among thepervise the natural environment and the wildlifeparticipants was that because the general public isJim (52 Michigan) illustrated this point by sayingmore concerned about animal welfare today thanin the past the ldquofree-marketrdquo approach will natu-If we let the animals just do what they want itrsquollrally mean that the attractions will be more ethi-be chaos In some countries you got cows and

horses and chickens walking all through the cally sensitive in their treatment of animals In

94 SHANI AND PIZAM

I think that circuses are getting bad publicity Irsquomother words the concern about bad public rela-sure that there is animal abuse there as was his-tions or negative reactions on the part of visitorstorically but Irsquod like to thinkmdashmaybe Irsquom just

regarding animal abuse has led to the appearance living in Happy Landmdashthat animals are treated aof a self-regulation mechanism in the attractions little more humanely nowadays just because all

of the things that were brought up in the newsthemselves Since visitors expect today to seeAnd if theyrsquore not if something came out to thewell-treated animals it is in the interest of the at-press then that circus would be done with busi-tractions to meet this expectation Keith (50 De-ness Because there are so many people out there

troit) illustrated this view that care

Legal System and Institutional SupervisionI think that public awareness has probably madeAnother factor that helped to ease some of the par-animal attractions change their attitudes because

that is their livelihood The attractions know ticipantsrsquo ethical concerns regarding animal-basedthat the animals are their bread and butter so tourist attractions was their trust in the legal sys-theyrsquore going to do everything they can to make tem and in the power and influence of animal wel-a friendly place for them

fare organizations For example when the issue ofrodeos and circuses arose in one of the sessions

The role of the demand for ethical treatment in theDana (50 Wisconsin) said

perceived changing nature of animal-based touristattractions was heavily emphasized For example

Rodeos like we have here in the States I donrsquotLiza (54 Michigan) argued believe they kill the horses do they I guess

therersquos a certain amount of governmental control Is thereThey [the attractions] seem to have more knowl-

edge of how to manage animals but they alsohave something to protect because if they donrsquot However some participants felt that more tightdo it [act ethically] they will be out of business external control should be put on the attractionsAnd this is caused by the consumers who put

as stated by Katie (25 Illinois)more pressure They [the attractions] have toplease the public and the almighty dollar to keepthe operation going If we continue to have these attractions and con-

tinue to visit them I think we should have stricterregulations to protect the animals so theyrsquoll beThe view that fear of negative public opinion leadsin a more natural environment The laws are

to ethical behavior seemed to be strengthened by stricter in this countrymdashthe animals look wellthe belief in the power of the mass media In this kept especially in the big organizations that ownrespect the perception was that in times of ldquoopen these establishments But for local zoos and cir-

cuses the law is not there They look OK but youinformationrdquo and wide media coverage unethicaljust donrsquot know we need stricter lawsoperations will not be able to survive long As

noted by Keith (50 Detroit)Conditions for Ethical Operationof Animal-Based Tourist AttractionsTelevision cameras might sneak into zoos and see

the elephant trainers using whips and hit the ele- The participants in the study made a clear dis-phants it can destroy the operation real quick tinction between ethical and nonethical animal- All you have to do today is get the news in-

based tourist attractions while elaborating on thevolved and say ldquoLook what theyrsquore doing necessary or desirable conditions for such sites tothey are feeding that koala bear vanilla ice cream

all day long and that is not rightrdquo So they are be considered ethical In addition they also pro-going to make the public aware and go on the vided information on the standards for how toChannel 7 news then people will start reading measure if an attraction in general or a certainthe editorial in the paper and it will escalate

display in particular could be perceived as beingethical

When the issue of circuses and their negative im-age was mentioned during one of the sessions Natural Environment The designing of con-

trived natural environments in the animal displaysHeather (26 Florida) stated

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 95

and exhibits was one of the main factors leading Training Methods Another factor that was re-peated during the focus group sessions was theto more positive attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions This notion was illustrated in ethical requirement that performing animals betrained gently without being inflicted any painthe words of Patrick (41 Miami)suffering or distress It is important to note thatanimal shows were not perceived as unethical inAttractions with animals are great to be around

and great to spend time with But I always themselves but only when associated with themind to the fact that they are caged You know cruel treatment of animals This perception wasthey try to make them as natural as possible but

exemplified by Kristin (27 Michigan)they have borders They are unnatural environ-ments and the animals must be aware of thatmdash

A lot of people thinkmdashoh training animals andthey can sense things like that I love to go thereteaching them tricks is cruel but you canrsquot teachbut you canrsquot help wondermdashare they feelinga trick if the animal doesnrsquot want to learn it un-trapped in this environment I prefer the moreless yoursquore harsh to it [In reference to a pet showupdated parks when the boundaries have beenshe saw]mdashThey have so many kinds of animalsincreased and enlarged and they try to bringthere Theyrsquore all rescued animals but the train-them back to their original habitaters donrsquot use whips and they donrsquot use any kind

Natural Behavior The negative public rela- of punishment only positive reinforcement MyGod I donrsquot like to see whips like they use intions that circuses and circus-like shows have beensome of the dinner shows As I said if the ani-absorbing in recent years was clearly expressed inmals want to perform itrsquos a different story A lot

the preference of some of the participants for of the dolphin attractions the dolphins like towatching (what they perceived as) natural behav- perform itrsquos fun itrsquos a game for them You donrsquotior of animals It should be noted that in some need to use a whip and you donrsquot need to use

something that is not a positive reinforcementcases even animal shows which have been criti-[In reference to a dinner show she had been to]cized in the past might be perceived as allowing

the performing animals to express natural behav-In this regard the common impression of theior For example Liza (54 Michigan) when refer-closeness between performing animals and theirring to dolphin shows argued thattrainers was for some of the participants a reassur-ance that the animals were not being abused This

When you see a whale jump out of the water andperception was strengthened by their reliance oncome by the trainermdashthatrsquos actually natural pred-their own eyes in the sense of ldquoseeing is believ-atory type of behavior for him when hunting

seals in the ocean ingrdquo For example Jim (52 Michigan) argued that

at Sea World you look at the people and theyrsquoreSome cases however might be judged differentlyall having a good time and the trainers look closeas illustrated by Michael (36 Britain) regardingto the animals and it looks like the animals are inbird exhibits a friendly environment

I find it harder to see a bird in a cage than any This notion was also illustrated by Heather (26other animal because of the nature of a bird Hersquos Florida)a flyer

When I was a kid my parents took me to a cir-Another reference to this issue was made by Kris- cus but I havenrsquot gone since I like it when theretin (27 Michigan) who stressed the importance of is more human interaction In regard to shows

like the Pet Ahoy and the dolphin showsmdashthethe animalrsquos free willanimals want to be there because theyrsquore [the an-imals and the trainers] friends for life You canAnything you do to instigate a reactionmdashridingsee the closeness and the bond between the ani-a bull or cockfightingmdashyou need to instigatemals and the trainersthem to do that Thatrsquos unnatural and unneces-

sary Itrsquos one thing if the animal wants to do itNevertheless some of the participants recognizedand itrsquos a different thing if you stab him with a

stick their limitations in judging whether an animal was

96 SHANI AND PIZAM

being abused during its training For example part of the visitors This point was illustrated byMark (43 Maryland) who statedBruno (53 Michigan) noted that

It upsets me to see in zoos teenagers whorsquore try-[in animal shows] you only see the finished prod-ing to impress their friends by throwing some-uct you donrsquot see the training You actually havething at the animals I think why wonrsquot you getto be there when the training is been conductedon the other side of the fence and do thatHowever from what I see on TV it seems that

the animals are pretty well trained and not abusedat all Another prominent example was given by Dana

(50 Wisconsin) regarding a dinner show she par-The Concept of Fairness Some of the partici-ticipated inpants brought up the point that certain uses of ani-

mals in attractions even if controversial becauseAfter the dinner they have a place where you canof the violence involvedmdashsuch as alligator wres-meet and greet the riders and the horses They let

tling bullfighting and rodeosmdashmight seem ethi- people sit on the top of the horses and these peo-cal if it is perceived that the animals receive a fair ple are sitting on the horses kicking and snap-chance during the activity Liza (54 Michigan) ping them The kids were pulling their mane

the parents sat there and let the kids do it It hasfor example told about her experience at a bull-a sign which says ldquoplease do not feed the ani-fight in Spainmalsrdquo But I have never seen anybody out therean employee who watches that nobody tries to

Well I donrsquot think that the bull even started with feed the horses popcorn nachos or potato chipsa chance I mean if yoursquore going to get in the which I saw the horses being fedring and fight that bull then the bull should notbe sent out of the pen already stabbed with a cou- Other A few other factors were mentioned asple of daggers and already wounded coming at conditions for the ethical operation of animal-you If you choose to take on that animal you based tourist attractionsmdashor at least it was notedshould take that creature at its maximum You

that their presence increases the chances for thedonrsquot paralyze it and then take him onattractions to be positively judged Among these

[Regarding gator wrestling] I donrsquot object to factors werethat I mean if they [the wrestlers] lose they

bull The provision of sufficient food and medicallose If yoursquore going to wrestle alligators at leastdo not have an unfair advantage As long as you care to the animalsdonrsquot wrestle with the alligator with his mouth or bull Employing educated people who will be sensi-his legs taped if you want to wrestle an alliga- tive enough to the animalstor and you have a 50ndash50 chance go for it bull A strong preference to see rescued animals inSafety Negative perceptions of certain animal the exhibits over animals that were simply cap-

displays and shows were also mentioned when tured in the wild andparticipants sensed that the activity involved some bull Decent working conditions for the animals es-form of risk Regarding alligator wrestling shows pecially in regard to reasonable number offor example Gloria (33 Puerto Rico) stated working hours a day

I donrsquot like it I think itrsquos dangerous for the peo- Discussion and Conclusionsple that do that work [the wrestlers] and for the

As previously indicated the purpose of this ex-people that look at it These animals donrsquot haveploratory study was to examine the attitudes ofthe intelligence of a man so they donrsquot under-

stand the difference between a baby or a boy or tourists toward the use of animals in tourist attrac-girl I heard that once an alligator bit a trainer tions while identifying the structure of these atti- I donrsquot like it

tudes The focus group sessions revealed that thevast majority of the participants were aware of theVisitorsrsquo Behavior Some participants men-

tioned that the ethical operation of animal-based ethical difficulties of keeping animals in captivityHowever the participants also viewed animal-basedtourist attractions does not depend only on the site

itself but also on the respectful behavior on the tourist attractions as a positive phenomenon in

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 97

general and raised various justifications for their and education (see Hutchins et al 1995 Jamie-son 2006 Mason 2000 2007 Snyder et alexistence In this regard similar to the findings of

Curtin (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) about 1996) Yet even in relation to these well-discussedissues the participants had some interesting in-people who swam with captive dolphins the par-

ticipants in this study demonstrated cognitive dis- sights The role of animal attractions in educationamong others was found especially relevant tosonance The awareness of the ethical dilemmas

involved in seeing animals in captivity led the par- children and to the development of their aware-ness of nature similar to the findings of Turleyticipants to raise various reasons for the impor-

tance of their presence and in which terms animal (1999 2001) In addition the attractions were alsoperceived as contributing toward softening theattractions can be considered ethical The partici-

pantsrsquo ethical evaluation of animal-based tourist negative image of certain animalsmdashbecause oftheir behavior in the wild andor their negativeattractions was found to consist of three main lay-

ers (see Figure 1) characteristicsHowever the participants also raised justifica-First ethical attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions were based on general argu- tions that to this day have been relatively littlediscussed To many participants the attractionsments in favor of (or against) their existence In

order to develop a favorable ethical attitude to- served as a safe socioeconomic alternative to au-thentic nature tours which are often perceived asward animal attractions one should be convinced

of the validity of the ethical arguments in favor of being expensive and dangerous (see Shackley1996 for a similar argument) They were also per-their presence in the first place These arguments

did not point toward a specific attraction but ceived as enabling ldquoordinaryrdquo people to participatein activities that are reserved exclusively forrather served as an ideological basis for justifying

the use of animals in entertainment ventures in wealthy tourists or wildlife professionals thusleading to a form of ldquosocial justicerdquo Another im-general Some of the justifications raised by par-

ticipants have been discussed in the academic lit- portant justification that emerged in the focusgroups was the perception that the animals exhib-erature Those justifications that are both men-

tioned in the literature and by many of the focus ited in the attractions are better off in captivitywhere they are free of the fear of predators or ofgroup participants included conservation research

Figure 1 The three layers of ethical perceptions of animal-based tourist attractions

98 SHANI AND PIZAM

the need to search for food Finally the attractions tence of these factors partially or completely af-fects the chances of an animal-based attraction toalso created the impression among some partici-

pants that they act as another form of wildlife reg- be considered ethicalThe structure of the ethical perception of ani-ulation which is necessary for the safety and secu-

rity of human society mal-based tourist attractions as identified in thisstudy seems hierarchical in nature A person whoAlthough many of the participants in the study

justified the existence of animal-based tourist at- rejects any justification for having these attrac-tions that is who favors the abolishment of alltractions in general they also recognize that these

are not always ethically operated especially in use of animals for entertainment is expected tohave a negative attitude toward an attraction evenhistorical context The second layer which consti-

tutes the ethical perception of animal-based tourist if it adopts an ethical and responsible treatment ofthe animals On the other hand even if the exis-attractions includes driving forces that are be-

lieved to cause the attractions to treat the animals tence of animal attractions is accepted by a personand heshe believes that contemporary attractionsresponsibly The belief that contemporary animal-

based tourist attractions are considerably more are controlled by both self- and external regula-ethical than in the past derives from two factors tions there are still specific conditions that needthe power of the media and public opinion which to be fulfilled in order for this person to have ais perceived to have major impact on the operation positive attitude toward each specific attractionof the attractions and the legal and enforcement To conclude although the tourism industry re-system which is trusted to supervise their opera- lies heavily on the incorporation of animals in itstions While the former creates a form of self- attractions to date there have been no serious at-regulationmdashit is worthwhile being ethical because tempts to investigate the issue in a holistic wayit prevents negative publicitymdashthe latter repre- Specifically the ethical attitudes of the visitorssents external regulation which ensures ethical and nonvisitors toward these attractions were onlyoperation The perception that both of these driv- ambiguous and speculative The current explor-ing forces have a crucial impact on the attractions atory study found that an ethical approach towardwas significant in accounting for the participantsrsquo animal-based tourist attractions is constructedreduced ethical concerns with regard to the ways along three main levels general justifications foranimals might be treated ldquobackstagerdquo having these attractions a belief in the driving

The last layer that determined visitorsrsquo ethical forces for ethical behavior on behalf of the attrac-attitudes toward animal-based tourist attractions is tions and certain conditions for the ethical opera-linked to their judgment of each specific attrac- tion of each specific attraction This can be seention The participants in this study clearly distin- as an additional step toward a deeper understand-guished between ethical and unethical attractions ing of the ethical perceptions and judgment of ani-and provided useful indications of which condi- mal-based tourist attractions on the part of the vis-tions need to be fulfilled in order for an attraction itorsto be considered ethical The core conditions men-tioned were the natural design of the animal dis- Managerial Implicationsplays and the perception that the animals perform

Beyond the theoretical contributions the find-natural behavior factors that have already beenings of this study can also assist specific animal-addressed by many animal-based tourist attrac-based tourist attractions in their operational andtions (eg Davey 2006 Hughes et al 2005 To-marketing functions The repositioning of manymas et al 2002) Among the other prominent con-animal-based tourist attractions as sites for educa-ditions mentioned were gentle training methodstion scientific research and conservation is clearlythe perception of a ldquofair chancerdquo given to the ani-effective in providing legitimacy to their exis-mals in sport or contest situations ensuring thetence The extra attention given nowadays to natu-safety of employees and visitors and respectfulral presentation of the animals (Hughes et albehavior on the part of the visitors The views ex-

pressed by the participants suggest that the exis- 2005 Ryan amp Saward 2004) also seems to pay

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

88 SHANI AND PIZAM

the positives and denying the negativesrdquo (p 312) many participants would not have reflected deeplyon the topic of ethical aspects of animal-basedThe swimmers found comfort in the fact that cap-

tivity is the only setting they could swim in with tourist attractions beforehand and may thereforefeel reluctant to be interviewed As noted by Mar-dolphins although they would rather swim with

them in the wild In addition they were convinced shall and Rossman (2006) in such cases the focusgroup setting is more likely to get the participantsthat the dolphins and their trainers love each other

and that the shows they watched where different to express their views as the encounters take placewithin a supportive environment In addition fo-from circus shows Curtin and Wilkes (2007) also

found that the themes of education research and cus groups as a more socially-oriented methodenable the researchers to study the participants inconservation helped cover up the fact that the dol-

phins were exhibited for profit thereby allowing a more natural and relaxed atmosphere Variousresearchers advocate the use of focus groups forthe swimmers to develop less feelings of guilt of-

ten associated with the activity To conclude the the purpose of gaining insights regarding attitudesopinions and beliefs of people (eg Gibbs 1997swimmers with captive dolphins did feel ethical

concerns yet the desire to participate in the expe- McLafferty 2004) Focus group research usuallyrience led them to use cognitive and emotional include six to ten participants in each sessiontechniques in order to reduce this cognitive disso- (Glesne 2006) which lasts not longer than twonance However these studies focused only on the hours (Weeden 2005)special segment of swimming with dolphins Although they are clearly gaining increasing

At this stage it is possible to conclude that the popularity in social science research focus groupssubject of the ethical treatment of animals in tour- also have their weaknesses Becken (2007 p 353)ist attractions has not been studied extensively and mentions that ldquofocus groups do not represent natu-therefore there is a need for a holistic approach to ral discussions and the viewpoints presented byexplore the themes concerns and issues involved participants are verbal self-reporting (ie hypo-in the attitudes of tourists toward animal-based thetical) hence real behavior can only be inferredtourist attractions from participantsrsquo statementsrdquo In addition there

is a constant concern that the presence of otherMethodology people will influence the responses of certain par-

ticipants which might lead to social willfulness orThe Nature of Focus Groupsa hesitation to speak (Stewart Shamdasani amp

Because of the exploratory nature of this study Rook 2007) However when the purpose of aa qualitative research design was chosen Peterson study is to develop a wide range of views and atti-(1994) stated that one of the major purposes of tudes as in the current study this represents a mi-qualitative research is to explore the full range of nor problem (Peterson 1994) Finally valuableviews on a certain subject and to develop the time can be lost due to loss of control of the con-range of issues to be investigated in future re- versation and irrelevant topics being discussedsearch Specifically this study used focus group (Marshall amp Rossman 2006) However a traineddiscussions as the main method of data collection and experienced moderator can minimize theseA focus group is defined as ldquoa group of individu- concerns and maximize the effectiveness of theals selected and assembled by researchers to dis- sessionscuss and comment on from personal experiencethe topic that is the subject of the researchldquo (Pow- Samplingell Single amp Lloyd 1996 p 499) As noted by

In the current study three focus groups wereWeeden (2005) the aim of focus groups is to useconducted with tourists in Orlando Florida Allgroup integrations to gain rich and insightful datathe participants were recruited from a large hotelabout a topic of interest that would be less accessi-located in the main tourist zone of the city Forble using some other qualitative method A focusthe purpose of the current study a visitor was de-group method was chosen for this study rather

than one-to-one interviews because it is likely that fined as a person who stayed in the hotel regard-

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 89

less of the distance traveled In the hotel the 4 Their views and opinions about different typesof species in animal-based tourist attractionsguests were approached according to the principle

of purposive sampling (Barbour 2001 Finn El-liott-White amp Walton 2000) which aims to re- In addition follow-up questions were broughtflect the diversity among the guests in terms of up if participants raised interesting points of vieworigin gender and age Although for some pur- Note that in an attempt to avoid socially desirableposes homogeneous groups are preferred various answers on behalf of the participants [which isresearchers argue that heterogeneity is required in prevalent in ethics research (Randall amp Fernandesorder to reveal diverse opinions and experiences 1991)] the participants were not asked specificas participants explain their positions to the other questions about their ethical attitudes toward ani-members of the focus group (Gibbs 1997 Hol- mal-based tourist attractions but rather to freelylander 2004 McLafferty 2004) Fifty dollars and express their views on the issue Their attitudesa dinner certificate for two were offered as incen- toward such attractions as well as the structure oftives Both the first and the second focus group these attitudes were deduced from the partici-were composed of seven tourists each while the pantsrsquo accounts based on the interpretation of thethird group included eight tourists which resulted researchers During the sessions the moderators at-in a total of 22 participants (13 females and 9 tempted to generate a discussion and to challengemales) The sample included 14 participants from the participants and in all three focus groups athe continental United States (from five different dynamic conversation ensued Each focus groupstates) three from Puerto Rico four from Britain lasted approximately two hours and the sessionsand one from Canada Five participants were aged were recorded and transcribed into Microsoft20ndash29 four were aged 30ndash39 four were aged 40ndash Word format To ensure the anonymity of the par-49 and the remainder of the sample (nine partici- ticipants all the focus groupsrsquo tapes once tran-pants) were aged 50 and above scribed were destroyed and the participants are

presented in this article with pseudonymsProcedure

At the beginning of the focus group sessions Data Analysisparticipants were informed about the objectives of

The transcripts were examined to identify a the-the study and that they could leave the session atmatic framework of attitudes toward animal-basedany time Based on the recommendation made bytourist attractions As noted by Fossey HarveyGlesne (2006) four main questions guided theMcDermott and Davidson (2002) a thematicsemistructured focus groups These questions wereanalysis involves the process of classifying cate-based on general themes that emerged from thegorizing and grouping text segments to create andliterature they were taken from the general viewsthen clarify the definitions and contents of themesregarding animal-based tourist attractions and ap-within the transcript The end product of the the-plied to more specific aspects of their operationsmatic analysis ldquois a detailed index of data whichAfter introducing themselves (including age andlabels the data into manageable chunks for subse-where they were from) the participants were askedquent retrieval and explorationrdquo (Pope Zieblandto discuss the followingamp Mays 2000 p 116) In keeping with these prin-ciples of thematic analysis the prominent con-1 Their views and opinions regarding various an-cepts and aspects of the participantsrsquo accountsimal-based tourist attractions (eg traditionalwere highlighted and then integrated to generatezoos theme parks with animals safari parkscore themes that constitute the structure of thebullfighting and rodeos)touristsrsquo attitudes toward animal-based tourist at-2 Their previous experiences with animal-basedtractions Note that typically the goal of qualitativetourist attractionsthematic analysis is not to quantify data but rather3 Their views and opinions on the different typesto explore the variety and structure of themesof activities in animal attractions (eg petting

zoos encounters with animals) and around the investigated phenomenon The results

90 SHANI AND PIZAM

are therefore not reported in relative frequencies quently wildlife conservation through animal-based tourist attractions was repeated by manyas this can be misleading (Pope et al 2000)participants as a justification for operating themTo name a few comments in this regard 25-year-Findingsold Jake from Canada said

The analysis of the focus groups revealed threemajor themes that emerged in the course of the I was watching the Discovery Channel the othersessions night Some of the species in the wild are go-

ing to be totally extinct How many species havewe lost in the past 20 to 30 years Zoos are defi-1 General justifications for having animal-basednitely doing something to preserve endangeredtourist attractions species

2 Driving forces responsible for ethical use of an-imals in tourist attractions and Liza (54 Michigan) claimed

3 Conditions for the ethical operation of animal-based tourist attractions I think this [the existence of animal attractions]

helps to keep some of the species alive Imean animals that are in danger if you canMost of the participantsrsquo comments related tointervene even if it is situation like that and therethese issues although they were not asked directlyis a controlled environment you can still help to

about them They were mentioned and described keep the species aliveby participants as central factors in their ethicalevaluation of animal-based tourist attractions Dana (50 Wisconsin) also agreed

General Justifications for Having Animal-Based The nature of the panda bear is going extinct un-less they start breeding it in the zoos It is betterTourist Attractionsthis way than not breeding them at all it keeps

The vast majority of the participants in the the species alivestudy were supportive of animal-based tourist at-tractions and drew much pleasure from visiting The concept of conservation also gives some ofthem Stories about enjoyable and exciting experi- the participants the impression (or the belief) thatences in animal-based tourist attractions were told captivity of endangered species is a temporary so-in the three focus groups However the partici- lution until they are eventually released into thepants did acknowledge the ethical dilemmas in- wild As mentioned by Mark (43 Maryland)volved in keeping animals for entertainment pur-

[Animal attractions] are unnatural habitationsposes alone thus they raised other reasons forbut theyrsquore helping preserve animals A lot of en-justifying the necessity to operate them Some ofdangered species have being brought out becausethe following arguments in favor of animal-basedof the way they have been bredmdashwhether it was

attractions have appeared previously in the litera- in captivity or in conservatories in the wildture although in most cases they were not sug-

Education Most of the participants stressedgested by tourists but rather by advocates of ani-the importance of the role animal-based tourist at-mal-based attractionstractions play in education especially in the devel-

Conservation Many animal-based tourist at- opment of awareness of wildlife among childrentractions highlight their role in the conservation Visiting animal-based tourist attractions with chil-and preservation of endangered species and this dren was perceived by parents and nonparentsmessage seems to have trickled down into peo- alike as an entertainment activity but as one withplersquos hearts and minds The participants suggested educational benefits This view was exemplifiedthat popular nature TV channels such as National by Liza (54 Michigan) who statedGeographic and Animal Planet were responsiblefor the increase in awareness and knowledge on This is the third time [that we have visited Or-

lando] and we have not yet seen Disney World Iconservation and preservation measures Conse-

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 91

donrsquot think there is anything wrong with some of that was one of the coolest things Irsquove everdonemdashalthough it was only for two minutes the man-made attractions but I think itrsquos nice

when they encompass nature and you can teach So I got to hold this little gator in my hands andthat for me was I went to see alligators atyour kids something as wellnight before and it was a cool experience but Inever got so close to one and I never consideredA similar argument of the crucial function of ani-them as animals I think that people need to real-mal attractions for the development of childrenize that theyrsquore also a part of the animal society

was illustrated by Heather (26 Florida) a nonpar-ent who claimed that animal attractions if operat-

A similar notion was expressed by Mark (43ing ethically play an important role in preventing

Maryland)other cruel forms of use made of animals by serv-ing as an example of the responsible way of treat-

The killer whalersquos a good example of an animaling animalsthat has a much better reputation [nowadays] be-cause of its controlled environment [in animal

People need to realize that kids are really our fu- attractions] Yoursquore thinking about Shamu [theture and we need to educate and show them the name of the Sea World iconic orca show] but ifgood ways of treating animals and the good you watch National Geographic yoursquoll see theways of raising animals and interacting with them killer whale bite the seal with his teeth and throwand preserving and everything else Because him aroundotherwise if we let it slip we will see peopletreat dogs wrong animals will be beaten Research Some participants also referred tocockfighting and bullfighting They will think itrsquos the role of animal-based tourist attractions in re-OK search One of these participants was Keith (50

Detroit) who statedIn this line of argument the responsible use ofanimals in attractions is more ethically sound than

I agree that they [animal attractions] bring ani-not using them at all Mark (43 Maryland) alsomals mainly for entertainment purposes but I

stressed that the educational contributions of ani- think of biology whenever I see an opportunitymal attractions are for the benefits of the animals for research I am always thinking about it in

the back of my head Having that polar bear herethemselvesis an opportunity to do research or learn some-thing about it Itrsquos an opportunity to learn moreI think that itrsquoll be worse for the animals if youabout that speciesstop that kind of thing [animal attractions] and

therersquoll be no education and awareness about thisThe zoos and theme parksmdashtheyrsquore making you According to Kristina (30 Florida)aware of it They educate a little bit about theanimals while if you will not have it and people

Some of the theme parks use animals for enter-will not be exposed to animalsmdashwho will caretainment purposes but they may also use them(about the animals)for research purposes or [to learn] how to savethe species from getting extinct I think there are

Finally animal-based tourist attractions were per- some good attributes to these attractions in thisceived by some participants to contribute toward respectsoftening the negative image of certain animals(especially predators) making them less intimidat- The idea that research in captivity conditions ising and more appealing to the wide public In this sometimes the only way scientists can learn aboutregard close encounters with animals with nega- wildlife was illustrated by Liza (54 Michigan)tive associations in attractions might make them who argued thatlegitimate members of ldquoanimal societyrdquo For ex-ample Kristin (27 Michigan) spoke of a personal No one whorsquos involved with zoological or marineexperience she had research will ever get that type of knowledge of

interaction with any of those animals unless hecan do it in a controlled and well-maintained en-When I went to Gatorland a couple of years ago

I had the opportunity to hold a baby gator and vironment

92 SHANI AND PIZAM

aries are in some cases unlimited and the animalsHowever it should be noted that this type of argu-can roam free in their own habitat When yoursquorement was relatively rare during the focus groupin Animal Kingdom you donrsquot feel like yoursquore

sessions in Orlando Florida so well done for that job

Alternative to Nature Many participants in theAnother benefit of animal-based tourist attractionsstudy viewed animal-based tourist attractions as anthat the participants mentioned was that they allowaffordable and friendly way to see wildlife Be-ordinary people to experience what is usually ex-cause seeing wildlife in their natural habitat (egclusively reserved for wildlife professionals or forsafari tours in Africa) is perceived as a very ex-people who spend considerable funds in animal-pensive and dangerous adventure protected touristrelated leisure activities For example Jake (25settings represent a safe and inexpensive solutionCanada) who is a scuba diving instructor arguedto the desire to watch wildlife Liza (54 Michi-thatgan) for example argued

We [scuba divers] have the opportunity to seeWho else can see a polar bear unless you go to coral reef and fish in the ocean not like peoplethe zoo a lot of people canrsquot afford to go to who donrsquot dive They donrsquot have the opportunitythe Arctic Pole and see a polar bear to see that for them going to Sea World is the

closest thing they can get to see something I cansee normallyWendy (66 Britain) also noted that

The security and safety factors were also acknowl-[Animal attractions] allow people who canrsquot goedged by some participants in the sense that ani-on safaris to see wildlife it gives them a feeling

of what itrsquos like mal-based tourist attractions are a safe alternativeto tours in natural settings which might be risky

Although many of the participants stated that natu- In this regard Heather (26 Florida) mentionedral sites are preferable to contrived ones the latter

My cousin visited Animal Kingdom with mestill constitute a reasonable alternative and it iswhen she was 4 years old and we went on a sa-certainly better than not to see wildlife at all Mi-fari tour there Then a giraffe got very close tochael (36 Britain) for example mentionedthe jeep and she [my cousin] thought that it wascool to stare at the animal In a real safari this

For me personally the Everglades National Park could be dangerous You canrsquot have this kind ofis the place Irsquod like to see animals and alligators experiencemdashstanding so close to an animalmdashinIt wouldnrsquot be man-made attractions with ani- the natural sidemals It would be something thatrsquos natural likethe Everglades Itrsquos all swamps and the animals Finally in addition to the role of animal-basedlive there because itrsquos their habitat not because

tourist attractions as an alternative to watching an-theyrsquove been put there and fed but my chil-imals in the wild they can also be perceived as adren never get the chance to see killer whales insubstitute for natural places in general becausenature so itrsquos something nice for them to see in

the parks they provide a more relaxed atmosphere than otherentertaining attractions As Kristin (27 Michigan)

In this regard some of the participants indicated pointed outtheir preference for animal theme parks over tradi-

Animal attractions like Sea World or Animaltional zoos because of their more naturalistic pre-Kingdom are more for a relaxing day These aresentation of the animals and the ldquoopen spacerdquo de-pretty much all the natural attractions that yousign of the exhibits Patrick (41 Miami) statedhave here [in Orlando] because the beaches areabout an hour and half from here Sea World

When I visited the San Diego Zoo I couldnrsquot is like a nice day at the beachmdashif you donrsquot wantimagine myself in a savanna whereas in Animal to drive to the beachKingdom I certainly canmdashwithin a split second

Benefits to Individual Animals In addition toYou just become immersed when yoursquore inthese expanded theme parks when the bound- the justifications for having animal attractions that

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 93

cities You gotta have some control of the ani-focus on their benefits to humans or to the ecosys-mals and their environmenttem as a whole (such as conservation) some par-

ticipants also argued that confined environmentsThis ideas was continued by Mark (43 Maryland)offer advantages to the exhibited animals them-who statedselves This view is explained by arguing that cap-

tive wildlife are free from predators and have noI think that when you see them [the animals] infood concerns Michael (36 Britain) stated that hethe parks you kind of gain respect for their con-

had no problem with petting zoos although this trolled environment if you didnrsquot have thatkind of activity might cause discomfort to the ani- controlled environment yoursquod have heard on the

six o-clock news all the time ldquoa lion attackedmals becausetodayrdquo

the sorts of animals we are talking about are atthe bottom of the food chain so a kid petting Driving Forces for Ethical Animal-Basedthem is a better life [than living in nature] Tourist Attractions

Throughout the focus group sessions althoughKeith (50 Detroit) expanded on the idea that amost the participants were supporters of animal-confined setting provides a secure environment forbased tourist attractions they also expressed somethe animals by giving a personal exampleconcerns over the welfare of the animals exhibitedand over the ethical aspects of keeping them inI got a 750-gallon salt water aquarium I lookcaptivity However there was also a clear percep-at them [the fish] and I think that I give them a

better life than if they were in the ocean because tion among most of the participants that contem-they might not have survived that long I have porary animal-based tourist attractions are funda-fish that lived 8 to 10 years and if they were in mentally different from this type of attraction inthe open water they would be a meal for some-

the past This way the belief that the present at-body elsetractions embody drastic improvements in the ethi-cal treatment of animals helps alleviate some ofAnother argument put forward by some of the par-the feelings of discomfort that might arise whileticipants was that the conditions of the animals invisiting animal-based tourist attractions or think-the attractions are much better than those in othering about animals in captivity and is an importantforms of captivity which could have been the fatefactor in their ethical approval This perceptionof some of these animals For example Dana (50was clearly apparent in statements like that of JakeWisconsin) argued that people who support the(25 Canada)abolishment of animal-based tourist attractions need

Yes Irsquom a little concerned about that [keepingto turn on and look at the SPCA [Society of theanimals in captivity] but then again when IPrevention of Cruelty to Animals] shelters wheresaw SeaWorld when I was a kid it was not any-they have their dogsmdashsix dogs in a cage andthing like it is nowthey fight all the time and they pee on the floor

and itrsquos not cleaned up until the next day Theyare kept in very close and small cages and of Kim (55 Michigan)

Regulation of Wildlife Although this issue was[the attractions today] are first-class operations

only raised by two participants it is interesting to Since the old days of the sea aquarium in Miaminote that animal-based tourist attractions might wersquove come a long wayalso be perceived as a means to regulate and su-

Public Opinion A common view among thepervise the natural environment and the wildlifeparticipants was that because the general public isJim (52 Michigan) illustrated this point by sayingmore concerned about animal welfare today thanin the past the ldquofree-marketrdquo approach will natu-If we let the animals just do what they want itrsquollrally mean that the attractions will be more ethi-be chaos In some countries you got cows and

horses and chickens walking all through the cally sensitive in their treatment of animals In

94 SHANI AND PIZAM

I think that circuses are getting bad publicity Irsquomother words the concern about bad public rela-sure that there is animal abuse there as was his-tions or negative reactions on the part of visitorstorically but Irsquod like to thinkmdashmaybe Irsquom just

regarding animal abuse has led to the appearance living in Happy Landmdashthat animals are treated aof a self-regulation mechanism in the attractions little more humanely nowadays just because all

of the things that were brought up in the newsthemselves Since visitors expect today to seeAnd if theyrsquore not if something came out to thewell-treated animals it is in the interest of the at-press then that circus would be done with busi-tractions to meet this expectation Keith (50 De-ness Because there are so many people out there

troit) illustrated this view that care

Legal System and Institutional SupervisionI think that public awareness has probably madeAnother factor that helped to ease some of the par-animal attractions change their attitudes because

that is their livelihood The attractions know ticipantsrsquo ethical concerns regarding animal-basedthat the animals are their bread and butter so tourist attractions was their trust in the legal sys-theyrsquore going to do everything they can to make tem and in the power and influence of animal wel-a friendly place for them

fare organizations For example when the issue ofrodeos and circuses arose in one of the sessions

The role of the demand for ethical treatment in theDana (50 Wisconsin) said

perceived changing nature of animal-based touristattractions was heavily emphasized For example

Rodeos like we have here in the States I donrsquotLiza (54 Michigan) argued believe they kill the horses do they I guess

therersquos a certain amount of governmental control Is thereThey [the attractions] seem to have more knowl-

edge of how to manage animals but they alsohave something to protect because if they donrsquot However some participants felt that more tightdo it [act ethically] they will be out of business external control should be put on the attractionsAnd this is caused by the consumers who put

as stated by Katie (25 Illinois)more pressure They [the attractions] have toplease the public and the almighty dollar to keepthe operation going If we continue to have these attractions and con-

tinue to visit them I think we should have stricterregulations to protect the animals so theyrsquoll beThe view that fear of negative public opinion leadsin a more natural environment The laws are

to ethical behavior seemed to be strengthened by stricter in this countrymdashthe animals look wellthe belief in the power of the mass media In this kept especially in the big organizations that ownrespect the perception was that in times of ldquoopen these establishments But for local zoos and cir-

cuses the law is not there They look OK but youinformationrdquo and wide media coverage unethicaljust donrsquot know we need stricter lawsoperations will not be able to survive long As

noted by Keith (50 Detroit)Conditions for Ethical Operationof Animal-Based Tourist AttractionsTelevision cameras might sneak into zoos and see

the elephant trainers using whips and hit the ele- The participants in the study made a clear dis-phants it can destroy the operation real quick tinction between ethical and nonethical animal- All you have to do today is get the news in-

based tourist attractions while elaborating on thevolved and say ldquoLook what theyrsquore doing necessary or desirable conditions for such sites tothey are feeding that koala bear vanilla ice cream

all day long and that is not rightrdquo So they are be considered ethical In addition they also pro-going to make the public aware and go on the vided information on the standards for how toChannel 7 news then people will start reading measure if an attraction in general or a certainthe editorial in the paper and it will escalate

display in particular could be perceived as beingethical

When the issue of circuses and their negative im-age was mentioned during one of the sessions Natural Environment The designing of con-

trived natural environments in the animal displaysHeather (26 Florida) stated

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 95

and exhibits was one of the main factors leading Training Methods Another factor that was re-peated during the focus group sessions was theto more positive attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions This notion was illustrated in ethical requirement that performing animals betrained gently without being inflicted any painthe words of Patrick (41 Miami)suffering or distress It is important to note thatanimal shows were not perceived as unethical inAttractions with animals are great to be around

and great to spend time with But I always themselves but only when associated with themind to the fact that they are caged You know cruel treatment of animals This perception wasthey try to make them as natural as possible but

exemplified by Kristin (27 Michigan)they have borders They are unnatural environ-ments and the animals must be aware of thatmdash

A lot of people thinkmdashoh training animals andthey can sense things like that I love to go thereteaching them tricks is cruel but you canrsquot teachbut you canrsquot help wondermdashare they feelinga trick if the animal doesnrsquot want to learn it un-trapped in this environment I prefer the moreless yoursquore harsh to it [In reference to a pet showupdated parks when the boundaries have beenshe saw]mdashThey have so many kinds of animalsincreased and enlarged and they try to bringthere Theyrsquore all rescued animals but the train-them back to their original habitaters donrsquot use whips and they donrsquot use any kind

Natural Behavior The negative public rela- of punishment only positive reinforcement MyGod I donrsquot like to see whips like they use intions that circuses and circus-like shows have beensome of the dinner shows As I said if the ani-absorbing in recent years was clearly expressed inmals want to perform itrsquos a different story A lot

the preference of some of the participants for of the dolphin attractions the dolphins like towatching (what they perceived as) natural behav- perform itrsquos fun itrsquos a game for them You donrsquotior of animals It should be noted that in some need to use a whip and you donrsquot need to use

something that is not a positive reinforcementcases even animal shows which have been criti-[In reference to a dinner show she had been to]cized in the past might be perceived as allowing

the performing animals to express natural behav-In this regard the common impression of theior For example Liza (54 Michigan) when refer-closeness between performing animals and theirring to dolphin shows argued thattrainers was for some of the participants a reassur-ance that the animals were not being abused This

When you see a whale jump out of the water andperception was strengthened by their reliance oncome by the trainermdashthatrsquos actually natural pred-their own eyes in the sense of ldquoseeing is believ-atory type of behavior for him when hunting

seals in the ocean ingrdquo For example Jim (52 Michigan) argued that

at Sea World you look at the people and theyrsquoreSome cases however might be judged differentlyall having a good time and the trainers look closeas illustrated by Michael (36 Britain) regardingto the animals and it looks like the animals are inbird exhibits a friendly environment

I find it harder to see a bird in a cage than any This notion was also illustrated by Heather (26other animal because of the nature of a bird Hersquos Florida)a flyer

When I was a kid my parents took me to a cir-Another reference to this issue was made by Kris- cus but I havenrsquot gone since I like it when theretin (27 Michigan) who stressed the importance of is more human interaction In regard to shows

like the Pet Ahoy and the dolphin showsmdashthethe animalrsquos free willanimals want to be there because theyrsquore [the an-imals and the trainers] friends for life You canAnything you do to instigate a reactionmdashridingsee the closeness and the bond between the ani-a bull or cockfightingmdashyou need to instigatemals and the trainersthem to do that Thatrsquos unnatural and unneces-

sary Itrsquos one thing if the animal wants to do itNevertheless some of the participants recognizedand itrsquos a different thing if you stab him with a

stick their limitations in judging whether an animal was

96 SHANI AND PIZAM

being abused during its training For example part of the visitors This point was illustrated byMark (43 Maryland) who statedBruno (53 Michigan) noted that

It upsets me to see in zoos teenagers whorsquore try-[in animal shows] you only see the finished prod-ing to impress their friends by throwing some-uct you donrsquot see the training You actually havething at the animals I think why wonrsquot you getto be there when the training is been conductedon the other side of the fence and do thatHowever from what I see on TV it seems that

the animals are pretty well trained and not abusedat all Another prominent example was given by Dana

(50 Wisconsin) regarding a dinner show she par-The Concept of Fairness Some of the partici-ticipated inpants brought up the point that certain uses of ani-

mals in attractions even if controversial becauseAfter the dinner they have a place where you canof the violence involvedmdashsuch as alligator wres-meet and greet the riders and the horses They let

tling bullfighting and rodeosmdashmight seem ethi- people sit on the top of the horses and these peo-cal if it is perceived that the animals receive a fair ple are sitting on the horses kicking and snap-chance during the activity Liza (54 Michigan) ping them The kids were pulling their mane

the parents sat there and let the kids do it It hasfor example told about her experience at a bull-a sign which says ldquoplease do not feed the ani-fight in Spainmalsrdquo But I have never seen anybody out therean employee who watches that nobody tries to

Well I donrsquot think that the bull even started with feed the horses popcorn nachos or potato chipsa chance I mean if yoursquore going to get in the which I saw the horses being fedring and fight that bull then the bull should notbe sent out of the pen already stabbed with a cou- Other A few other factors were mentioned asple of daggers and already wounded coming at conditions for the ethical operation of animal-you If you choose to take on that animal you based tourist attractionsmdashor at least it was notedshould take that creature at its maximum You

that their presence increases the chances for thedonrsquot paralyze it and then take him onattractions to be positively judged Among these

[Regarding gator wrestling] I donrsquot object to factors werethat I mean if they [the wrestlers] lose they

bull The provision of sufficient food and medicallose If yoursquore going to wrestle alligators at leastdo not have an unfair advantage As long as you care to the animalsdonrsquot wrestle with the alligator with his mouth or bull Employing educated people who will be sensi-his legs taped if you want to wrestle an alliga- tive enough to the animalstor and you have a 50ndash50 chance go for it bull A strong preference to see rescued animals inSafety Negative perceptions of certain animal the exhibits over animals that were simply cap-

displays and shows were also mentioned when tured in the wild andparticipants sensed that the activity involved some bull Decent working conditions for the animals es-form of risk Regarding alligator wrestling shows pecially in regard to reasonable number offor example Gloria (33 Puerto Rico) stated working hours a day

I donrsquot like it I think itrsquos dangerous for the peo- Discussion and Conclusionsple that do that work [the wrestlers] and for the

As previously indicated the purpose of this ex-people that look at it These animals donrsquot haveploratory study was to examine the attitudes ofthe intelligence of a man so they donrsquot under-

stand the difference between a baby or a boy or tourists toward the use of animals in tourist attrac-girl I heard that once an alligator bit a trainer tions while identifying the structure of these atti- I donrsquot like it

tudes The focus group sessions revealed that thevast majority of the participants were aware of theVisitorsrsquo Behavior Some participants men-

tioned that the ethical operation of animal-based ethical difficulties of keeping animals in captivityHowever the participants also viewed animal-basedtourist attractions does not depend only on the site

itself but also on the respectful behavior on the tourist attractions as a positive phenomenon in

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 97

general and raised various justifications for their and education (see Hutchins et al 1995 Jamie-son 2006 Mason 2000 2007 Snyder et alexistence In this regard similar to the findings of

Curtin (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) about 1996) Yet even in relation to these well-discussedissues the participants had some interesting in-people who swam with captive dolphins the par-

ticipants in this study demonstrated cognitive dis- sights The role of animal attractions in educationamong others was found especially relevant tosonance The awareness of the ethical dilemmas

involved in seeing animals in captivity led the par- children and to the development of their aware-ness of nature similar to the findings of Turleyticipants to raise various reasons for the impor-

tance of their presence and in which terms animal (1999 2001) In addition the attractions were alsoperceived as contributing toward softening theattractions can be considered ethical The partici-

pantsrsquo ethical evaluation of animal-based tourist negative image of certain animalsmdashbecause oftheir behavior in the wild andor their negativeattractions was found to consist of three main lay-

ers (see Figure 1) characteristicsHowever the participants also raised justifica-First ethical attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions were based on general argu- tions that to this day have been relatively littlediscussed To many participants the attractionsments in favor of (or against) their existence In

order to develop a favorable ethical attitude to- served as a safe socioeconomic alternative to au-thentic nature tours which are often perceived asward animal attractions one should be convinced

of the validity of the ethical arguments in favor of being expensive and dangerous (see Shackley1996 for a similar argument) They were also per-their presence in the first place These arguments

did not point toward a specific attraction but ceived as enabling ldquoordinaryrdquo people to participatein activities that are reserved exclusively forrather served as an ideological basis for justifying

the use of animals in entertainment ventures in wealthy tourists or wildlife professionals thusleading to a form of ldquosocial justicerdquo Another im-general Some of the justifications raised by par-

ticipants have been discussed in the academic lit- portant justification that emerged in the focusgroups was the perception that the animals exhib-erature Those justifications that are both men-

tioned in the literature and by many of the focus ited in the attractions are better off in captivitywhere they are free of the fear of predators or ofgroup participants included conservation research

Figure 1 The three layers of ethical perceptions of animal-based tourist attractions

98 SHANI AND PIZAM

the need to search for food Finally the attractions tence of these factors partially or completely af-fects the chances of an animal-based attraction toalso created the impression among some partici-

pants that they act as another form of wildlife reg- be considered ethicalThe structure of the ethical perception of ani-ulation which is necessary for the safety and secu-

rity of human society mal-based tourist attractions as identified in thisstudy seems hierarchical in nature A person whoAlthough many of the participants in the study

justified the existence of animal-based tourist at- rejects any justification for having these attrac-tions that is who favors the abolishment of alltractions in general they also recognize that these

are not always ethically operated especially in use of animals for entertainment is expected tohave a negative attitude toward an attraction evenhistorical context The second layer which consti-

tutes the ethical perception of animal-based tourist if it adopts an ethical and responsible treatment ofthe animals On the other hand even if the exis-attractions includes driving forces that are be-

lieved to cause the attractions to treat the animals tence of animal attractions is accepted by a personand heshe believes that contemporary attractionsresponsibly The belief that contemporary animal-

based tourist attractions are considerably more are controlled by both self- and external regula-ethical than in the past derives from two factors tions there are still specific conditions that needthe power of the media and public opinion which to be fulfilled in order for this person to have ais perceived to have major impact on the operation positive attitude toward each specific attractionof the attractions and the legal and enforcement To conclude although the tourism industry re-system which is trusted to supervise their opera- lies heavily on the incorporation of animals in itstions While the former creates a form of self- attractions to date there have been no serious at-regulationmdashit is worthwhile being ethical because tempts to investigate the issue in a holistic wayit prevents negative publicitymdashthe latter repre- Specifically the ethical attitudes of the visitorssents external regulation which ensures ethical and nonvisitors toward these attractions were onlyoperation The perception that both of these driv- ambiguous and speculative The current explor-ing forces have a crucial impact on the attractions atory study found that an ethical approach towardwas significant in accounting for the participantsrsquo animal-based tourist attractions is constructedreduced ethical concerns with regard to the ways along three main levels general justifications foranimals might be treated ldquobackstagerdquo having these attractions a belief in the driving

The last layer that determined visitorsrsquo ethical forces for ethical behavior on behalf of the attrac-attitudes toward animal-based tourist attractions is tions and certain conditions for the ethical opera-linked to their judgment of each specific attrac- tion of each specific attraction This can be seention The participants in this study clearly distin- as an additional step toward a deeper understand-guished between ethical and unethical attractions ing of the ethical perceptions and judgment of ani-and provided useful indications of which condi- mal-based tourist attractions on the part of the vis-tions need to be fulfilled in order for an attraction itorsto be considered ethical The core conditions men-tioned were the natural design of the animal dis- Managerial Implicationsplays and the perception that the animals perform

Beyond the theoretical contributions the find-natural behavior factors that have already beenings of this study can also assist specific animal-addressed by many animal-based tourist attrac-based tourist attractions in their operational andtions (eg Davey 2006 Hughes et al 2005 To-marketing functions The repositioning of manymas et al 2002) Among the other prominent con-animal-based tourist attractions as sites for educa-ditions mentioned were gentle training methodstion scientific research and conservation is clearlythe perception of a ldquofair chancerdquo given to the ani-effective in providing legitimacy to their exis-mals in sport or contest situations ensuring thetence The extra attention given nowadays to natu-safety of employees and visitors and respectfulral presentation of the animals (Hughes et albehavior on the part of the visitors The views ex-

pressed by the participants suggest that the exis- 2005 Ryan amp Saward 2004) also seems to pay

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 89

less of the distance traveled In the hotel the 4 Their views and opinions about different typesof species in animal-based tourist attractionsguests were approached according to the principle

of purposive sampling (Barbour 2001 Finn El-liott-White amp Walton 2000) which aims to re- In addition follow-up questions were broughtflect the diversity among the guests in terms of up if participants raised interesting points of vieworigin gender and age Although for some pur- Note that in an attempt to avoid socially desirableposes homogeneous groups are preferred various answers on behalf of the participants [which isresearchers argue that heterogeneity is required in prevalent in ethics research (Randall amp Fernandesorder to reveal diverse opinions and experiences 1991)] the participants were not asked specificas participants explain their positions to the other questions about their ethical attitudes toward ani-members of the focus group (Gibbs 1997 Hol- mal-based tourist attractions but rather to freelylander 2004 McLafferty 2004) Fifty dollars and express their views on the issue Their attitudesa dinner certificate for two were offered as incen- toward such attractions as well as the structure oftives Both the first and the second focus group these attitudes were deduced from the partici-were composed of seven tourists each while the pantsrsquo accounts based on the interpretation of thethird group included eight tourists which resulted researchers During the sessions the moderators at-in a total of 22 participants (13 females and 9 tempted to generate a discussion and to challengemales) The sample included 14 participants from the participants and in all three focus groups athe continental United States (from five different dynamic conversation ensued Each focus groupstates) three from Puerto Rico four from Britain lasted approximately two hours and the sessionsand one from Canada Five participants were aged were recorded and transcribed into Microsoft20ndash29 four were aged 30ndash39 four were aged 40ndash Word format To ensure the anonymity of the par-49 and the remainder of the sample (nine partici- ticipants all the focus groupsrsquo tapes once tran-pants) were aged 50 and above scribed were destroyed and the participants are

presented in this article with pseudonymsProcedure

At the beginning of the focus group sessions Data Analysisparticipants were informed about the objectives of

The transcripts were examined to identify a the-the study and that they could leave the session atmatic framework of attitudes toward animal-basedany time Based on the recommendation made bytourist attractions As noted by Fossey HarveyGlesne (2006) four main questions guided theMcDermott and Davidson (2002) a thematicsemistructured focus groups These questions wereanalysis involves the process of classifying cate-based on general themes that emerged from thegorizing and grouping text segments to create andliterature they were taken from the general viewsthen clarify the definitions and contents of themesregarding animal-based tourist attractions and ap-within the transcript The end product of the the-plied to more specific aspects of their operationsmatic analysis ldquois a detailed index of data whichAfter introducing themselves (including age andlabels the data into manageable chunks for subse-where they were from) the participants were askedquent retrieval and explorationrdquo (Pope Zieblandto discuss the followingamp Mays 2000 p 116) In keeping with these prin-ciples of thematic analysis the prominent con-1 Their views and opinions regarding various an-cepts and aspects of the participantsrsquo accountsimal-based tourist attractions (eg traditionalwere highlighted and then integrated to generatezoos theme parks with animals safari parkscore themes that constitute the structure of thebullfighting and rodeos)touristsrsquo attitudes toward animal-based tourist at-2 Their previous experiences with animal-basedtractions Note that typically the goal of qualitativetourist attractionsthematic analysis is not to quantify data but rather3 Their views and opinions on the different typesto explore the variety and structure of themesof activities in animal attractions (eg petting

zoos encounters with animals) and around the investigated phenomenon The results

90 SHANI AND PIZAM

are therefore not reported in relative frequencies quently wildlife conservation through animal-based tourist attractions was repeated by manyas this can be misleading (Pope et al 2000)participants as a justification for operating themTo name a few comments in this regard 25-year-Findingsold Jake from Canada said

The analysis of the focus groups revealed threemajor themes that emerged in the course of the I was watching the Discovery Channel the othersessions night Some of the species in the wild are go-

ing to be totally extinct How many species havewe lost in the past 20 to 30 years Zoos are defi-1 General justifications for having animal-basednitely doing something to preserve endangeredtourist attractions species

2 Driving forces responsible for ethical use of an-imals in tourist attractions and Liza (54 Michigan) claimed

3 Conditions for the ethical operation of animal-based tourist attractions I think this [the existence of animal attractions]

helps to keep some of the species alive Imean animals that are in danger if you canMost of the participantsrsquo comments related tointervene even if it is situation like that and therethese issues although they were not asked directlyis a controlled environment you can still help to

about them They were mentioned and described keep the species aliveby participants as central factors in their ethicalevaluation of animal-based tourist attractions Dana (50 Wisconsin) also agreed

General Justifications for Having Animal-Based The nature of the panda bear is going extinct un-less they start breeding it in the zoos It is betterTourist Attractionsthis way than not breeding them at all it keeps

The vast majority of the participants in the the species alivestudy were supportive of animal-based tourist at-tractions and drew much pleasure from visiting The concept of conservation also gives some ofthem Stories about enjoyable and exciting experi- the participants the impression (or the belief) thatences in animal-based tourist attractions were told captivity of endangered species is a temporary so-in the three focus groups However the partici- lution until they are eventually released into thepants did acknowledge the ethical dilemmas in- wild As mentioned by Mark (43 Maryland)volved in keeping animals for entertainment pur-

[Animal attractions] are unnatural habitationsposes alone thus they raised other reasons forbut theyrsquore helping preserve animals A lot of en-justifying the necessity to operate them Some ofdangered species have being brought out becausethe following arguments in favor of animal-basedof the way they have been bredmdashwhether it was

attractions have appeared previously in the litera- in captivity or in conservatories in the wildture although in most cases they were not sug-

Education Most of the participants stressedgested by tourists but rather by advocates of ani-the importance of the role animal-based tourist at-mal-based attractionstractions play in education especially in the devel-

Conservation Many animal-based tourist at- opment of awareness of wildlife among childrentractions highlight their role in the conservation Visiting animal-based tourist attractions with chil-and preservation of endangered species and this dren was perceived by parents and nonparentsmessage seems to have trickled down into peo- alike as an entertainment activity but as one withplersquos hearts and minds The participants suggested educational benefits This view was exemplifiedthat popular nature TV channels such as National by Liza (54 Michigan) who statedGeographic and Animal Planet were responsiblefor the increase in awareness and knowledge on This is the third time [that we have visited Or-

lando] and we have not yet seen Disney World Iconservation and preservation measures Conse-

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 91

donrsquot think there is anything wrong with some of that was one of the coolest things Irsquove everdonemdashalthough it was only for two minutes the man-made attractions but I think itrsquos nice

when they encompass nature and you can teach So I got to hold this little gator in my hands andthat for me was I went to see alligators atyour kids something as wellnight before and it was a cool experience but Inever got so close to one and I never consideredA similar argument of the crucial function of ani-them as animals I think that people need to real-mal attractions for the development of childrenize that theyrsquore also a part of the animal society

was illustrated by Heather (26 Florida) a nonpar-ent who claimed that animal attractions if operat-

A similar notion was expressed by Mark (43ing ethically play an important role in preventing

Maryland)other cruel forms of use made of animals by serv-ing as an example of the responsible way of treat-

The killer whalersquos a good example of an animaling animalsthat has a much better reputation [nowadays] be-cause of its controlled environment [in animal

People need to realize that kids are really our fu- attractions] Yoursquore thinking about Shamu [theture and we need to educate and show them the name of the Sea World iconic orca show] but ifgood ways of treating animals and the good you watch National Geographic yoursquoll see theways of raising animals and interacting with them killer whale bite the seal with his teeth and throwand preserving and everything else Because him aroundotherwise if we let it slip we will see peopletreat dogs wrong animals will be beaten Research Some participants also referred tocockfighting and bullfighting They will think itrsquos the role of animal-based tourist attractions in re-OK search One of these participants was Keith (50

Detroit) who statedIn this line of argument the responsible use ofanimals in attractions is more ethically sound than

I agree that they [animal attractions] bring ani-not using them at all Mark (43 Maryland) alsomals mainly for entertainment purposes but I

stressed that the educational contributions of ani- think of biology whenever I see an opportunitymal attractions are for the benefits of the animals for research I am always thinking about it in

the back of my head Having that polar bear herethemselvesis an opportunity to do research or learn some-thing about it Itrsquos an opportunity to learn moreI think that itrsquoll be worse for the animals if youabout that speciesstop that kind of thing [animal attractions] and

therersquoll be no education and awareness about thisThe zoos and theme parksmdashtheyrsquore making you According to Kristina (30 Florida)aware of it They educate a little bit about theanimals while if you will not have it and people

Some of the theme parks use animals for enter-will not be exposed to animalsmdashwho will caretainment purposes but they may also use them(about the animals)for research purposes or [to learn] how to savethe species from getting extinct I think there are

Finally animal-based tourist attractions were per- some good attributes to these attractions in thisceived by some participants to contribute toward respectsoftening the negative image of certain animals(especially predators) making them less intimidat- The idea that research in captivity conditions ising and more appealing to the wide public In this sometimes the only way scientists can learn aboutregard close encounters with animals with nega- wildlife was illustrated by Liza (54 Michigan)tive associations in attractions might make them who argued thatlegitimate members of ldquoanimal societyrdquo For ex-ample Kristin (27 Michigan) spoke of a personal No one whorsquos involved with zoological or marineexperience she had research will ever get that type of knowledge of

interaction with any of those animals unless hecan do it in a controlled and well-maintained en-When I went to Gatorland a couple of years ago

I had the opportunity to hold a baby gator and vironment

92 SHANI AND PIZAM

aries are in some cases unlimited and the animalsHowever it should be noted that this type of argu-can roam free in their own habitat When yoursquorement was relatively rare during the focus groupin Animal Kingdom you donrsquot feel like yoursquore

sessions in Orlando Florida so well done for that job

Alternative to Nature Many participants in theAnother benefit of animal-based tourist attractionsstudy viewed animal-based tourist attractions as anthat the participants mentioned was that they allowaffordable and friendly way to see wildlife Be-ordinary people to experience what is usually ex-cause seeing wildlife in their natural habitat (egclusively reserved for wildlife professionals or forsafari tours in Africa) is perceived as a very ex-people who spend considerable funds in animal-pensive and dangerous adventure protected touristrelated leisure activities For example Jake (25settings represent a safe and inexpensive solutionCanada) who is a scuba diving instructor arguedto the desire to watch wildlife Liza (54 Michi-thatgan) for example argued

We [scuba divers] have the opportunity to seeWho else can see a polar bear unless you go to coral reef and fish in the ocean not like peoplethe zoo a lot of people canrsquot afford to go to who donrsquot dive They donrsquot have the opportunitythe Arctic Pole and see a polar bear to see that for them going to Sea World is the

closest thing they can get to see something I cansee normallyWendy (66 Britain) also noted that

The security and safety factors were also acknowl-[Animal attractions] allow people who canrsquot goedged by some participants in the sense that ani-on safaris to see wildlife it gives them a feeling

of what itrsquos like mal-based tourist attractions are a safe alternativeto tours in natural settings which might be risky

Although many of the participants stated that natu- In this regard Heather (26 Florida) mentionedral sites are preferable to contrived ones the latter

My cousin visited Animal Kingdom with mestill constitute a reasonable alternative and it iswhen she was 4 years old and we went on a sa-certainly better than not to see wildlife at all Mi-fari tour there Then a giraffe got very close tochael (36 Britain) for example mentionedthe jeep and she [my cousin] thought that it wascool to stare at the animal In a real safari this

For me personally the Everglades National Park could be dangerous You canrsquot have this kind ofis the place Irsquod like to see animals and alligators experiencemdashstanding so close to an animalmdashinIt wouldnrsquot be man-made attractions with ani- the natural sidemals It would be something thatrsquos natural likethe Everglades Itrsquos all swamps and the animals Finally in addition to the role of animal-basedlive there because itrsquos their habitat not because

tourist attractions as an alternative to watching an-theyrsquove been put there and fed but my chil-imals in the wild they can also be perceived as adren never get the chance to see killer whales insubstitute for natural places in general becausenature so itrsquos something nice for them to see in

the parks they provide a more relaxed atmosphere than otherentertaining attractions As Kristin (27 Michigan)

In this regard some of the participants indicated pointed outtheir preference for animal theme parks over tradi-

Animal attractions like Sea World or Animaltional zoos because of their more naturalistic pre-Kingdom are more for a relaxing day These aresentation of the animals and the ldquoopen spacerdquo de-pretty much all the natural attractions that yousign of the exhibits Patrick (41 Miami) statedhave here [in Orlando] because the beaches areabout an hour and half from here Sea World

When I visited the San Diego Zoo I couldnrsquot is like a nice day at the beachmdashif you donrsquot wantimagine myself in a savanna whereas in Animal to drive to the beachKingdom I certainly canmdashwithin a split second

Benefits to Individual Animals In addition toYou just become immersed when yoursquore inthese expanded theme parks when the bound- the justifications for having animal attractions that

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 93

cities You gotta have some control of the ani-focus on their benefits to humans or to the ecosys-mals and their environmenttem as a whole (such as conservation) some par-

ticipants also argued that confined environmentsThis ideas was continued by Mark (43 Maryland)offer advantages to the exhibited animals them-who statedselves This view is explained by arguing that cap-

tive wildlife are free from predators and have noI think that when you see them [the animals] infood concerns Michael (36 Britain) stated that hethe parks you kind of gain respect for their con-

had no problem with petting zoos although this trolled environment if you didnrsquot have thatkind of activity might cause discomfort to the ani- controlled environment yoursquod have heard on the

six o-clock news all the time ldquoa lion attackedmals becausetodayrdquo

the sorts of animals we are talking about are atthe bottom of the food chain so a kid petting Driving Forces for Ethical Animal-Basedthem is a better life [than living in nature] Tourist Attractions

Throughout the focus group sessions althoughKeith (50 Detroit) expanded on the idea that amost the participants were supporters of animal-confined setting provides a secure environment forbased tourist attractions they also expressed somethe animals by giving a personal exampleconcerns over the welfare of the animals exhibitedand over the ethical aspects of keeping them inI got a 750-gallon salt water aquarium I lookcaptivity However there was also a clear percep-at them [the fish] and I think that I give them a

better life than if they were in the ocean because tion among most of the participants that contem-they might not have survived that long I have porary animal-based tourist attractions are funda-fish that lived 8 to 10 years and if they were in mentally different from this type of attraction inthe open water they would be a meal for some-

the past This way the belief that the present at-body elsetractions embody drastic improvements in the ethi-cal treatment of animals helps alleviate some ofAnother argument put forward by some of the par-the feelings of discomfort that might arise whileticipants was that the conditions of the animals invisiting animal-based tourist attractions or think-the attractions are much better than those in othering about animals in captivity and is an importantforms of captivity which could have been the fatefactor in their ethical approval This perceptionof some of these animals For example Dana (50was clearly apparent in statements like that of JakeWisconsin) argued that people who support the(25 Canada)abolishment of animal-based tourist attractions need

Yes Irsquom a little concerned about that [keepingto turn on and look at the SPCA [Society of theanimals in captivity] but then again when IPrevention of Cruelty to Animals] shelters wheresaw SeaWorld when I was a kid it was not any-they have their dogsmdashsix dogs in a cage andthing like it is nowthey fight all the time and they pee on the floor

and itrsquos not cleaned up until the next day Theyare kept in very close and small cages and of Kim (55 Michigan)

Regulation of Wildlife Although this issue was[the attractions today] are first-class operations

only raised by two participants it is interesting to Since the old days of the sea aquarium in Miaminote that animal-based tourist attractions might wersquove come a long wayalso be perceived as a means to regulate and su-

Public Opinion A common view among thepervise the natural environment and the wildlifeparticipants was that because the general public isJim (52 Michigan) illustrated this point by sayingmore concerned about animal welfare today thanin the past the ldquofree-marketrdquo approach will natu-If we let the animals just do what they want itrsquollrally mean that the attractions will be more ethi-be chaos In some countries you got cows and

horses and chickens walking all through the cally sensitive in their treatment of animals In

94 SHANI AND PIZAM

I think that circuses are getting bad publicity Irsquomother words the concern about bad public rela-sure that there is animal abuse there as was his-tions or negative reactions on the part of visitorstorically but Irsquod like to thinkmdashmaybe Irsquom just

regarding animal abuse has led to the appearance living in Happy Landmdashthat animals are treated aof a self-regulation mechanism in the attractions little more humanely nowadays just because all

of the things that were brought up in the newsthemselves Since visitors expect today to seeAnd if theyrsquore not if something came out to thewell-treated animals it is in the interest of the at-press then that circus would be done with busi-tractions to meet this expectation Keith (50 De-ness Because there are so many people out there

troit) illustrated this view that care

Legal System and Institutional SupervisionI think that public awareness has probably madeAnother factor that helped to ease some of the par-animal attractions change their attitudes because

that is their livelihood The attractions know ticipantsrsquo ethical concerns regarding animal-basedthat the animals are their bread and butter so tourist attractions was their trust in the legal sys-theyrsquore going to do everything they can to make tem and in the power and influence of animal wel-a friendly place for them

fare organizations For example when the issue ofrodeos and circuses arose in one of the sessions

The role of the demand for ethical treatment in theDana (50 Wisconsin) said

perceived changing nature of animal-based touristattractions was heavily emphasized For example

Rodeos like we have here in the States I donrsquotLiza (54 Michigan) argued believe they kill the horses do they I guess

therersquos a certain amount of governmental control Is thereThey [the attractions] seem to have more knowl-

edge of how to manage animals but they alsohave something to protect because if they donrsquot However some participants felt that more tightdo it [act ethically] they will be out of business external control should be put on the attractionsAnd this is caused by the consumers who put

as stated by Katie (25 Illinois)more pressure They [the attractions] have toplease the public and the almighty dollar to keepthe operation going If we continue to have these attractions and con-

tinue to visit them I think we should have stricterregulations to protect the animals so theyrsquoll beThe view that fear of negative public opinion leadsin a more natural environment The laws are

to ethical behavior seemed to be strengthened by stricter in this countrymdashthe animals look wellthe belief in the power of the mass media In this kept especially in the big organizations that ownrespect the perception was that in times of ldquoopen these establishments But for local zoos and cir-

cuses the law is not there They look OK but youinformationrdquo and wide media coverage unethicaljust donrsquot know we need stricter lawsoperations will not be able to survive long As

noted by Keith (50 Detroit)Conditions for Ethical Operationof Animal-Based Tourist AttractionsTelevision cameras might sneak into zoos and see

the elephant trainers using whips and hit the ele- The participants in the study made a clear dis-phants it can destroy the operation real quick tinction between ethical and nonethical animal- All you have to do today is get the news in-

based tourist attractions while elaborating on thevolved and say ldquoLook what theyrsquore doing necessary or desirable conditions for such sites tothey are feeding that koala bear vanilla ice cream

all day long and that is not rightrdquo So they are be considered ethical In addition they also pro-going to make the public aware and go on the vided information on the standards for how toChannel 7 news then people will start reading measure if an attraction in general or a certainthe editorial in the paper and it will escalate

display in particular could be perceived as beingethical

When the issue of circuses and their negative im-age was mentioned during one of the sessions Natural Environment The designing of con-

trived natural environments in the animal displaysHeather (26 Florida) stated

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 95

and exhibits was one of the main factors leading Training Methods Another factor that was re-peated during the focus group sessions was theto more positive attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions This notion was illustrated in ethical requirement that performing animals betrained gently without being inflicted any painthe words of Patrick (41 Miami)suffering or distress It is important to note thatanimal shows were not perceived as unethical inAttractions with animals are great to be around

and great to spend time with But I always themselves but only when associated with themind to the fact that they are caged You know cruel treatment of animals This perception wasthey try to make them as natural as possible but

exemplified by Kristin (27 Michigan)they have borders They are unnatural environ-ments and the animals must be aware of thatmdash

A lot of people thinkmdashoh training animals andthey can sense things like that I love to go thereteaching them tricks is cruel but you canrsquot teachbut you canrsquot help wondermdashare they feelinga trick if the animal doesnrsquot want to learn it un-trapped in this environment I prefer the moreless yoursquore harsh to it [In reference to a pet showupdated parks when the boundaries have beenshe saw]mdashThey have so many kinds of animalsincreased and enlarged and they try to bringthere Theyrsquore all rescued animals but the train-them back to their original habitaters donrsquot use whips and they donrsquot use any kind

Natural Behavior The negative public rela- of punishment only positive reinforcement MyGod I donrsquot like to see whips like they use intions that circuses and circus-like shows have beensome of the dinner shows As I said if the ani-absorbing in recent years was clearly expressed inmals want to perform itrsquos a different story A lot

the preference of some of the participants for of the dolphin attractions the dolphins like towatching (what they perceived as) natural behav- perform itrsquos fun itrsquos a game for them You donrsquotior of animals It should be noted that in some need to use a whip and you donrsquot need to use

something that is not a positive reinforcementcases even animal shows which have been criti-[In reference to a dinner show she had been to]cized in the past might be perceived as allowing

the performing animals to express natural behav-In this regard the common impression of theior For example Liza (54 Michigan) when refer-closeness between performing animals and theirring to dolphin shows argued thattrainers was for some of the participants a reassur-ance that the animals were not being abused This

When you see a whale jump out of the water andperception was strengthened by their reliance oncome by the trainermdashthatrsquos actually natural pred-their own eyes in the sense of ldquoseeing is believ-atory type of behavior for him when hunting

seals in the ocean ingrdquo For example Jim (52 Michigan) argued that

at Sea World you look at the people and theyrsquoreSome cases however might be judged differentlyall having a good time and the trainers look closeas illustrated by Michael (36 Britain) regardingto the animals and it looks like the animals are inbird exhibits a friendly environment

I find it harder to see a bird in a cage than any This notion was also illustrated by Heather (26other animal because of the nature of a bird Hersquos Florida)a flyer

When I was a kid my parents took me to a cir-Another reference to this issue was made by Kris- cus but I havenrsquot gone since I like it when theretin (27 Michigan) who stressed the importance of is more human interaction In regard to shows

like the Pet Ahoy and the dolphin showsmdashthethe animalrsquos free willanimals want to be there because theyrsquore [the an-imals and the trainers] friends for life You canAnything you do to instigate a reactionmdashridingsee the closeness and the bond between the ani-a bull or cockfightingmdashyou need to instigatemals and the trainersthem to do that Thatrsquos unnatural and unneces-

sary Itrsquos one thing if the animal wants to do itNevertheless some of the participants recognizedand itrsquos a different thing if you stab him with a

stick their limitations in judging whether an animal was

96 SHANI AND PIZAM

being abused during its training For example part of the visitors This point was illustrated byMark (43 Maryland) who statedBruno (53 Michigan) noted that

It upsets me to see in zoos teenagers whorsquore try-[in animal shows] you only see the finished prod-ing to impress their friends by throwing some-uct you donrsquot see the training You actually havething at the animals I think why wonrsquot you getto be there when the training is been conductedon the other side of the fence and do thatHowever from what I see on TV it seems that

the animals are pretty well trained and not abusedat all Another prominent example was given by Dana

(50 Wisconsin) regarding a dinner show she par-The Concept of Fairness Some of the partici-ticipated inpants brought up the point that certain uses of ani-

mals in attractions even if controversial becauseAfter the dinner they have a place where you canof the violence involvedmdashsuch as alligator wres-meet and greet the riders and the horses They let

tling bullfighting and rodeosmdashmight seem ethi- people sit on the top of the horses and these peo-cal if it is perceived that the animals receive a fair ple are sitting on the horses kicking and snap-chance during the activity Liza (54 Michigan) ping them The kids were pulling their mane

the parents sat there and let the kids do it It hasfor example told about her experience at a bull-a sign which says ldquoplease do not feed the ani-fight in Spainmalsrdquo But I have never seen anybody out therean employee who watches that nobody tries to

Well I donrsquot think that the bull even started with feed the horses popcorn nachos or potato chipsa chance I mean if yoursquore going to get in the which I saw the horses being fedring and fight that bull then the bull should notbe sent out of the pen already stabbed with a cou- Other A few other factors were mentioned asple of daggers and already wounded coming at conditions for the ethical operation of animal-you If you choose to take on that animal you based tourist attractionsmdashor at least it was notedshould take that creature at its maximum You

that their presence increases the chances for thedonrsquot paralyze it and then take him onattractions to be positively judged Among these

[Regarding gator wrestling] I donrsquot object to factors werethat I mean if they [the wrestlers] lose they

bull The provision of sufficient food and medicallose If yoursquore going to wrestle alligators at leastdo not have an unfair advantage As long as you care to the animalsdonrsquot wrestle with the alligator with his mouth or bull Employing educated people who will be sensi-his legs taped if you want to wrestle an alliga- tive enough to the animalstor and you have a 50ndash50 chance go for it bull A strong preference to see rescued animals inSafety Negative perceptions of certain animal the exhibits over animals that were simply cap-

displays and shows were also mentioned when tured in the wild andparticipants sensed that the activity involved some bull Decent working conditions for the animals es-form of risk Regarding alligator wrestling shows pecially in regard to reasonable number offor example Gloria (33 Puerto Rico) stated working hours a day

I donrsquot like it I think itrsquos dangerous for the peo- Discussion and Conclusionsple that do that work [the wrestlers] and for the

As previously indicated the purpose of this ex-people that look at it These animals donrsquot haveploratory study was to examine the attitudes ofthe intelligence of a man so they donrsquot under-

stand the difference between a baby or a boy or tourists toward the use of animals in tourist attrac-girl I heard that once an alligator bit a trainer tions while identifying the structure of these atti- I donrsquot like it

tudes The focus group sessions revealed that thevast majority of the participants were aware of theVisitorsrsquo Behavior Some participants men-

tioned that the ethical operation of animal-based ethical difficulties of keeping animals in captivityHowever the participants also viewed animal-basedtourist attractions does not depend only on the site

itself but also on the respectful behavior on the tourist attractions as a positive phenomenon in

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 97

general and raised various justifications for their and education (see Hutchins et al 1995 Jamie-son 2006 Mason 2000 2007 Snyder et alexistence In this regard similar to the findings of

Curtin (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) about 1996) Yet even in relation to these well-discussedissues the participants had some interesting in-people who swam with captive dolphins the par-

ticipants in this study demonstrated cognitive dis- sights The role of animal attractions in educationamong others was found especially relevant tosonance The awareness of the ethical dilemmas

involved in seeing animals in captivity led the par- children and to the development of their aware-ness of nature similar to the findings of Turleyticipants to raise various reasons for the impor-

tance of their presence and in which terms animal (1999 2001) In addition the attractions were alsoperceived as contributing toward softening theattractions can be considered ethical The partici-

pantsrsquo ethical evaluation of animal-based tourist negative image of certain animalsmdashbecause oftheir behavior in the wild andor their negativeattractions was found to consist of three main lay-

ers (see Figure 1) characteristicsHowever the participants also raised justifica-First ethical attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions were based on general argu- tions that to this day have been relatively littlediscussed To many participants the attractionsments in favor of (or against) their existence In

order to develop a favorable ethical attitude to- served as a safe socioeconomic alternative to au-thentic nature tours which are often perceived asward animal attractions one should be convinced

of the validity of the ethical arguments in favor of being expensive and dangerous (see Shackley1996 for a similar argument) They were also per-their presence in the first place These arguments

did not point toward a specific attraction but ceived as enabling ldquoordinaryrdquo people to participatein activities that are reserved exclusively forrather served as an ideological basis for justifying

the use of animals in entertainment ventures in wealthy tourists or wildlife professionals thusleading to a form of ldquosocial justicerdquo Another im-general Some of the justifications raised by par-

ticipants have been discussed in the academic lit- portant justification that emerged in the focusgroups was the perception that the animals exhib-erature Those justifications that are both men-

tioned in the literature and by many of the focus ited in the attractions are better off in captivitywhere they are free of the fear of predators or ofgroup participants included conservation research

Figure 1 The three layers of ethical perceptions of animal-based tourist attractions

98 SHANI AND PIZAM

the need to search for food Finally the attractions tence of these factors partially or completely af-fects the chances of an animal-based attraction toalso created the impression among some partici-

pants that they act as another form of wildlife reg- be considered ethicalThe structure of the ethical perception of ani-ulation which is necessary for the safety and secu-

rity of human society mal-based tourist attractions as identified in thisstudy seems hierarchical in nature A person whoAlthough many of the participants in the study

justified the existence of animal-based tourist at- rejects any justification for having these attrac-tions that is who favors the abolishment of alltractions in general they also recognize that these

are not always ethically operated especially in use of animals for entertainment is expected tohave a negative attitude toward an attraction evenhistorical context The second layer which consti-

tutes the ethical perception of animal-based tourist if it adopts an ethical and responsible treatment ofthe animals On the other hand even if the exis-attractions includes driving forces that are be-

lieved to cause the attractions to treat the animals tence of animal attractions is accepted by a personand heshe believes that contemporary attractionsresponsibly The belief that contemporary animal-

based tourist attractions are considerably more are controlled by both self- and external regula-ethical than in the past derives from two factors tions there are still specific conditions that needthe power of the media and public opinion which to be fulfilled in order for this person to have ais perceived to have major impact on the operation positive attitude toward each specific attractionof the attractions and the legal and enforcement To conclude although the tourism industry re-system which is trusted to supervise their opera- lies heavily on the incorporation of animals in itstions While the former creates a form of self- attractions to date there have been no serious at-regulationmdashit is worthwhile being ethical because tempts to investigate the issue in a holistic wayit prevents negative publicitymdashthe latter repre- Specifically the ethical attitudes of the visitorssents external regulation which ensures ethical and nonvisitors toward these attractions were onlyoperation The perception that both of these driv- ambiguous and speculative The current explor-ing forces have a crucial impact on the attractions atory study found that an ethical approach towardwas significant in accounting for the participantsrsquo animal-based tourist attractions is constructedreduced ethical concerns with regard to the ways along three main levels general justifications foranimals might be treated ldquobackstagerdquo having these attractions a belief in the driving

The last layer that determined visitorsrsquo ethical forces for ethical behavior on behalf of the attrac-attitudes toward animal-based tourist attractions is tions and certain conditions for the ethical opera-linked to their judgment of each specific attrac- tion of each specific attraction This can be seention The participants in this study clearly distin- as an additional step toward a deeper understand-guished between ethical and unethical attractions ing of the ethical perceptions and judgment of ani-and provided useful indications of which condi- mal-based tourist attractions on the part of the vis-tions need to be fulfilled in order for an attraction itorsto be considered ethical The core conditions men-tioned were the natural design of the animal dis- Managerial Implicationsplays and the perception that the animals perform

Beyond the theoretical contributions the find-natural behavior factors that have already beenings of this study can also assist specific animal-addressed by many animal-based tourist attrac-based tourist attractions in their operational andtions (eg Davey 2006 Hughes et al 2005 To-marketing functions The repositioning of manymas et al 2002) Among the other prominent con-animal-based tourist attractions as sites for educa-ditions mentioned were gentle training methodstion scientific research and conservation is clearlythe perception of a ldquofair chancerdquo given to the ani-effective in providing legitimacy to their exis-mals in sport or contest situations ensuring thetence The extra attention given nowadays to natu-safety of employees and visitors and respectfulral presentation of the animals (Hughes et albehavior on the part of the visitors The views ex-

pressed by the participants suggest that the exis- 2005 Ryan amp Saward 2004) also seems to pay

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

90 SHANI AND PIZAM

are therefore not reported in relative frequencies quently wildlife conservation through animal-based tourist attractions was repeated by manyas this can be misleading (Pope et al 2000)participants as a justification for operating themTo name a few comments in this regard 25-year-Findingsold Jake from Canada said

The analysis of the focus groups revealed threemajor themes that emerged in the course of the I was watching the Discovery Channel the othersessions night Some of the species in the wild are go-

ing to be totally extinct How many species havewe lost in the past 20 to 30 years Zoos are defi-1 General justifications for having animal-basednitely doing something to preserve endangeredtourist attractions species

2 Driving forces responsible for ethical use of an-imals in tourist attractions and Liza (54 Michigan) claimed

3 Conditions for the ethical operation of animal-based tourist attractions I think this [the existence of animal attractions]

helps to keep some of the species alive Imean animals that are in danger if you canMost of the participantsrsquo comments related tointervene even if it is situation like that and therethese issues although they were not asked directlyis a controlled environment you can still help to

about them They were mentioned and described keep the species aliveby participants as central factors in their ethicalevaluation of animal-based tourist attractions Dana (50 Wisconsin) also agreed

General Justifications for Having Animal-Based The nature of the panda bear is going extinct un-less they start breeding it in the zoos It is betterTourist Attractionsthis way than not breeding them at all it keeps

The vast majority of the participants in the the species alivestudy were supportive of animal-based tourist at-tractions and drew much pleasure from visiting The concept of conservation also gives some ofthem Stories about enjoyable and exciting experi- the participants the impression (or the belief) thatences in animal-based tourist attractions were told captivity of endangered species is a temporary so-in the three focus groups However the partici- lution until they are eventually released into thepants did acknowledge the ethical dilemmas in- wild As mentioned by Mark (43 Maryland)volved in keeping animals for entertainment pur-

[Animal attractions] are unnatural habitationsposes alone thus they raised other reasons forbut theyrsquore helping preserve animals A lot of en-justifying the necessity to operate them Some ofdangered species have being brought out becausethe following arguments in favor of animal-basedof the way they have been bredmdashwhether it was

attractions have appeared previously in the litera- in captivity or in conservatories in the wildture although in most cases they were not sug-

Education Most of the participants stressedgested by tourists but rather by advocates of ani-the importance of the role animal-based tourist at-mal-based attractionstractions play in education especially in the devel-

Conservation Many animal-based tourist at- opment of awareness of wildlife among childrentractions highlight their role in the conservation Visiting animal-based tourist attractions with chil-and preservation of endangered species and this dren was perceived by parents and nonparentsmessage seems to have trickled down into peo- alike as an entertainment activity but as one withplersquos hearts and minds The participants suggested educational benefits This view was exemplifiedthat popular nature TV channels such as National by Liza (54 Michigan) who statedGeographic and Animal Planet were responsiblefor the increase in awareness and knowledge on This is the third time [that we have visited Or-

lando] and we have not yet seen Disney World Iconservation and preservation measures Conse-

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 91

donrsquot think there is anything wrong with some of that was one of the coolest things Irsquove everdonemdashalthough it was only for two minutes the man-made attractions but I think itrsquos nice

when they encompass nature and you can teach So I got to hold this little gator in my hands andthat for me was I went to see alligators atyour kids something as wellnight before and it was a cool experience but Inever got so close to one and I never consideredA similar argument of the crucial function of ani-them as animals I think that people need to real-mal attractions for the development of childrenize that theyrsquore also a part of the animal society

was illustrated by Heather (26 Florida) a nonpar-ent who claimed that animal attractions if operat-

A similar notion was expressed by Mark (43ing ethically play an important role in preventing

Maryland)other cruel forms of use made of animals by serv-ing as an example of the responsible way of treat-

The killer whalersquos a good example of an animaling animalsthat has a much better reputation [nowadays] be-cause of its controlled environment [in animal

People need to realize that kids are really our fu- attractions] Yoursquore thinking about Shamu [theture and we need to educate and show them the name of the Sea World iconic orca show] but ifgood ways of treating animals and the good you watch National Geographic yoursquoll see theways of raising animals and interacting with them killer whale bite the seal with his teeth and throwand preserving and everything else Because him aroundotherwise if we let it slip we will see peopletreat dogs wrong animals will be beaten Research Some participants also referred tocockfighting and bullfighting They will think itrsquos the role of animal-based tourist attractions in re-OK search One of these participants was Keith (50

Detroit) who statedIn this line of argument the responsible use ofanimals in attractions is more ethically sound than

I agree that they [animal attractions] bring ani-not using them at all Mark (43 Maryland) alsomals mainly for entertainment purposes but I

stressed that the educational contributions of ani- think of biology whenever I see an opportunitymal attractions are for the benefits of the animals for research I am always thinking about it in

the back of my head Having that polar bear herethemselvesis an opportunity to do research or learn some-thing about it Itrsquos an opportunity to learn moreI think that itrsquoll be worse for the animals if youabout that speciesstop that kind of thing [animal attractions] and

therersquoll be no education and awareness about thisThe zoos and theme parksmdashtheyrsquore making you According to Kristina (30 Florida)aware of it They educate a little bit about theanimals while if you will not have it and people

Some of the theme parks use animals for enter-will not be exposed to animalsmdashwho will caretainment purposes but they may also use them(about the animals)for research purposes or [to learn] how to savethe species from getting extinct I think there are

Finally animal-based tourist attractions were per- some good attributes to these attractions in thisceived by some participants to contribute toward respectsoftening the negative image of certain animals(especially predators) making them less intimidat- The idea that research in captivity conditions ising and more appealing to the wide public In this sometimes the only way scientists can learn aboutregard close encounters with animals with nega- wildlife was illustrated by Liza (54 Michigan)tive associations in attractions might make them who argued thatlegitimate members of ldquoanimal societyrdquo For ex-ample Kristin (27 Michigan) spoke of a personal No one whorsquos involved with zoological or marineexperience she had research will ever get that type of knowledge of

interaction with any of those animals unless hecan do it in a controlled and well-maintained en-When I went to Gatorland a couple of years ago

I had the opportunity to hold a baby gator and vironment

92 SHANI AND PIZAM

aries are in some cases unlimited and the animalsHowever it should be noted that this type of argu-can roam free in their own habitat When yoursquorement was relatively rare during the focus groupin Animal Kingdom you donrsquot feel like yoursquore

sessions in Orlando Florida so well done for that job

Alternative to Nature Many participants in theAnother benefit of animal-based tourist attractionsstudy viewed animal-based tourist attractions as anthat the participants mentioned was that they allowaffordable and friendly way to see wildlife Be-ordinary people to experience what is usually ex-cause seeing wildlife in their natural habitat (egclusively reserved for wildlife professionals or forsafari tours in Africa) is perceived as a very ex-people who spend considerable funds in animal-pensive and dangerous adventure protected touristrelated leisure activities For example Jake (25settings represent a safe and inexpensive solutionCanada) who is a scuba diving instructor arguedto the desire to watch wildlife Liza (54 Michi-thatgan) for example argued

We [scuba divers] have the opportunity to seeWho else can see a polar bear unless you go to coral reef and fish in the ocean not like peoplethe zoo a lot of people canrsquot afford to go to who donrsquot dive They donrsquot have the opportunitythe Arctic Pole and see a polar bear to see that for them going to Sea World is the

closest thing they can get to see something I cansee normallyWendy (66 Britain) also noted that

The security and safety factors were also acknowl-[Animal attractions] allow people who canrsquot goedged by some participants in the sense that ani-on safaris to see wildlife it gives them a feeling

of what itrsquos like mal-based tourist attractions are a safe alternativeto tours in natural settings which might be risky

Although many of the participants stated that natu- In this regard Heather (26 Florida) mentionedral sites are preferable to contrived ones the latter

My cousin visited Animal Kingdom with mestill constitute a reasonable alternative and it iswhen she was 4 years old and we went on a sa-certainly better than not to see wildlife at all Mi-fari tour there Then a giraffe got very close tochael (36 Britain) for example mentionedthe jeep and she [my cousin] thought that it wascool to stare at the animal In a real safari this

For me personally the Everglades National Park could be dangerous You canrsquot have this kind ofis the place Irsquod like to see animals and alligators experiencemdashstanding so close to an animalmdashinIt wouldnrsquot be man-made attractions with ani- the natural sidemals It would be something thatrsquos natural likethe Everglades Itrsquos all swamps and the animals Finally in addition to the role of animal-basedlive there because itrsquos their habitat not because

tourist attractions as an alternative to watching an-theyrsquove been put there and fed but my chil-imals in the wild they can also be perceived as adren never get the chance to see killer whales insubstitute for natural places in general becausenature so itrsquos something nice for them to see in

the parks they provide a more relaxed atmosphere than otherentertaining attractions As Kristin (27 Michigan)

In this regard some of the participants indicated pointed outtheir preference for animal theme parks over tradi-

Animal attractions like Sea World or Animaltional zoos because of their more naturalistic pre-Kingdom are more for a relaxing day These aresentation of the animals and the ldquoopen spacerdquo de-pretty much all the natural attractions that yousign of the exhibits Patrick (41 Miami) statedhave here [in Orlando] because the beaches areabout an hour and half from here Sea World

When I visited the San Diego Zoo I couldnrsquot is like a nice day at the beachmdashif you donrsquot wantimagine myself in a savanna whereas in Animal to drive to the beachKingdom I certainly canmdashwithin a split second

Benefits to Individual Animals In addition toYou just become immersed when yoursquore inthese expanded theme parks when the bound- the justifications for having animal attractions that

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 93

cities You gotta have some control of the ani-focus on their benefits to humans or to the ecosys-mals and their environmenttem as a whole (such as conservation) some par-

ticipants also argued that confined environmentsThis ideas was continued by Mark (43 Maryland)offer advantages to the exhibited animals them-who statedselves This view is explained by arguing that cap-

tive wildlife are free from predators and have noI think that when you see them [the animals] infood concerns Michael (36 Britain) stated that hethe parks you kind of gain respect for their con-

had no problem with petting zoos although this trolled environment if you didnrsquot have thatkind of activity might cause discomfort to the ani- controlled environment yoursquod have heard on the

six o-clock news all the time ldquoa lion attackedmals becausetodayrdquo

the sorts of animals we are talking about are atthe bottom of the food chain so a kid petting Driving Forces for Ethical Animal-Basedthem is a better life [than living in nature] Tourist Attractions

Throughout the focus group sessions althoughKeith (50 Detroit) expanded on the idea that amost the participants were supporters of animal-confined setting provides a secure environment forbased tourist attractions they also expressed somethe animals by giving a personal exampleconcerns over the welfare of the animals exhibitedand over the ethical aspects of keeping them inI got a 750-gallon salt water aquarium I lookcaptivity However there was also a clear percep-at them [the fish] and I think that I give them a

better life than if they were in the ocean because tion among most of the participants that contem-they might not have survived that long I have porary animal-based tourist attractions are funda-fish that lived 8 to 10 years and if they were in mentally different from this type of attraction inthe open water they would be a meal for some-

the past This way the belief that the present at-body elsetractions embody drastic improvements in the ethi-cal treatment of animals helps alleviate some ofAnother argument put forward by some of the par-the feelings of discomfort that might arise whileticipants was that the conditions of the animals invisiting animal-based tourist attractions or think-the attractions are much better than those in othering about animals in captivity and is an importantforms of captivity which could have been the fatefactor in their ethical approval This perceptionof some of these animals For example Dana (50was clearly apparent in statements like that of JakeWisconsin) argued that people who support the(25 Canada)abolishment of animal-based tourist attractions need

Yes Irsquom a little concerned about that [keepingto turn on and look at the SPCA [Society of theanimals in captivity] but then again when IPrevention of Cruelty to Animals] shelters wheresaw SeaWorld when I was a kid it was not any-they have their dogsmdashsix dogs in a cage andthing like it is nowthey fight all the time and they pee on the floor

and itrsquos not cleaned up until the next day Theyare kept in very close and small cages and of Kim (55 Michigan)

Regulation of Wildlife Although this issue was[the attractions today] are first-class operations

only raised by two participants it is interesting to Since the old days of the sea aquarium in Miaminote that animal-based tourist attractions might wersquove come a long wayalso be perceived as a means to regulate and su-

Public Opinion A common view among thepervise the natural environment and the wildlifeparticipants was that because the general public isJim (52 Michigan) illustrated this point by sayingmore concerned about animal welfare today thanin the past the ldquofree-marketrdquo approach will natu-If we let the animals just do what they want itrsquollrally mean that the attractions will be more ethi-be chaos In some countries you got cows and

horses and chickens walking all through the cally sensitive in their treatment of animals In

94 SHANI AND PIZAM

I think that circuses are getting bad publicity Irsquomother words the concern about bad public rela-sure that there is animal abuse there as was his-tions or negative reactions on the part of visitorstorically but Irsquod like to thinkmdashmaybe Irsquom just

regarding animal abuse has led to the appearance living in Happy Landmdashthat animals are treated aof a self-regulation mechanism in the attractions little more humanely nowadays just because all

of the things that were brought up in the newsthemselves Since visitors expect today to seeAnd if theyrsquore not if something came out to thewell-treated animals it is in the interest of the at-press then that circus would be done with busi-tractions to meet this expectation Keith (50 De-ness Because there are so many people out there

troit) illustrated this view that care

Legal System and Institutional SupervisionI think that public awareness has probably madeAnother factor that helped to ease some of the par-animal attractions change their attitudes because

that is their livelihood The attractions know ticipantsrsquo ethical concerns regarding animal-basedthat the animals are their bread and butter so tourist attractions was their trust in the legal sys-theyrsquore going to do everything they can to make tem and in the power and influence of animal wel-a friendly place for them

fare organizations For example when the issue ofrodeos and circuses arose in one of the sessions

The role of the demand for ethical treatment in theDana (50 Wisconsin) said

perceived changing nature of animal-based touristattractions was heavily emphasized For example

Rodeos like we have here in the States I donrsquotLiza (54 Michigan) argued believe they kill the horses do they I guess

therersquos a certain amount of governmental control Is thereThey [the attractions] seem to have more knowl-

edge of how to manage animals but they alsohave something to protect because if they donrsquot However some participants felt that more tightdo it [act ethically] they will be out of business external control should be put on the attractionsAnd this is caused by the consumers who put

as stated by Katie (25 Illinois)more pressure They [the attractions] have toplease the public and the almighty dollar to keepthe operation going If we continue to have these attractions and con-

tinue to visit them I think we should have stricterregulations to protect the animals so theyrsquoll beThe view that fear of negative public opinion leadsin a more natural environment The laws are

to ethical behavior seemed to be strengthened by stricter in this countrymdashthe animals look wellthe belief in the power of the mass media In this kept especially in the big organizations that ownrespect the perception was that in times of ldquoopen these establishments But for local zoos and cir-

cuses the law is not there They look OK but youinformationrdquo and wide media coverage unethicaljust donrsquot know we need stricter lawsoperations will not be able to survive long As

noted by Keith (50 Detroit)Conditions for Ethical Operationof Animal-Based Tourist AttractionsTelevision cameras might sneak into zoos and see

the elephant trainers using whips and hit the ele- The participants in the study made a clear dis-phants it can destroy the operation real quick tinction between ethical and nonethical animal- All you have to do today is get the news in-

based tourist attractions while elaborating on thevolved and say ldquoLook what theyrsquore doing necessary or desirable conditions for such sites tothey are feeding that koala bear vanilla ice cream

all day long and that is not rightrdquo So they are be considered ethical In addition they also pro-going to make the public aware and go on the vided information on the standards for how toChannel 7 news then people will start reading measure if an attraction in general or a certainthe editorial in the paper and it will escalate

display in particular could be perceived as beingethical

When the issue of circuses and their negative im-age was mentioned during one of the sessions Natural Environment The designing of con-

trived natural environments in the animal displaysHeather (26 Florida) stated

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 95

and exhibits was one of the main factors leading Training Methods Another factor that was re-peated during the focus group sessions was theto more positive attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions This notion was illustrated in ethical requirement that performing animals betrained gently without being inflicted any painthe words of Patrick (41 Miami)suffering or distress It is important to note thatanimal shows were not perceived as unethical inAttractions with animals are great to be around

and great to spend time with But I always themselves but only when associated with themind to the fact that they are caged You know cruel treatment of animals This perception wasthey try to make them as natural as possible but

exemplified by Kristin (27 Michigan)they have borders They are unnatural environ-ments and the animals must be aware of thatmdash

A lot of people thinkmdashoh training animals andthey can sense things like that I love to go thereteaching them tricks is cruel but you canrsquot teachbut you canrsquot help wondermdashare they feelinga trick if the animal doesnrsquot want to learn it un-trapped in this environment I prefer the moreless yoursquore harsh to it [In reference to a pet showupdated parks when the boundaries have beenshe saw]mdashThey have so many kinds of animalsincreased and enlarged and they try to bringthere Theyrsquore all rescued animals but the train-them back to their original habitaters donrsquot use whips and they donrsquot use any kind

Natural Behavior The negative public rela- of punishment only positive reinforcement MyGod I donrsquot like to see whips like they use intions that circuses and circus-like shows have beensome of the dinner shows As I said if the ani-absorbing in recent years was clearly expressed inmals want to perform itrsquos a different story A lot

the preference of some of the participants for of the dolphin attractions the dolphins like towatching (what they perceived as) natural behav- perform itrsquos fun itrsquos a game for them You donrsquotior of animals It should be noted that in some need to use a whip and you donrsquot need to use

something that is not a positive reinforcementcases even animal shows which have been criti-[In reference to a dinner show she had been to]cized in the past might be perceived as allowing

the performing animals to express natural behav-In this regard the common impression of theior For example Liza (54 Michigan) when refer-closeness between performing animals and theirring to dolphin shows argued thattrainers was for some of the participants a reassur-ance that the animals were not being abused This

When you see a whale jump out of the water andperception was strengthened by their reliance oncome by the trainermdashthatrsquos actually natural pred-their own eyes in the sense of ldquoseeing is believ-atory type of behavior for him when hunting

seals in the ocean ingrdquo For example Jim (52 Michigan) argued that

at Sea World you look at the people and theyrsquoreSome cases however might be judged differentlyall having a good time and the trainers look closeas illustrated by Michael (36 Britain) regardingto the animals and it looks like the animals are inbird exhibits a friendly environment

I find it harder to see a bird in a cage than any This notion was also illustrated by Heather (26other animal because of the nature of a bird Hersquos Florida)a flyer

When I was a kid my parents took me to a cir-Another reference to this issue was made by Kris- cus but I havenrsquot gone since I like it when theretin (27 Michigan) who stressed the importance of is more human interaction In regard to shows

like the Pet Ahoy and the dolphin showsmdashthethe animalrsquos free willanimals want to be there because theyrsquore [the an-imals and the trainers] friends for life You canAnything you do to instigate a reactionmdashridingsee the closeness and the bond between the ani-a bull or cockfightingmdashyou need to instigatemals and the trainersthem to do that Thatrsquos unnatural and unneces-

sary Itrsquos one thing if the animal wants to do itNevertheless some of the participants recognizedand itrsquos a different thing if you stab him with a

stick their limitations in judging whether an animal was

96 SHANI AND PIZAM

being abused during its training For example part of the visitors This point was illustrated byMark (43 Maryland) who statedBruno (53 Michigan) noted that

It upsets me to see in zoos teenagers whorsquore try-[in animal shows] you only see the finished prod-ing to impress their friends by throwing some-uct you donrsquot see the training You actually havething at the animals I think why wonrsquot you getto be there when the training is been conductedon the other side of the fence and do thatHowever from what I see on TV it seems that

the animals are pretty well trained and not abusedat all Another prominent example was given by Dana

(50 Wisconsin) regarding a dinner show she par-The Concept of Fairness Some of the partici-ticipated inpants brought up the point that certain uses of ani-

mals in attractions even if controversial becauseAfter the dinner they have a place where you canof the violence involvedmdashsuch as alligator wres-meet and greet the riders and the horses They let

tling bullfighting and rodeosmdashmight seem ethi- people sit on the top of the horses and these peo-cal if it is perceived that the animals receive a fair ple are sitting on the horses kicking and snap-chance during the activity Liza (54 Michigan) ping them The kids were pulling their mane

the parents sat there and let the kids do it It hasfor example told about her experience at a bull-a sign which says ldquoplease do not feed the ani-fight in Spainmalsrdquo But I have never seen anybody out therean employee who watches that nobody tries to

Well I donrsquot think that the bull even started with feed the horses popcorn nachos or potato chipsa chance I mean if yoursquore going to get in the which I saw the horses being fedring and fight that bull then the bull should notbe sent out of the pen already stabbed with a cou- Other A few other factors were mentioned asple of daggers and already wounded coming at conditions for the ethical operation of animal-you If you choose to take on that animal you based tourist attractionsmdashor at least it was notedshould take that creature at its maximum You

that their presence increases the chances for thedonrsquot paralyze it and then take him onattractions to be positively judged Among these

[Regarding gator wrestling] I donrsquot object to factors werethat I mean if they [the wrestlers] lose they

bull The provision of sufficient food and medicallose If yoursquore going to wrestle alligators at leastdo not have an unfair advantage As long as you care to the animalsdonrsquot wrestle with the alligator with his mouth or bull Employing educated people who will be sensi-his legs taped if you want to wrestle an alliga- tive enough to the animalstor and you have a 50ndash50 chance go for it bull A strong preference to see rescued animals inSafety Negative perceptions of certain animal the exhibits over animals that were simply cap-

displays and shows were also mentioned when tured in the wild andparticipants sensed that the activity involved some bull Decent working conditions for the animals es-form of risk Regarding alligator wrestling shows pecially in regard to reasonable number offor example Gloria (33 Puerto Rico) stated working hours a day

I donrsquot like it I think itrsquos dangerous for the peo- Discussion and Conclusionsple that do that work [the wrestlers] and for the

As previously indicated the purpose of this ex-people that look at it These animals donrsquot haveploratory study was to examine the attitudes ofthe intelligence of a man so they donrsquot under-

stand the difference between a baby or a boy or tourists toward the use of animals in tourist attrac-girl I heard that once an alligator bit a trainer tions while identifying the structure of these atti- I donrsquot like it

tudes The focus group sessions revealed that thevast majority of the participants were aware of theVisitorsrsquo Behavior Some participants men-

tioned that the ethical operation of animal-based ethical difficulties of keeping animals in captivityHowever the participants also viewed animal-basedtourist attractions does not depend only on the site

itself but also on the respectful behavior on the tourist attractions as a positive phenomenon in

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 97

general and raised various justifications for their and education (see Hutchins et al 1995 Jamie-son 2006 Mason 2000 2007 Snyder et alexistence In this regard similar to the findings of

Curtin (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) about 1996) Yet even in relation to these well-discussedissues the participants had some interesting in-people who swam with captive dolphins the par-

ticipants in this study demonstrated cognitive dis- sights The role of animal attractions in educationamong others was found especially relevant tosonance The awareness of the ethical dilemmas

involved in seeing animals in captivity led the par- children and to the development of their aware-ness of nature similar to the findings of Turleyticipants to raise various reasons for the impor-

tance of their presence and in which terms animal (1999 2001) In addition the attractions were alsoperceived as contributing toward softening theattractions can be considered ethical The partici-

pantsrsquo ethical evaluation of animal-based tourist negative image of certain animalsmdashbecause oftheir behavior in the wild andor their negativeattractions was found to consist of three main lay-

ers (see Figure 1) characteristicsHowever the participants also raised justifica-First ethical attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions were based on general argu- tions that to this day have been relatively littlediscussed To many participants the attractionsments in favor of (or against) their existence In

order to develop a favorable ethical attitude to- served as a safe socioeconomic alternative to au-thentic nature tours which are often perceived asward animal attractions one should be convinced

of the validity of the ethical arguments in favor of being expensive and dangerous (see Shackley1996 for a similar argument) They were also per-their presence in the first place These arguments

did not point toward a specific attraction but ceived as enabling ldquoordinaryrdquo people to participatein activities that are reserved exclusively forrather served as an ideological basis for justifying

the use of animals in entertainment ventures in wealthy tourists or wildlife professionals thusleading to a form of ldquosocial justicerdquo Another im-general Some of the justifications raised by par-

ticipants have been discussed in the academic lit- portant justification that emerged in the focusgroups was the perception that the animals exhib-erature Those justifications that are both men-

tioned in the literature and by many of the focus ited in the attractions are better off in captivitywhere they are free of the fear of predators or ofgroup participants included conservation research

Figure 1 The three layers of ethical perceptions of animal-based tourist attractions

98 SHANI AND PIZAM

the need to search for food Finally the attractions tence of these factors partially or completely af-fects the chances of an animal-based attraction toalso created the impression among some partici-

pants that they act as another form of wildlife reg- be considered ethicalThe structure of the ethical perception of ani-ulation which is necessary for the safety and secu-

rity of human society mal-based tourist attractions as identified in thisstudy seems hierarchical in nature A person whoAlthough many of the participants in the study

justified the existence of animal-based tourist at- rejects any justification for having these attrac-tions that is who favors the abolishment of alltractions in general they also recognize that these

are not always ethically operated especially in use of animals for entertainment is expected tohave a negative attitude toward an attraction evenhistorical context The second layer which consti-

tutes the ethical perception of animal-based tourist if it adopts an ethical and responsible treatment ofthe animals On the other hand even if the exis-attractions includes driving forces that are be-

lieved to cause the attractions to treat the animals tence of animal attractions is accepted by a personand heshe believes that contemporary attractionsresponsibly The belief that contemporary animal-

based tourist attractions are considerably more are controlled by both self- and external regula-ethical than in the past derives from two factors tions there are still specific conditions that needthe power of the media and public opinion which to be fulfilled in order for this person to have ais perceived to have major impact on the operation positive attitude toward each specific attractionof the attractions and the legal and enforcement To conclude although the tourism industry re-system which is trusted to supervise their opera- lies heavily on the incorporation of animals in itstions While the former creates a form of self- attractions to date there have been no serious at-regulationmdashit is worthwhile being ethical because tempts to investigate the issue in a holistic wayit prevents negative publicitymdashthe latter repre- Specifically the ethical attitudes of the visitorssents external regulation which ensures ethical and nonvisitors toward these attractions were onlyoperation The perception that both of these driv- ambiguous and speculative The current explor-ing forces have a crucial impact on the attractions atory study found that an ethical approach towardwas significant in accounting for the participantsrsquo animal-based tourist attractions is constructedreduced ethical concerns with regard to the ways along three main levels general justifications foranimals might be treated ldquobackstagerdquo having these attractions a belief in the driving

The last layer that determined visitorsrsquo ethical forces for ethical behavior on behalf of the attrac-attitudes toward animal-based tourist attractions is tions and certain conditions for the ethical opera-linked to their judgment of each specific attrac- tion of each specific attraction This can be seention The participants in this study clearly distin- as an additional step toward a deeper understand-guished between ethical and unethical attractions ing of the ethical perceptions and judgment of ani-and provided useful indications of which condi- mal-based tourist attractions on the part of the vis-tions need to be fulfilled in order for an attraction itorsto be considered ethical The core conditions men-tioned were the natural design of the animal dis- Managerial Implicationsplays and the perception that the animals perform

Beyond the theoretical contributions the find-natural behavior factors that have already beenings of this study can also assist specific animal-addressed by many animal-based tourist attrac-based tourist attractions in their operational andtions (eg Davey 2006 Hughes et al 2005 To-marketing functions The repositioning of manymas et al 2002) Among the other prominent con-animal-based tourist attractions as sites for educa-ditions mentioned were gentle training methodstion scientific research and conservation is clearlythe perception of a ldquofair chancerdquo given to the ani-effective in providing legitimacy to their exis-mals in sport or contest situations ensuring thetence The extra attention given nowadays to natu-safety of employees and visitors and respectfulral presentation of the animals (Hughes et albehavior on the part of the visitors The views ex-

pressed by the participants suggest that the exis- 2005 Ryan amp Saward 2004) also seems to pay

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 91

donrsquot think there is anything wrong with some of that was one of the coolest things Irsquove everdonemdashalthough it was only for two minutes the man-made attractions but I think itrsquos nice

when they encompass nature and you can teach So I got to hold this little gator in my hands andthat for me was I went to see alligators atyour kids something as wellnight before and it was a cool experience but Inever got so close to one and I never consideredA similar argument of the crucial function of ani-them as animals I think that people need to real-mal attractions for the development of childrenize that theyrsquore also a part of the animal society

was illustrated by Heather (26 Florida) a nonpar-ent who claimed that animal attractions if operat-

A similar notion was expressed by Mark (43ing ethically play an important role in preventing

Maryland)other cruel forms of use made of animals by serv-ing as an example of the responsible way of treat-

The killer whalersquos a good example of an animaling animalsthat has a much better reputation [nowadays] be-cause of its controlled environment [in animal

People need to realize that kids are really our fu- attractions] Yoursquore thinking about Shamu [theture and we need to educate and show them the name of the Sea World iconic orca show] but ifgood ways of treating animals and the good you watch National Geographic yoursquoll see theways of raising animals and interacting with them killer whale bite the seal with his teeth and throwand preserving and everything else Because him aroundotherwise if we let it slip we will see peopletreat dogs wrong animals will be beaten Research Some participants also referred tocockfighting and bullfighting They will think itrsquos the role of animal-based tourist attractions in re-OK search One of these participants was Keith (50

Detroit) who statedIn this line of argument the responsible use ofanimals in attractions is more ethically sound than

I agree that they [animal attractions] bring ani-not using them at all Mark (43 Maryland) alsomals mainly for entertainment purposes but I

stressed that the educational contributions of ani- think of biology whenever I see an opportunitymal attractions are for the benefits of the animals for research I am always thinking about it in

the back of my head Having that polar bear herethemselvesis an opportunity to do research or learn some-thing about it Itrsquos an opportunity to learn moreI think that itrsquoll be worse for the animals if youabout that speciesstop that kind of thing [animal attractions] and

therersquoll be no education and awareness about thisThe zoos and theme parksmdashtheyrsquore making you According to Kristina (30 Florida)aware of it They educate a little bit about theanimals while if you will not have it and people

Some of the theme parks use animals for enter-will not be exposed to animalsmdashwho will caretainment purposes but they may also use them(about the animals)for research purposes or [to learn] how to savethe species from getting extinct I think there are

Finally animal-based tourist attractions were per- some good attributes to these attractions in thisceived by some participants to contribute toward respectsoftening the negative image of certain animals(especially predators) making them less intimidat- The idea that research in captivity conditions ising and more appealing to the wide public In this sometimes the only way scientists can learn aboutregard close encounters with animals with nega- wildlife was illustrated by Liza (54 Michigan)tive associations in attractions might make them who argued thatlegitimate members of ldquoanimal societyrdquo For ex-ample Kristin (27 Michigan) spoke of a personal No one whorsquos involved with zoological or marineexperience she had research will ever get that type of knowledge of

interaction with any of those animals unless hecan do it in a controlled and well-maintained en-When I went to Gatorland a couple of years ago

I had the opportunity to hold a baby gator and vironment

92 SHANI AND PIZAM

aries are in some cases unlimited and the animalsHowever it should be noted that this type of argu-can roam free in their own habitat When yoursquorement was relatively rare during the focus groupin Animal Kingdom you donrsquot feel like yoursquore

sessions in Orlando Florida so well done for that job

Alternative to Nature Many participants in theAnother benefit of animal-based tourist attractionsstudy viewed animal-based tourist attractions as anthat the participants mentioned was that they allowaffordable and friendly way to see wildlife Be-ordinary people to experience what is usually ex-cause seeing wildlife in their natural habitat (egclusively reserved for wildlife professionals or forsafari tours in Africa) is perceived as a very ex-people who spend considerable funds in animal-pensive and dangerous adventure protected touristrelated leisure activities For example Jake (25settings represent a safe and inexpensive solutionCanada) who is a scuba diving instructor arguedto the desire to watch wildlife Liza (54 Michi-thatgan) for example argued

We [scuba divers] have the opportunity to seeWho else can see a polar bear unless you go to coral reef and fish in the ocean not like peoplethe zoo a lot of people canrsquot afford to go to who donrsquot dive They donrsquot have the opportunitythe Arctic Pole and see a polar bear to see that for them going to Sea World is the

closest thing they can get to see something I cansee normallyWendy (66 Britain) also noted that

The security and safety factors were also acknowl-[Animal attractions] allow people who canrsquot goedged by some participants in the sense that ani-on safaris to see wildlife it gives them a feeling

of what itrsquos like mal-based tourist attractions are a safe alternativeto tours in natural settings which might be risky

Although many of the participants stated that natu- In this regard Heather (26 Florida) mentionedral sites are preferable to contrived ones the latter

My cousin visited Animal Kingdom with mestill constitute a reasonable alternative and it iswhen she was 4 years old and we went on a sa-certainly better than not to see wildlife at all Mi-fari tour there Then a giraffe got very close tochael (36 Britain) for example mentionedthe jeep and she [my cousin] thought that it wascool to stare at the animal In a real safari this

For me personally the Everglades National Park could be dangerous You canrsquot have this kind ofis the place Irsquod like to see animals and alligators experiencemdashstanding so close to an animalmdashinIt wouldnrsquot be man-made attractions with ani- the natural sidemals It would be something thatrsquos natural likethe Everglades Itrsquos all swamps and the animals Finally in addition to the role of animal-basedlive there because itrsquos their habitat not because

tourist attractions as an alternative to watching an-theyrsquove been put there and fed but my chil-imals in the wild they can also be perceived as adren never get the chance to see killer whales insubstitute for natural places in general becausenature so itrsquos something nice for them to see in

the parks they provide a more relaxed atmosphere than otherentertaining attractions As Kristin (27 Michigan)

In this regard some of the participants indicated pointed outtheir preference for animal theme parks over tradi-

Animal attractions like Sea World or Animaltional zoos because of their more naturalistic pre-Kingdom are more for a relaxing day These aresentation of the animals and the ldquoopen spacerdquo de-pretty much all the natural attractions that yousign of the exhibits Patrick (41 Miami) statedhave here [in Orlando] because the beaches areabout an hour and half from here Sea World

When I visited the San Diego Zoo I couldnrsquot is like a nice day at the beachmdashif you donrsquot wantimagine myself in a savanna whereas in Animal to drive to the beachKingdom I certainly canmdashwithin a split second

Benefits to Individual Animals In addition toYou just become immersed when yoursquore inthese expanded theme parks when the bound- the justifications for having animal attractions that

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 93

cities You gotta have some control of the ani-focus on their benefits to humans or to the ecosys-mals and their environmenttem as a whole (such as conservation) some par-

ticipants also argued that confined environmentsThis ideas was continued by Mark (43 Maryland)offer advantages to the exhibited animals them-who statedselves This view is explained by arguing that cap-

tive wildlife are free from predators and have noI think that when you see them [the animals] infood concerns Michael (36 Britain) stated that hethe parks you kind of gain respect for their con-

had no problem with petting zoos although this trolled environment if you didnrsquot have thatkind of activity might cause discomfort to the ani- controlled environment yoursquod have heard on the

six o-clock news all the time ldquoa lion attackedmals becausetodayrdquo

the sorts of animals we are talking about are atthe bottom of the food chain so a kid petting Driving Forces for Ethical Animal-Basedthem is a better life [than living in nature] Tourist Attractions

Throughout the focus group sessions althoughKeith (50 Detroit) expanded on the idea that amost the participants were supporters of animal-confined setting provides a secure environment forbased tourist attractions they also expressed somethe animals by giving a personal exampleconcerns over the welfare of the animals exhibitedand over the ethical aspects of keeping them inI got a 750-gallon salt water aquarium I lookcaptivity However there was also a clear percep-at them [the fish] and I think that I give them a

better life than if they were in the ocean because tion among most of the participants that contem-they might not have survived that long I have porary animal-based tourist attractions are funda-fish that lived 8 to 10 years and if they were in mentally different from this type of attraction inthe open water they would be a meal for some-

the past This way the belief that the present at-body elsetractions embody drastic improvements in the ethi-cal treatment of animals helps alleviate some ofAnother argument put forward by some of the par-the feelings of discomfort that might arise whileticipants was that the conditions of the animals invisiting animal-based tourist attractions or think-the attractions are much better than those in othering about animals in captivity and is an importantforms of captivity which could have been the fatefactor in their ethical approval This perceptionof some of these animals For example Dana (50was clearly apparent in statements like that of JakeWisconsin) argued that people who support the(25 Canada)abolishment of animal-based tourist attractions need

Yes Irsquom a little concerned about that [keepingto turn on and look at the SPCA [Society of theanimals in captivity] but then again when IPrevention of Cruelty to Animals] shelters wheresaw SeaWorld when I was a kid it was not any-they have their dogsmdashsix dogs in a cage andthing like it is nowthey fight all the time and they pee on the floor

and itrsquos not cleaned up until the next day Theyare kept in very close and small cages and of Kim (55 Michigan)

Regulation of Wildlife Although this issue was[the attractions today] are first-class operations

only raised by two participants it is interesting to Since the old days of the sea aquarium in Miaminote that animal-based tourist attractions might wersquove come a long wayalso be perceived as a means to regulate and su-

Public Opinion A common view among thepervise the natural environment and the wildlifeparticipants was that because the general public isJim (52 Michigan) illustrated this point by sayingmore concerned about animal welfare today thanin the past the ldquofree-marketrdquo approach will natu-If we let the animals just do what they want itrsquollrally mean that the attractions will be more ethi-be chaos In some countries you got cows and

horses and chickens walking all through the cally sensitive in their treatment of animals In

94 SHANI AND PIZAM

I think that circuses are getting bad publicity Irsquomother words the concern about bad public rela-sure that there is animal abuse there as was his-tions or negative reactions on the part of visitorstorically but Irsquod like to thinkmdashmaybe Irsquom just

regarding animal abuse has led to the appearance living in Happy Landmdashthat animals are treated aof a self-regulation mechanism in the attractions little more humanely nowadays just because all

of the things that were brought up in the newsthemselves Since visitors expect today to seeAnd if theyrsquore not if something came out to thewell-treated animals it is in the interest of the at-press then that circus would be done with busi-tractions to meet this expectation Keith (50 De-ness Because there are so many people out there

troit) illustrated this view that care

Legal System and Institutional SupervisionI think that public awareness has probably madeAnother factor that helped to ease some of the par-animal attractions change their attitudes because

that is their livelihood The attractions know ticipantsrsquo ethical concerns regarding animal-basedthat the animals are their bread and butter so tourist attractions was their trust in the legal sys-theyrsquore going to do everything they can to make tem and in the power and influence of animal wel-a friendly place for them

fare organizations For example when the issue ofrodeos and circuses arose in one of the sessions

The role of the demand for ethical treatment in theDana (50 Wisconsin) said

perceived changing nature of animal-based touristattractions was heavily emphasized For example

Rodeos like we have here in the States I donrsquotLiza (54 Michigan) argued believe they kill the horses do they I guess

therersquos a certain amount of governmental control Is thereThey [the attractions] seem to have more knowl-

edge of how to manage animals but they alsohave something to protect because if they donrsquot However some participants felt that more tightdo it [act ethically] they will be out of business external control should be put on the attractionsAnd this is caused by the consumers who put

as stated by Katie (25 Illinois)more pressure They [the attractions] have toplease the public and the almighty dollar to keepthe operation going If we continue to have these attractions and con-

tinue to visit them I think we should have stricterregulations to protect the animals so theyrsquoll beThe view that fear of negative public opinion leadsin a more natural environment The laws are

to ethical behavior seemed to be strengthened by stricter in this countrymdashthe animals look wellthe belief in the power of the mass media In this kept especially in the big organizations that ownrespect the perception was that in times of ldquoopen these establishments But for local zoos and cir-

cuses the law is not there They look OK but youinformationrdquo and wide media coverage unethicaljust donrsquot know we need stricter lawsoperations will not be able to survive long As

noted by Keith (50 Detroit)Conditions for Ethical Operationof Animal-Based Tourist AttractionsTelevision cameras might sneak into zoos and see

the elephant trainers using whips and hit the ele- The participants in the study made a clear dis-phants it can destroy the operation real quick tinction between ethical and nonethical animal- All you have to do today is get the news in-

based tourist attractions while elaborating on thevolved and say ldquoLook what theyrsquore doing necessary or desirable conditions for such sites tothey are feeding that koala bear vanilla ice cream

all day long and that is not rightrdquo So they are be considered ethical In addition they also pro-going to make the public aware and go on the vided information on the standards for how toChannel 7 news then people will start reading measure if an attraction in general or a certainthe editorial in the paper and it will escalate

display in particular could be perceived as beingethical

When the issue of circuses and their negative im-age was mentioned during one of the sessions Natural Environment The designing of con-

trived natural environments in the animal displaysHeather (26 Florida) stated

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 95

and exhibits was one of the main factors leading Training Methods Another factor that was re-peated during the focus group sessions was theto more positive attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions This notion was illustrated in ethical requirement that performing animals betrained gently without being inflicted any painthe words of Patrick (41 Miami)suffering or distress It is important to note thatanimal shows were not perceived as unethical inAttractions with animals are great to be around

and great to spend time with But I always themselves but only when associated with themind to the fact that they are caged You know cruel treatment of animals This perception wasthey try to make them as natural as possible but

exemplified by Kristin (27 Michigan)they have borders They are unnatural environ-ments and the animals must be aware of thatmdash

A lot of people thinkmdashoh training animals andthey can sense things like that I love to go thereteaching them tricks is cruel but you canrsquot teachbut you canrsquot help wondermdashare they feelinga trick if the animal doesnrsquot want to learn it un-trapped in this environment I prefer the moreless yoursquore harsh to it [In reference to a pet showupdated parks when the boundaries have beenshe saw]mdashThey have so many kinds of animalsincreased and enlarged and they try to bringthere Theyrsquore all rescued animals but the train-them back to their original habitaters donrsquot use whips and they donrsquot use any kind

Natural Behavior The negative public rela- of punishment only positive reinforcement MyGod I donrsquot like to see whips like they use intions that circuses and circus-like shows have beensome of the dinner shows As I said if the ani-absorbing in recent years was clearly expressed inmals want to perform itrsquos a different story A lot

the preference of some of the participants for of the dolphin attractions the dolphins like towatching (what they perceived as) natural behav- perform itrsquos fun itrsquos a game for them You donrsquotior of animals It should be noted that in some need to use a whip and you donrsquot need to use

something that is not a positive reinforcementcases even animal shows which have been criti-[In reference to a dinner show she had been to]cized in the past might be perceived as allowing

the performing animals to express natural behav-In this regard the common impression of theior For example Liza (54 Michigan) when refer-closeness between performing animals and theirring to dolphin shows argued thattrainers was for some of the participants a reassur-ance that the animals were not being abused This

When you see a whale jump out of the water andperception was strengthened by their reliance oncome by the trainermdashthatrsquos actually natural pred-their own eyes in the sense of ldquoseeing is believ-atory type of behavior for him when hunting

seals in the ocean ingrdquo For example Jim (52 Michigan) argued that

at Sea World you look at the people and theyrsquoreSome cases however might be judged differentlyall having a good time and the trainers look closeas illustrated by Michael (36 Britain) regardingto the animals and it looks like the animals are inbird exhibits a friendly environment

I find it harder to see a bird in a cage than any This notion was also illustrated by Heather (26other animal because of the nature of a bird Hersquos Florida)a flyer

When I was a kid my parents took me to a cir-Another reference to this issue was made by Kris- cus but I havenrsquot gone since I like it when theretin (27 Michigan) who stressed the importance of is more human interaction In regard to shows

like the Pet Ahoy and the dolphin showsmdashthethe animalrsquos free willanimals want to be there because theyrsquore [the an-imals and the trainers] friends for life You canAnything you do to instigate a reactionmdashridingsee the closeness and the bond between the ani-a bull or cockfightingmdashyou need to instigatemals and the trainersthem to do that Thatrsquos unnatural and unneces-

sary Itrsquos one thing if the animal wants to do itNevertheless some of the participants recognizedand itrsquos a different thing if you stab him with a

stick their limitations in judging whether an animal was

96 SHANI AND PIZAM

being abused during its training For example part of the visitors This point was illustrated byMark (43 Maryland) who statedBruno (53 Michigan) noted that

It upsets me to see in zoos teenagers whorsquore try-[in animal shows] you only see the finished prod-ing to impress their friends by throwing some-uct you donrsquot see the training You actually havething at the animals I think why wonrsquot you getto be there when the training is been conductedon the other side of the fence and do thatHowever from what I see on TV it seems that

the animals are pretty well trained and not abusedat all Another prominent example was given by Dana

(50 Wisconsin) regarding a dinner show she par-The Concept of Fairness Some of the partici-ticipated inpants brought up the point that certain uses of ani-

mals in attractions even if controversial becauseAfter the dinner they have a place where you canof the violence involvedmdashsuch as alligator wres-meet and greet the riders and the horses They let

tling bullfighting and rodeosmdashmight seem ethi- people sit on the top of the horses and these peo-cal if it is perceived that the animals receive a fair ple are sitting on the horses kicking and snap-chance during the activity Liza (54 Michigan) ping them The kids were pulling their mane

the parents sat there and let the kids do it It hasfor example told about her experience at a bull-a sign which says ldquoplease do not feed the ani-fight in Spainmalsrdquo But I have never seen anybody out therean employee who watches that nobody tries to

Well I donrsquot think that the bull even started with feed the horses popcorn nachos or potato chipsa chance I mean if yoursquore going to get in the which I saw the horses being fedring and fight that bull then the bull should notbe sent out of the pen already stabbed with a cou- Other A few other factors were mentioned asple of daggers and already wounded coming at conditions for the ethical operation of animal-you If you choose to take on that animal you based tourist attractionsmdashor at least it was notedshould take that creature at its maximum You

that their presence increases the chances for thedonrsquot paralyze it and then take him onattractions to be positively judged Among these

[Regarding gator wrestling] I donrsquot object to factors werethat I mean if they [the wrestlers] lose they

bull The provision of sufficient food and medicallose If yoursquore going to wrestle alligators at leastdo not have an unfair advantage As long as you care to the animalsdonrsquot wrestle with the alligator with his mouth or bull Employing educated people who will be sensi-his legs taped if you want to wrestle an alliga- tive enough to the animalstor and you have a 50ndash50 chance go for it bull A strong preference to see rescued animals inSafety Negative perceptions of certain animal the exhibits over animals that were simply cap-

displays and shows were also mentioned when tured in the wild andparticipants sensed that the activity involved some bull Decent working conditions for the animals es-form of risk Regarding alligator wrestling shows pecially in regard to reasonable number offor example Gloria (33 Puerto Rico) stated working hours a day

I donrsquot like it I think itrsquos dangerous for the peo- Discussion and Conclusionsple that do that work [the wrestlers] and for the

As previously indicated the purpose of this ex-people that look at it These animals donrsquot haveploratory study was to examine the attitudes ofthe intelligence of a man so they donrsquot under-

stand the difference between a baby or a boy or tourists toward the use of animals in tourist attrac-girl I heard that once an alligator bit a trainer tions while identifying the structure of these atti- I donrsquot like it

tudes The focus group sessions revealed that thevast majority of the participants were aware of theVisitorsrsquo Behavior Some participants men-

tioned that the ethical operation of animal-based ethical difficulties of keeping animals in captivityHowever the participants also viewed animal-basedtourist attractions does not depend only on the site

itself but also on the respectful behavior on the tourist attractions as a positive phenomenon in

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 97

general and raised various justifications for their and education (see Hutchins et al 1995 Jamie-son 2006 Mason 2000 2007 Snyder et alexistence In this regard similar to the findings of

Curtin (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) about 1996) Yet even in relation to these well-discussedissues the participants had some interesting in-people who swam with captive dolphins the par-

ticipants in this study demonstrated cognitive dis- sights The role of animal attractions in educationamong others was found especially relevant tosonance The awareness of the ethical dilemmas

involved in seeing animals in captivity led the par- children and to the development of their aware-ness of nature similar to the findings of Turleyticipants to raise various reasons for the impor-

tance of their presence and in which terms animal (1999 2001) In addition the attractions were alsoperceived as contributing toward softening theattractions can be considered ethical The partici-

pantsrsquo ethical evaluation of animal-based tourist negative image of certain animalsmdashbecause oftheir behavior in the wild andor their negativeattractions was found to consist of three main lay-

ers (see Figure 1) characteristicsHowever the participants also raised justifica-First ethical attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions were based on general argu- tions that to this day have been relatively littlediscussed To many participants the attractionsments in favor of (or against) their existence In

order to develop a favorable ethical attitude to- served as a safe socioeconomic alternative to au-thentic nature tours which are often perceived asward animal attractions one should be convinced

of the validity of the ethical arguments in favor of being expensive and dangerous (see Shackley1996 for a similar argument) They were also per-their presence in the first place These arguments

did not point toward a specific attraction but ceived as enabling ldquoordinaryrdquo people to participatein activities that are reserved exclusively forrather served as an ideological basis for justifying

the use of animals in entertainment ventures in wealthy tourists or wildlife professionals thusleading to a form of ldquosocial justicerdquo Another im-general Some of the justifications raised by par-

ticipants have been discussed in the academic lit- portant justification that emerged in the focusgroups was the perception that the animals exhib-erature Those justifications that are both men-

tioned in the literature and by many of the focus ited in the attractions are better off in captivitywhere they are free of the fear of predators or ofgroup participants included conservation research

Figure 1 The three layers of ethical perceptions of animal-based tourist attractions

98 SHANI AND PIZAM

the need to search for food Finally the attractions tence of these factors partially or completely af-fects the chances of an animal-based attraction toalso created the impression among some partici-

pants that they act as another form of wildlife reg- be considered ethicalThe structure of the ethical perception of ani-ulation which is necessary for the safety and secu-

rity of human society mal-based tourist attractions as identified in thisstudy seems hierarchical in nature A person whoAlthough many of the participants in the study

justified the existence of animal-based tourist at- rejects any justification for having these attrac-tions that is who favors the abolishment of alltractions in general they also recognize that these

are not always ethically operated especially in use of animals for entertainment is expected tohave a negative attitude toward an attraction evenhistorical context The second layer which consti-

tutes the ethical perception of animal-based tourist if it adopts an ethical and responsible treatment ofthe animals On the other hand even if the exis-attractions includes driving forces that are be-

lieved to cause the attractions to treat the animals tence of animal attractions is accepted by a personand heshe believes that contemporary attractionsresponsibly The belief that contemporary animal-

based tourist attractions are considerably more are controlled by both self- and external regula-ethical than in the past derives from two factors tions there are still specific conditions that needthe power of the media and public opinion which to be fulfilled in order for this person to have ais perceived to have major impact on the operation positive attitude toward each specific attractionof the attractions and the legal and enforcement To conclude although the tourism industry re-system which is trusted to supervise their opera- lies heavily on the incorporation of animals in itstions While the former creates a form of self- attractions to date there have been no serious at-regulationmdashit is worthwhile being ethical because tempts to investigate the issue in a holistic wayit prevents negative publicitymdashthe latter repre- Specifically the ethical attitudes of the visitorssents external regulation which ensures ethical and nonvisitors toward these attractions were onlyoperation The perception that both of these driv- ambiguous and speculative The current explor-ing forces have a crucial impact on the attractions atory study found that an ethical approach towardwas significant in accounting for the participantsrsquo animal-based tourist attractions is constructedreduced ethical concerns with regard to the ways along three main levels general justifications foranimals might be treated ldquobackstagerdquo having these attractions a belief in the driving

The last layer that determined visitorsrsquo ethical forces for ethical behavior on behalf of the attrac-attitudes toward animal-based tourist attractions is tions and certain conditions for the ethical opera-linked to their judgment of each specific attrac- tion of each specific attraction This can be seention The participants in this study clearly distin- as an additional step toward a deeper understand-guished between ethical and unethical attractions ing of the ethical perceptions and judgment of ani-and provided useful indications of which condi- mal-based tourist attractions on the part of the vis-tions need to be fulfilled in order for an attraction itorsto be considered ethical The core conditions men-tioned were the natural design of the animal dis- Managerial Implicationsplays and the perception that the animals perform

Beyond the theoretical contributions the find-natural behavior factors that have already beenings of this study can also assist specific animal-addressed by many animal-based tourist attrac-based tourist attractions in their operational andtions (eg Davey 2006 Hughes et al 2005 To-marketing functions The repositioning of manymas et al 2002) Among the other prominent con-animal-based tourist attractions as sites for educa-ditions mentioned were gentle training methodstion scientific research and conservation is clearlythe perception of a ldquofair chancerdquo given to the ani-effective in providing legitimacy to their exis-mals in sport or contest situations ensuring thetence The extra attention given nowadays to natu-safety of employees and visitors and respectfulral presentation of the animals (Hughes et albehavior on the part of the visitors The views ex-

pressed by the participants suggest that the exis- 2005 Ryan amp Saward 2004) also seems to pay

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

92 SHANI AND PIZAM

aries are in some cases unlimited and the animalsHowever it should be noted that this type of argu-can roam free in their own habitat When yoursquorement was relatively rare during the focus groupin Animal Kingdom you donrsquot feel like yoursquore

sessions in Orlando Florida so well done for that job

Alternative to Nature Many participants in theAnother benefit of animal-based tourist attractionsstudy viewed animal-based tourist attractions as anthat the participants mentioned was that they allowaffordable and friendly way to see wildlife Be-ordinary people to experience what is usually ex-cause seeing wildlife in their natural habitat (egclusively reserved for wildlife professionals or forsafari tours in Africa) is perceived as a very ex-people who spend considerable funds in animal-pensive and dangerous adventure protected touristrelated leisure activities For example Jake (25settings represent a safe and inexpensive solutionCanada) who is a scuba diving instructor arguedto the desire to watch wildlife Liza (54 Michi-thatgan) for example argued

We [scuba divers] have the opportunity to seeWho else can see a polar bear unless you go to coral reef and fish in the ocean not like peoplethe zoo a lot of people canrsquot afford to go to who donrsquot dive They donrsquot have the opportunitythe Arctic Pole and see a polar bear to see that for them going to Sea World is the

closest thing they can get to see something I cansee normallyWendy (66 Britain) also noted that

The security and safety factors were also acknowl-[Animal attractions] allow people who canrsquot goedged by some participants in the sense that ani-on safaris to see wildlife it gives them a feeling

of what itrsquos like mal-based tourist attractions are a safe alternativeto tours in natural settings which might be risky

Although many of the participants stated that natu- In this regard Heather (26 Florida) mentionedral sites are preferable to contrived ones the latter

My cousin visited Animal Kingdom with mestill constitute a reasonable alternative and it iswhen she was 4 years old and we went on a sa-certainly better than not to see wildlife at all Mi-fari tour there Then a giraffe got very close tochael (36 Britain) for example mentionedthe jeep and she [my cousin] thought that it wascool to stare at the animal In a real safari this

For me personally the Everglades National Park could be dangerous You canrsquot have this kind ofis the place Irsquod like to see animals and alligators experiencemdashstanding so close to an animalmdashinIt wouldnrsquot be man-made attractions with ani- the natural sidemals It would be something thatrsquos natural likethe Everglades Itrsquos all swamps and the animals Finally in addition to the role of animal-basedlive there because itrsquos their habitat not because

tourist attractions as an alternative to watching an-theyrsquove been put there and fed but my chil-imals in the wild they can also be perceived as adren never get the chance to see killer whales insubstitute for natural places in general becausenature so itrsquos something nice for them to see in

the parks they provide a more relaxed atmosphere than otherentertaining attractions As Kristin (27 Michigan)

In this regard some of the participants indicated pointed outtheir preference for animal theme parks over tradi-

Animal attractions like Sea World or Animaltional zoos because of their more naturalistic pre-Kingdom are more for a relaxing day These aresentation of the animals and the ldquoopen spacerdquo de-pretty much all the natural attractions that yousign of the exhibits Patrick (41 Miami) statedhave here [in Orlando] because the beaches areabout an hour and half from here Sea World

When I visited the San Diego Zoo I couldnrsquot is like a nice day at the beachmdashif you donrsquot wantimagine myself in a savanna whereas in Animal to drive to the beachKingdom I certainly canmdashwithin a split second

Benefits to Individual Animals In addition toYou just become immersed when yoursquore inthese expanded theme parks when the bound- the justifications for having animal attractions that

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 93

cities You gotta have some control of the ani-focus on their benefits to humans or to the ecosys-mals and their environmenttem as a whole (such as conservation) some par-

ticipants also argued that confined environmentsThis ideas was continued by Mark (43 Maryland)offer advantages to the exhibited animals them-who statedselves This view is explained by arguing that cap-

tive wildlife are free from predators and have noI think that when you see them [the animals] infood concerns Michael (36 Britain) stated that hethe parks you kind of gain respect for their con-

had no problem with petting zoos although this trolled environment if you didnrsquot have thatkind of activity might cause discomfort to the ani- controlled environment yoursquod have heard on the

six o-clock news all the time ldquoa lion attackedmals becausetodayrdquo

the sorts of animals we are talking about are atthe bottom of the food chain so a kid petting Driving Forces for Ethical Animal-Basedthem is a better life [than living in nature] Tourist Attractions

Throughout the focus group sessions althoughKeith (50 Detroit) expanded on the idea that amost the participants were supporters of animal-confined setting provides a secure environment forbased tourist attractions they also expressed somethe animals by giving a personal exampleconcerns over the welfare of the animals exhibitedand over the ethical aspects of keeping them inI got a 750-gallon salt water aquarium I lookcaptivity However there was also a clear percep-at them [the fish] and I think that I give them a

better life than if they were in the ocean because tion among most of the participants that contem-they might not have survived that long I have porary animal-based tourist attractions are funda-fish that lived 8 to 10 years and if they were in mentally different from this type of attraction inthe open water they would be a meal for some-

the past This way the belief that the present at-body elsetractions embody drastic improvements in the ethi-cal treatment of animals helps alleviate some ofAnother argument put forward by some of the par-the feelings of discomfort that might arise whileticipants was that the conditions of the animals invisiting animal-based tourist attractions or think-the attractions are much better than those in othering about animals in captivity and is an importantforms of captivity which could have been the fatefactor in their ethical approval This perceptionof some of these animals For example Dana (50was clearly apparent in statements like that of JakeWisconsin) argued that people who support the(25 Canada)abolishment of animal-based tourist attractions need

Yes Irsquom a little concerned about that [keepingto turn on and look at the SPCA [Society of theanimals in captivity] but then again when IPrevention of Cruelty to Animals] shelters wheresaw SeaWorld when I was a kid it was not any-they have their dogsmdashsix dogs in a cage andthing like it is nowthey fight all the time and they pee on the floor

and itrsquos not cleaned up until the next day Theyare kept in very close and small cages and of Kim (55 Michigan)

Regulation of Wildlife Although this issue was[the attractions today] are first-class operations

only raised by two participants it is interesting to Since the old days of the sea aquarium in Miaminote that animal-based tourist attractions might wersquove come a long wayalso be perceived as a means to regulate and su-

Public Opinion A common view among thepervise the natural environment and the wildlifeparticipants was that because the general public isJim (52 Michigan) illustrated this point by sayingmore concerned about animal welfare today thanin the past the ldquofree-marketrdquo approach will natu-If we let the animals just do what they want itrsquollrally mean that the attractions will be more ethi-be chaos In some countries you got cows and

horses and chickens walking all through the cally sensitive in their treatment of animals In

94 SHANI AND PIZAM

I think that circuses are getting bad publicity Irsquomother words the concern about bad public rela-sure that there is animal abuse there as was his-tions or negative reactions on the part of visitorstorically but Irsquod like to thinkmdashmaybe Irsquom just

regarding animal abuse has led to the appearance living in Happy Landmdashthat animals are treated aof a self-regulation mechanism in the attractions little more humanely nowadays just because all

of the things that were brought up in the newsthemselves Since visitors expect today to seeAnd if theyrsquore not if something came out to thewell-treated animals it is in the interest of the at-press then that circus would be done with busi-tractions to meet this expectation Keith (50 De-ness Because there are so many people out there

troit) illustrated this view that care

Legal System and Institutional SupervisionI think that public awareness has probably madeAnother factor that helped to ease some of the par-animal attractions change their attitudes because

that is their livelihood The attractions know ticipantsrsquo ethical concerns regarding animal-basedthat the animals are their bread and butter so tourist attractions was their trust in the legal sys-theyrsquore going to do everything they can to make tem and in the power and influence of animal wel-a friendly place for them

fare organizations For example when the issue ofrodeos and circuses arose in one of the sessions

The role of the demand for ethical treatment in theDana (50 Wisconsin) said

perceived changing nature of animal-based touristattractions was heavily emphasized For example

Rodeos like we have here in the States I donrsquotLiza (54 Michigan) argued believe they kill the horses do they I guess

therersquos a certain amount of governmental control Is thereThey [the attractions] seem to have more knowl-

edge of how to manage animals but they alsohave something to protect because if they donrsquot However some participants felt that more tightdo it [act ethically] they will be out of business external control should be put on the attractionsAnd this is caused by the consumers who put

as stated by Katie (25 Illinois)more pressure They [the attractions] have toplease the public and the almighty dollar to keepthe operation going If we continue to have these attractions and con-

tinue to visit them I think we should have stricterregulations to protect the animals so theyrsquoll beThe view that fear of negative public opinion leadsin a more natural environment The laws are

to ethical behavior seemed to be strengthened by stricter in this countrymdashthe animals look wellthe belief in the power of the mass media In this kept especially in the big organizations that ownrespect the perception was that in times of ldquoopen these establishments But for local zoos and cir-

cuses the law is not there They look OK but youinformationrdquo and wide media coverage unethicaljust donrsquot know we need stricter lawsoperations will not be able to survive long As

noted by Keith (50 Detroit)Conditions for Ethical Operationof Animal-Based Tourist AttractionsTelevision cameras might sneak into zoos and see

the elephant trainers using whips and hit the ele- The participants in the study made a clear dis-phants it can destroy the operation real quick tinction between ethical and nonethical animal- All you have to do today is get the news in-

based tourist attractions while elaborating on thevolved and say ldquoLook what theyrsquore doing necessary or desirable conditions for such sites tothey are feeding that koala bear vanilla ice cream

all day long and that is not rightrdquo So they are be considered ethical In addition they also pro-going to make the public aware and go on the vided information on the standards for how toChannel 7 news then people will start reading measure if an attraction in general or a certainthe editorial in the paper and it will escalate

display in particular could be perceived as beingethical

When the issue of circuses and their negative im-age was mentioned during one of the sessions Natural Environment The designing of con-

trived natural environments in the animal displaysHeather (26 Florida) stated

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 95

and exhibits was one of the main factors leading Training Methods Another factor that was re-peated during the focus group sessions was theto more positive attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions This notion was illustrated in ethical requirement that performing animals betrained gently without being inflicted any painthe words of Patrick (41 Miami)suffering or distress It is important to note thatanimal shows were not perceived as unethical inAttractions with animals are great to be around

and great to spend time with But I always themselves but only when associated with themind to the fact that they are caged You know cruel treatment of animals This perception wasthey try to make them as natural as possible but

exemplified by Kristin (27 Michigan)they have borders They are unnatural environ-ments and the animals must be aware of thatmdash

A lot of people thinkmdashoh training animals andthey can sense things like that I love to go thereteaching them tricks is cruel but you canrsquot teachbut you canrsquot help wondermdashare they feelinga trick if the animal doesnrsquot want to learn it un-trapped in this environment I prefer the moreless yoursquore harsh to it [In reference to a pet showupdated parks when the boundaries have beenshe saw]mdashThey have so many kinds of animalsincreased and enlarged and they try to bringthere Theyrsquore all rescued animals but the train-them back to their original habitaters donrsquot use whips and they donrsquot use any kind

Natural Behavior The negative public rela- of punishment only positive reinforcement MyGod I donrsquot like to see whips like they use intions that circuses and circus-like shows have beensome of the dinner shows As I said if the ani-absorbing in recent years was clearly expressed inmals want to perform itrsquos a different story A lot

the preference of some of the participants for of the dolphin attractions the dolphins like towatching (what they perceived as) natural behav- perform itrsquos fun itrsquos a game for them You donrsquotior of animals It should be noted that in some need to use a whip and you donrsquot need to use

something that is not a positive reinforcementcases even animal shows which have been criti-[In reference to a dinner show she had been to]cized in the past might be perceived as allowing

the performing animals to express natural behav-In this regard the common impression of theior For example Liza (54 Michigan) when refer-closeness between performing animals and theirring to dolphin shows argued thattrainers was for some of the participants a reassur-ance that the animals were not being abused This

When you see a whale jump out of the water andperception was strengthened by their reliance oncome by the trainermdashthatrsquos actually natural pred-their own eyes in the sense of ldquoseeing is believ-atory type of behavior for him when hunting

seals in the ocean ingrdquo For example Jim (52 Michigan) argued that

at Sea World you look at the people and theyrsquoreSome cases however might be judged differentlyall having a good time and the trainers look closeas illustrated by Michael (36 Britain) regardingto the animals and it looks like the animals are inbird exhibits a friendly environment

I find it harder to see a bird in a cage than any This notion was also illustrated by Heather (26other animal because of the nature of a bird Hersquos Florida)a flyer

When I was a kid my parents took me to a cir-Another reference to this issue was made by Kris- cus but I havenrsquot gone since I like it when theretin (27 Michigan) who stressed the importance of is more human interaction In regard to shows

like the Pet Ahoy and the dolphin showsmdashthethe animalrsquos free willanimals want to be there because theyrsquore [the an-imals and the trainers] friends for life You canAnything you do to instigate a reactionmdashridingsee the closeness and the bond between the ani-a bull or cockfightingmdashyou need to instigatemals and the trainersthem to do that Thatrsquos unnatural and unneces-

sary Itrsquos one thing if the animal wants to do itNevertheless some of the participants recognizedand itrsquos a different thing if you stab him with a

stick their limitations in judging whether an animal was

96 SHANI AND PIZAM

being abused during its training For example part of the visitors This point was illustrated byMark (43 Maryland) who statedBruno (53 Michigan) noted that

It upsets me to see in zoos teenagers whorsquore try-[in animal shows] you only see the finished prod-ing to impress their friends by throwing some-uct you donrsquot see the training You actually havething at the animals I think why wonrsquot you getto be there when the training is been conductedon the other side of the fence and do thatHowever from what I see on TV it seems that

the animals are pretty well trained and not abusedat all Another prominent example was given by Dana

(50 Wisconsin) regarding a dinner show she par-The Concept of Fairness Some of the partici-ticipated inpants brought up the point that certain uses of ani-

mals in attractions even if controversial becauseAfter the dinner they have a place where you canof the violence involvedmdashsuch as alligator wres-meet and greet the riders and the horses They let

tling bullfighting and rodeosmdashmight seem ethi- people sit on the top of the horses and these peo-cal if it is perceived that the animals receive a fair ple are sitting on the horses kicking and snap-chance during the activity Liza (54 Michigan) ping them The kids were pulling their mane

the parents sat there and let the kids do it It hasfor example told about her experience at a bull-a sign which says ldquoplease do not feed the ani-fight in Spainmalsrdquo But I have never seen anybody out therean employee who watches that nobody tries to

Well I donrsquot think that the bull even started with feed the horses popcorn nachos or potato chipsa chance I mean if yoursquore going to get in the which I saw the horses being fedring and fight that bull then the bull should notbe sent out of the pen already stabbed with a cou- Other A few other factors were mentioned asple of daggers and already wounded coming at conditions for the ethical operation of animal-you If you choose to take on that animal you based tourist attractionsmdashor at least it was notedshould take that creature at its maximum You

that their presence increases the chances for thedonrsquot paralyze it and then take him onattractions to be positively judged Among these

[Regarding gator wrestling] I donrsquot object to factors werethat I mean if they [the wrestlers] lose they

bull The provision of sufficient food and medicallose If yoursquore going to wrestle alligators at leastdo not have an unfair advantage As long as you care to the animalsdonrsquot wrestle with the alligator with his mouth or bull Employing educated people who will be sensi-his legs taped if you want to wrestle an alliga- tive enough to the animalstor and you have a 50ndash50 chance go for it bull A strong preference to see rescued animals inSafety Negative perceptions of certain animal the exhibits over animals that were simply cap-

displays and shows were also mentioned when tured in the wild andparticipants sensed that the activity involved some bull Decent working conditions for the animals es-form of risk Regarding alligator wrestling shows pecially in regard to reasonable number offor example Gloria (33 Puerto Rico) stated working hours a day

I donrsquot like it I think itrsquos dangerous for the peo- Discussion and Conclusionsple that do that work [the wrestlers] and for the

As previously indicated the purpose of this ex-people that look at it These animals donrsquot haveploratory study was to examine the attitudes ofthe intelligence of a man so they donrsquot under-

stand the difference between a baby or a boy or tourists toward the use of animals in tourist attrac-girl I heard that once an alligator bit a trainer tions while identifying the structure of these atti- I donrsquot like it

tudes The focus group sessions revealed that thevast majority of the participants were aware of theVisitorsrsquo Behavior Some participants men-

tioned that the ethical operation of animal-based ethical difficulties of keeping animals in captivityHowever the participants also viewed animal-basedtourist attractions does not depend only on the site

itself but also on the respectful behavior on the tourist attractions as a positive phenomenon in

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 97

general and raised various justifications for their and education (see Hutchins et al 1995 Jamie-son 2006 Mason 2000 2007 Snyder et alexistence In this regard similar to the findings of

Curtin (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) about 1996) Yet even in relation to these well-discussedissues the participants had some interesting in-people who swam with captive dolphins the par-

ticipants in this study demonstrated cognitive dis- sights The role of animal attractions in educationamong others was found especially relevant tosonance The awareness of the ethical dilemmas

involved in seeing animals in captivity led the par- children and to the development of their aware-ness of nature similar to the findings of Turleyticipants to raise various reasons for the impor-

tance of their presence and in which terms animal (1999 2001) In addition the attractions were alsoperceived as contributing toward softening theattractions can be considered ethical The partici-

pantsrsquo ethical evaluation of animal-based tourist negative image of certain animalsmdashbecause oftheir behavior in the wild andor their negativeattractions was found to consist of three main lay-

ers (see Figure 1) characteristicsHowever the participants also raised justifica-First ethical attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions were based on general argu- tions that to this day have been relatively littlediscussed To many participants the attractionsments in favor of (or against) their existence In

order to develop a favorable ethical attitude to- served as a safe socioeconomic alternative to au-thentic nature tours which are often perceived asward animal attractions one should be convinced

of the validity of the ethical arguments in favor of being expensive and dangerous (see Shackley1996 for a similar argument) They were also per-their presence in the first place These arguments

did not point toward a specific attraction but ceived as enabling ldquoordinaryrdquo people to participatein activities that are reserved exclusively forrather served as an ideological basis for justifying

the use of animals in entertainment ventures in wealthy tourists or wildlife professionals thusleading to a form of ldquosocial justicerdquo Another im-general Some of the justifications raised by par-

ticipants have been discussed in the academic lit- portant justification that emerged in the focusgroups was the perception that the animals exhib-erature Those justifications that are both men-

tioned in the literature and by many of the focus ited in the attractions are better off in captivitywhere they are free of the fear of predators or ofgroup participants included conservation research

Figure 1 The three layers of ethical perceptions of animal-based tourist attractions

98 SHANI AND PIZAM

the need to search for food Finally the attractions tence of these factors partially or completely af-fects the chances of an animal-based attraction toalso created the impression among some partici-

pants that they act as another form of wildlife reg- be considered ethicalThe structure of the ethical perception of ani-ulation which is necessary for the safety and secu-

rity of human society mal-based tourist attractions as identified in thisstudy seems hierarchical in nature A person whoAlthough many of the participants in the study

justified the existence of animal-based tourist at- rejects any justification for having these attrac-tions that is who favors the abolishment of alltractions in general they also recognize that these

are not always ethically operated especially in use of animals for entertainment is expected tohave a negative attitude toward an attraction evenhistorical context The second layer which consti-

tutes the ethical perception of animal-based tourist if it adopts an ethical and responsible treatment ofthe animals On the other hand even if the exis-attractions includes driving forces that are be-

lieved to cause the attractions to treat the animals tence of animal attractions is accepted by a personand heshe believes that contemporary attractionsresponsibly The belief that contemporary animal-

based tourist attractions are considerably more are controlled by both self- and external regula-ethical than in the past derives from two factors tions there are still specific conditions that needthe power of the media and public opinion which to be fulfilled in order for this person to have ais perceived to have major impact on the operation positive attitude toward each specific attractionof the attractions and the legal and enforcement To conclude although the tourism industry re-system which is trusted to supervise their opera- lies heavily on the incorporation of animals in itstions While the former creates a form of self- attractions to date there have been no serious at-regulationmdashit is worthwhile being ethical because tempts to investigate the issue in a holistic wayit prevents negative publicitymdashthe latter repre- Specifically the ethical attitudes of the visitorssents external regulation which ensures ethical and nonvisitors toward these attractions were onlyoperation The perception that both of these driv- ambiguous and speculative The current explor-ing forces have a crucial impact on the attractions atory study found that an ethical approach towardwas significant in accounting for the participantsrsquo animal-based tourist attractions is constructedreduced ethical concerns with regard to the ways along three main levels general justifications foranimals might be treated ldquobackstagerdquo having these attractions a belief in the driving

The last layer that determined visitorsrsquo ethical forces for ethical behavior on behalf of the attrac-attitudes toward animal-based tourist attractions is tions and certain conditions for the ethical opera-linked to their judgment of each specific attrac- tion of each specific attraction This can be seention The participants in this study clearly distin- as an additional step toward a deeper understand-guished between ethical and unethical attractions ing of the ethical perceptions and judgment of ani-and provided useful indications of which condi- mal-based tourist attractions on the part of the vis-tions need to be fulfilled in order for an attraction itorsto be considered ethical The core conditions men-tioned were the natural design of the animal dis- Managerial Implicationsplays and the perception that the animals perform

Beyond the theoretical contributions the find-natural behavior factors that have already beenings of this study can also assist specific animal-addressed by many animal-based tourist attrac-based tourist attractions in their operational andtions (eg Davey 2006 Hughes et al 2005 To-marketing functions The repositioning of manymas et al 2002) Among the other prominent con-animal-based tourist attractions as sites for educa-ditions mentioned were gentle training methodstion scientific research and conservation is clearlythe perception of a ldquofair chancerdquo given to the ani-effective in providing legitimacy to their exis-mals in sport or contest situations ensuring thetence The extra attention given nowadays to natu-safety of employees and visitors and respectfulral presentation of the animals (Hughes et albehavior on the part of the visitors The views ex-

pressed by the participants suggest that the exis- 2005 Ryan amp Saward 2004) also seems to pay

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 93

cities You gotta have some control of the ani-focus on their benefits to humans or to the ecosys-mals and their environmenttem as a whole (such as conservation) some par-

ticipants also argued that confined environmentsThis ideas was continued by Mark (43 Maryland)offer advantages to the exhibited animals them-who statedselves This view is explained by arguing that cap-

tive wildlife are free from predators and have noI think that when you see them [the animals] infood concerns Michael (36 Britain) stated that hethe parks you kind of gain respect for their con-

had no problem with petting zoos although this trolled environment if you didnrsquot have thatkind of activity might cause discomfort to the ani- controlled environment yoursquod have heard on the

six o-clock news all the time ldquoa lion attackedmals becausetodayrdquo

the sorts of animals we are talking about are atthe bottom of the food chain so a kid petting Driving Forces for Ethical Animal-Basedthem is a better life [than living in nature] Tourist Attractions

Throughout the focus group sessions althoughKeith (50 Detroit) expanded on the idea that amost the participants were supporters of animal-confined setting provides a secure environment forbased tourist attractions they also expressed somethe animals by giving a personal exampleconcerns over the welfare of the animals exhibitedand over the ethical aspects of keeping them inI got a 750-gallon salt water aquarium I lookcaptivity However there was also a clear percep-at them [the fish] and I think that I give them a

better life than if they were in the ocean because tion among most of the participants that contem-they might not have survived that long I have porary animal-based tourist attractions are funda-fish that lived 8 to 10 years and if they were in mentally different from this type of attraction inthe open water they would be a meal for some-

the past This way the belief that the present at-body elsetractions embody drastic improvements in the ethi-cal treatment of animals helps alleviate some ofAnother argument put forward by some of the par-the feelings of discomfort that might arise whileticipants was that the conditions of the animals invisiting animal-based tourist attractions or think-the attractions are much better than those in othering about animals in captivity and is an importantforms of captivity which could have been the fatefactor in their ethical approval This perceptionof some of these animals For example Dana (50was clearly apparent in statements like that of JakeWisconsin) argued that people who support the(25 Canada)abolishment of animal-based tourist attractions need

Yes Irsquom a little concerned about that [keepingto turn on and look at the SPCA [Society of theanimals in captivity] but then again when IPrevention of Cruelty to Animals] shelters wheresaw SeaWorld when I was a kid it was not any-they have their dogsmdashsix dogs in a cage andthing like it is nowthey fight all the time and they pee on the floor

and itrsquos not cleaned up until the next day Theyare kept in very close and small cages and of Kim (55 Michigan)

Regulation of Wildlife Although this issue was[the attractions today] are first-class operations

only raised by two participants it is interesting to Since the old days of the sea aquarium in Miaminote that animal-based tourist attractions might wersquove come a long wayalso be perceived as a means to regulate and su-

Public Opinion A common view among thepervise the natural environment and the wildlifeparticipants was that because the general public isJim (52 Michigan) illustrated this point by sayingmore concerned about animal welfare today thanin the past the ldquofree-marketrdquo approach will natu-If we let the animals just do what they want itrsquollrally mean that the attractions will be more ethi-be chaos In some countries you got cows and

horses and chickens walking all through the cally sensitive in their treatment of animals In

94 SHANI AND PIZAM

I think that circuses are getting bad publicity Irsquomother words the concern about bad public rela-sure that there is animal abuse there as was his-tions or negative reactions on the part of visitorstorically but Irsquod like to thinkmdashmaybe Irsquom just

regarding animal abuse has led to the appearance living in Happy Landmdashthat animals are treated aof a self-regulation mechanism in the attractions little more humanely nowadays just because all

of the things that were brought up in the newsthemselves Since visitors expect today to seeAnd if theyrsquore not if something came out to thewell-treated animals it is in the interest of the at-press then that circus would be done with busi-tractions to meet this expectation Keith (50 De-ness Because there are so many people out there

troit) illustrated this view that care

Legal System and Institutional SupervisionI think that public awareness has probably madeAnother factor that helped to ease some of the par-animal attractions change their attitudes because

that is their livelihood The attractions know ticipantsrsquo ethical concerns regarding animal-basedthat the animals are their bread and butter so tourist attractions was their trust in the legal sys-theyrsquore going to do everything they can to make tem and in the power and influence of animal wel-a friendly place for them

fare organizations For example when the issue ofrodeos and circuses arose in one of the sessions

The role of the demand for ethical treatment in theDana (50 Wisconsin) said

perceived changing nature of animal-based touristattractions was heavily emphasized For example

Rodeos like we have here in the States I donrsquotLiza (54 Michigan) argued believe they kill the horses do they I guess

therersquos a certain amount of governmental control Is thereThey [the attractions] seem to have more knowl-

edge of how to manage animals but they alsohave something to protect because if they donrsquot However some participants felt that more tightdo it [act ethically] they will be out of business external control should be put on the attractionsAnd this is caused by the consumers who put

as stated by Katie (25 Illinois)more pressure They [the attractions] have toplease the public and the almighty dollar to keepthe operation going If we continue to have these attractions and con-

tinue to visit them I think we should have stricterregulations to protect the animals so theyrsquoll beThe view that fear of negative public opinion leadsin a more natural environment The laws are

to ethical behavior seemed to be strengthened by stricter in this countrymdashthe animals look wellthe belief in the power of the mass media In this kept especially in the big organizations that ownrespect the perception was that in times of ldquoopen these establishments But for local zoos and cir-

cuses the law is not there They look OK but youinformationrdquo and wide media coverage unethicaljust donrsquot know we need stricter lawsoperations will not be able to survive long As

noted by Keith (50 Detroit)Conditions for Ethical Operationof Animal-Based Tourist AttractionsTelevision cameras might sneak into zoos and see

the elephant trainers using whips and hit the ele- The participants in the study made a clear dis-phants it can destroy the operation real quick tinction between ethical and nonethical animal- All you have to do today is get the news in-

based tourist attractions while elaborating on thevolved and say ldquoLook what theyrsquore doing necessary or desirable conditions for such sites tothey are feeding that koala bear vanilla ice cream

all day long and that is not rightrdquo So they are be considered ethical In addition they also pro-going to make the public aware and go on the vided information on the standards for how toChannel 7 news then people will start reading measure if an attraction in general or a certainthe editorial in the paper and it will escalate

display in particular could be perceived as beingethical

When the issue of circuses and their negative im-age was mentioned during one of the sessions Natural Environment The designing of con-

trived natural environments in the animal displaysHeather (26 Florida) stated

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 95

and exhibits was one of the main factors leading Training Methods Another factor that was re-peated during the focus group sessions was theto more positive attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions This notion was illustrated in ethical requirement that performing animals betrained gently without being inflicted any painthe words of Patrick (41 Miami)suffering or distress It is important to note thatanimal shows were not perceived as unethical inAttractions with animals are great to be around

and great to spend time with But I always themselves but only when associated with themind to the fact that they are caged You know cruel treatment of animals This perception wasthey try to make them as natural as possible but

exemplified by Kristin (27 Michigan)they have borders They are unnatural environ-ments and the animals must be aware of thatmdash

A lot of people thinkmdashoh training animals andthey can sense things like that I love to go thereteaching them tricks is cruel but you canrsquot teachbut you canrsquot help wondermdashare they feelinga trick if the animal doesnrsquot want to learn it un-trapped in this environment I prefer the moreless yoursquore harsh to it [In reference to a pet showupdated parks when the boundaries have beenshe saw]mdashThey have so many kinds of animalsincreased and enlarged and they try to bringthere Theyrsquore all rescued animals but the train-them back to their original habitaters donrsquot use whips and they donrsquot use any kind

Natural Behavior The negative public rela- of punishment only positive reinforcement MyGod I donrsquot like to see whips like they use intions that circuses and circus-like shows have beensome of the dinner shows As I said if the ani-absorbing in recent years was clearly expressed inmals want to perform itrsquos a different story A lot

the preference of some of the participants for of the dolphin attractions the dolphins like towatching (what they perceived as) natural behav- perform itrsquos fun itrsquos a game for them You donrsquotior of animals It should be noted that in some need to use a whip and you donrsquot need to use

something that is not a positive reinforcementcases even animal shows which have been criti-[In reference to a dinner show she had been to]cized in the past might be perceived as allowing

the performing animals to express natural behav-In this regard the common impression of theior For example Liza (54 Michigan) when refer-closeness between performing animals and theirring to dolphin shows argued thattrainers was for some of the participants a reassur-ance that the animals were not being abused This

When you see a whale jump out of the water andperception was strengthened by their reliance oncome by the trainermdashthatrsquos actually natural pred-their own eyes in the sense of ldquoseeing is believ-atory type of behavior for him when hunting

seals in the ocean ingrdquo For example Jim (52 Michigan) argued that

at Sea World you look at the people and theyrsquoreSome cases however might be judged differentlyall having a good time and the trainers look closeas illustrated by Michael (36 Britain) regardingto the animals and it looks like the animals are inbird exhibits a friendly environment

I find it harder to see a bird in a cage than any This notion was also illustrated by Heather (26other animal because of the nature of a bird Hersquos Florida)a flyer

When I was a kid my parents took me to a cir-Another reference to this issue was made by Kris- cus but I havenrsquot gone since I like it when theretin (27 Michigan) who stressed the importance of is more human interaction In regard to shows

like the Pet Ahoy and the dolphin showsmdashthethe animalrsquos free willanimals want to be there because theyrsquore [the an-imals and the trainers] friends for life You canAnything you do to instigate a reactionmdashridingsee the closeness and the bond between the ani-a bull or cockfightingmdashyou need to instigatemals and the trainersthem to do that Thatrsquos unnatural and unneces-

sary Itrsquos one thing if the animal wants to do itNevertheless some of the participants recognizedand itrsquos a different thing if you stab him with a

stick their limitations in judging whether an animal was

96 SHANI AND PIZAM

being abused during its training For example part of the visitors This point was illustrated byMark (43 Maryland) who statedBruno (53 Michigan) noted that

It upsets me to see in zoos teenagers whorsquore try-[in animal shows] you only see the finished prod-ing to impress their friends by throwing some-uct you donrsquot see the training You actually havething at the animals I think why wonrsquot you getto be there when the training is been conductedon the other side of the fence and do thatHowever from what I see on TV it seems that

the animals are pretty well trained and not abusedat all Another prominent example was given by Dana

(50 Wisconsin) regarding a dinner show she par-The Concept of Fairness Some of the partici-ticipated inpants brought up the point that certain uses of ani-

mals in attractions even if controversial becauseAfter the dinner they have a place where you canof the violence involvedmdashsuch as alligator wres-meet and greet the riders and the horses They let

tling bullfighting and rodeosmdashmight seem ethi- people sit on the top of the horses and these peo-cal if it is perceived that the animals receive a fair ple are sitting on the horses kicking and snap-chance during the activity Liza (54 Michigan) ping them The kids were pulling their mane

the parents sat there and let the kids do it It hasfor example told about her experience at a bull-a sign which says ldquoplease do not feed the ani-fight in Spainmalsrdquo But I have never seen anybody out therean employee who watches that nobody tries to

Well I donrsquot think that the bull even started with feed the horses popcorn nachos or potato chipsa chance I mean if yoursquore going to get in the which I saw the horses being fedring and fight that bull then the bull should notbe sent out of the pen already stabbed with a cou- Other A few other factors were mentioned asple of daggers and already wounded coming at conditions for the ethical operation of animal-you If you choose to take on that animal you based tourist attractionsmdashor at least it was notedshould take that creature at its maximum You

that their presence increases the chances for thedonrsquot paralyze it and then take him onattractions to be positively judged Among these

[Regarding gator wrestling] I donrsquot object to factors werethat I mean if they [the wrestlers] lose they

bull The provision of sufficient food and medicallose If yoursquore going to wrestle alligators at leastdo not have an unfair advantage As long as you care to the animalsdonrsquot wrestle with the alligator with his mouth or bull Employing educated people who will be sensi-his legs taped if you want to wrestle an alliga- tive enough to the animalstor and you have a 50ndash50 chance go for it bull A strong preference to see rescued animals inSafety Negative perceptions of certain animal the exhibits over animals that were simply cap-

displays and shows were also mentioned when tured in the wild andparticipants sensed that the activity involved some bull Decent working conditions for the animals es-form of risk Regarding alligator wrestling shows pecially in regard to reasonable number offor example Gloria (33 Puerto Rico) stated working hours a day

I donrsquot like it I think itrsquos dangerous for the peo- Discussion and Conclusionsple that do that work [the wrestlers] and for the

As previously indicated the purpose of this ex-people that look at it These animals donrsquot haveploratory study was to examine the attitudes ofthe intelligence of a man so they donrsquot under-

stand the difference between a baby or a boy or tourists toward the use of animals in tourist attrac-girl I heard that once an alligator bit a trainer tions while identifying the structure of these atti- I donrsquot like it

tudes The focus group sessions revealed that thevast majority of the participants were aware of theVisitorsrsquo Behavior Some participants men-

tioned that the ethical operation of animal-based ethical difficulties of keeping animals in captivityHowever the participants also viewed animal-basedtourist attractions does not depend only on the site

itself but also on the respectful behavior on the tourist attractions as a positive phenomenon in

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 97

general and raised various justifications for their and education (see Hutchins et al 1995 Jamie-son 2006 Mason 2000 2007 Snyder et alexistence In this regard similar to the findings of

Curtin (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) about 1996) Yet even in relation to these well-discussedissues the participants had some interesting in-people who swam with captive dolphins the par-

ticipants in this study demonstrated cognitive dis- sights The role of animal attractions in educationamong others was found especially relevant tosonance The awareness of the ethical dilemmas

involved in seeing animals in captivity led the par- children and to the development of their aware-ness of nature similar to the findings of Turleyticipants to raise various reasons for the impor-

tance of their presence and in which terms animal (1999 2001) In addition the attractions were alsoperceived as contributing toward softening theattractions can be considered ethical The partici-

pantsrsquo ethical evaluation of animal-based tourist negative image of certain animalsmdashbecause oftheir behavior in the wild andor their negativeattractions was found to consist of three main lay-

ers (see Figure 1) characteristicsHowever the participants also raised justifica-First ethical attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions were based on general argu- tions that to this day have been relatively littlediscussed To many participants the attractionsments in favor of (or against) their existence In

order to develop a favorable ethical attitude to- served as a safe socioeconomic alternative to au-thentic nature tours which are often perceived asward animal attractions one should be convinced

of the validity of the ethical arguments in favor of being expensive and dangerous (see Shackley1996 for a similar argument) They were also per-their presence in the first place These arguments

did not point toward a specific attraction but ceived as enabling ldquoordinaryrdquo people to participatein activities that are reserved exclusively forrather served as an ideological basis for justifying

the use of animals in entertainment ventures in wealthy tourists or wildlife professionals thusleading to a form of ldquosocial justicerdquo Another im-general Some of the justifications raised by par-

ticipants have been discussed in the academic lit- portant justification that emerged in the focusgroups was the perception that the animals exhib-erature Those justifications that are both men-

tioned in the literature and by many of the focus ited in the attractions are better off in captivitywhere they are free of the fear of predators or ofgroup participants included conservation research

Figure 1 The three layers of ethical perceptions of animal-based tourist attractions

98 SHANI AND PIZAM

the need to search for food Finally the attractions tence of these factors partially or completely af-fects the chances of an animal-based attraction toalso created the impression among some partici-

pants that they act as another form of wildlife reg- be considered ethicalThe structure of the ethical perception of ani-ulation which is necessary for the safety and secu-

rity of human society mal-based tourist attractions as identified in thisstudy seems hierarchical in nature A person whoAlthough many of the participants in the study

justified the existence of animal-based tourist at- rejects any justification for having these attrac-tions that is who favors the abolishment of alltractions in general they also recognize that these

are not always ethically operated especially in use of animals for entertainment is expected tohave a negative attitude toward an attraction evenhistorical context The second layer which consti-

tutes the ethical perception of animal-based tourist if it adopts an ethical and responsible treatment ofthe animals On the other hand even if the exis-attractions includes driving forces that are be-

lieved to cause the attractions to treat the animals tence of animal attractions is accepted by a personand heshe believes that contemporary attractionsresponsibly The belief that contemporary animal-

based tourist attractions are considerably more are controlled by both self- and external regula-ethical than in the past derives from two factors tions there are still specific conditions that needthe power of the media and public opinion which to be fulfilled in order for this person to have ais perceived to have major impact on the operation positive attitude toward each specific attractionof the attractions and the legal and enforcement To conclude although the tourism industry re-system which is trusted to supervise their opera- lies heavily on the incorporation of animals in itstions While the former creates a form of self- attractions to date there have been no serious at-regulationmdashit is worthwhile being ethical because tempts to investigate the issue in a holistic wayit prevents negative publicitymdashthe latter repre- Specifically the ethical attitudes of the visitorssents external regulation which ensures ethical and nonvisitors toward these attractions were onlyoperation The perception that both of these driv- ambiguous and speculative The current explor-ing forces have a crucial impact on the attractions atory study found that an ethical approach towardwas significant in accounting for the participantsrsquo animal-based tourist attractions is constructedreduced ethical concerns with regard to the ways along three main levels general justifications foranimals might be treated ldquobackstagerdquo having these attractions a belief in the driving

The last layer that determined visitorsrsquo ethical forces for ethical behavior on behalf of the attrac-attitudes toward animal-based tourist attractions is tions and certain conditions for the ethical opera-linked to their judgment of each specific attrac- tion of each specific attraction This can be seention The participants in this study clearly distin- as an additional step toward a deeper understand-guished between ethical and unethical attractions ing of the ethical perceptions and judgment of ani-and provided useful indications of which condi- mal-based tourist attractions on the part of the vis-tions need to be fulfilled in order for an attraction itorsto be considered ethical The core conditions men-tioned were the natural design of the animal dis- Managerial Implicationsplays and the perception that the animals perform

Beyond the theoretical contributions the find-natural behavior factors that have already beenings of this study can also assist specific animal-addressed by many animal-based tourist attrac-based tourist attractions in their operational andtions (eg Davey 2006 Hughes et al 2005 To-marketing functions The repositioning of manymas et al 2002) Among the other prominent con-animal-based tourist attractions as sites for educa-ditions mentioned were gentle training methodstion scientific research and conservation is clearlythe perception of a ldquofair chancerdquo given to the ani-effective in providing legitimacy to their exis-mals in sport or contest situations ensuring thetence The extra attention given nowadays to natu-safety of employees and visitors and respectfulral presentation of the animals (Hughes et albehavior on the part of the visitors The views ex-

pressed by the participants suggest that the exis- 2005 Ryan amp Saward 2004) also seems to pay

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

94 SHANI AND PIZAM

I think that circuses are getting bad publicity Irsquomother words the concern about bad public rela-sure that there is animal abuse there as was his-tions or negative reactions on the part of visitorstorically but Irsquod like to thinkmdashmaybe Irsquom just

regarding animal abuse has led to the appearance living in Happy Landmdashthat animals are treated aof a self-regulation mechanism in the attractions little more humanely nowadays just because all

of the things that were brought up in the newsthemselves Since visitors expect today to seeAnd if theyrsquore not if something came out to thewell-treated animals it is in the interest of the at-press then that circus would be done with busi-tractions to meet this expectation Keith (50 De-ness Because there are so many people out there

troit) illustrated this view that care

Legal System and Institutional SupervisionI think that public awareness has probably madeAnother factor that helped to ease some of the par-animal attractions change their attitudes because

that is their livelihood The attractions know ticipantsrsquo ethical concerns regarding animal-basedthat the animals are their bread and butter so tourist attractions was their trust in the legal sys-theyrsquore going to do everything they can to make tem and in the power and influence of animal wel-a friendly place for them

fare organizations For example when the issue ofrodeos and circuses arose in one of the sessions

The role of the demand for ethical treatment in theDana (50 Wisconsin) said

perceived changing nature of animal-based touristattractions was heavily emphasized For example

Rodeos like we have here in the States I donrsquotLiza (54 Michigan) argued believe they kill the horses do they I guess

therersquos a certain amount of governmental control Is thereThey [the attractions] seem to have more knowl-

edge of how to manage animals but they alsohave something to protect because if they donrsquot However some participants felt that more tightdo it [act ethically] they will be out of business external control should be put on the attractionsAnd this is caused by the consumers who put

as stated by Katie (25 Illinois)more pressure They [the attractions] have toplease the public and the almighty dollar to keepthe operation going If we continue to have these attractions and con-

tinue to visit them I think we should have stricterregulations to protect the animals so theyrsquoll beThe view that fear of negative public opinion leadsin a more natural environment The laws are

to ethical behavior seemed to be strengthened by stricter in this countrymdashthe animals look wellthe belief in the power of the mass media In this kept especially in the big organizations that ownrespect the perception was that in times of ldquoopen these establishments But for local zoos and cir-

cuses the law is not there They look OK but youinformationrdquo and wide media coverage unethicaljust donrsquot know we need stricter lawsoperations will not be able to survive long As

noted by Keith (50 Detroit)Conditions for Ethical Operationof Animal-Based Tourist AttractionsTelevision cameras might sneak into zoos and see

the elephant trainers using whips and hit the ele- The participants in the study made a clear dis-phants it can destroy the operation real quick tinction between ethical and nonethical animal- All you have to do today is get the news in-

based tourist attractions while elaborating on thevolved and say ldquoLook what theyrsquore doing necessary or desirable conditions for such sites tothey are feeding that koala bear vanilla ice cream

all day long and that is not rightrdquo So they are be considered ethical In addition they also pro-going to make the public aware and go on the vided information on the standards for how toChannel 7 news then people will start reading measure if an attraction in general or a certainthe editorial in the paper and it will escalate

display in particular could be perceived as beingethical

When the issue of circuses and their negative im-age was mentioned during one of the sessions Natural Environment The designing of con-

trived natural environments in the animal displaysHeather (26 Florida) stated

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 95

and exhibits was one of the main factors leading Training Methods Another factor that was re-peated during the focus group sessions was theto more positive attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions This notion was illustrated in ethical requirement that performing animals betrained gently without being inflicted any painthe words of Patrick (41 Miami)suffering or distress It is important to note thatanimal shows were not perceived as unethical inAttractions with animals are great to be around

and great to spend time with But I always themselves but only when associated with themind to the fact that they are caged You know cruel treatment of animals This perception wasthey try to make them as natural as possible but

exemplified by Kristin (27 Michigan)they have borders They are unnatural environ-ments and the animals must be aware of thatmdash

A lot of people thinkmdashoh training animals andthey can sense things like that I love to go thereteaching them tricks is cruel but you canrsquot teachbut you canrsquot help wondermdashare they feelinga trick if the animal doesnrsquot want to learn it un-trapped in this environment I prefer the moreless yoursquore harsh to it [In reference to a pet showupdated parks when the boundaries have beenshe saw]mdashThey have so many kinds of animalsincreased and enlarged and they try to bringthere Theyrsquore all rescued animals but the train-them back to their original habitaters donrsquot use whips and they donrsquot use any kind

Natural Behavior The negative public rela- of punishment only positive reinforcement MyGod I donrsquot like to see whips like they use intions that circuses and circus-like shows have beensome of the dinner shows As I said if the ani-absorbing in recent years was clearly expressed inmals want to perform itrsquos a different story A lot

the preference of some of the participants for of the dolphin attractions the dolphins like towatching (what they perceived as) natural behav- perform itrsquos fun itrsquos a game for them You donrsquotior of animals It should be noted that in some need to use a whip and you donrsquot need to use

something that is not a positive reinforcementcases even animal shows which have been criti-[In reference to a dinner show she had been to]cized in the past might be perceived as allowing

the performing animals to express natural behav-In this regard the common impression of theior For example Liza (54 Michigan) when refer-closeness between performing animals and theirring to dolphin shows argued thattrainers was for some of the participants a reassur-ance that the animals were not being abused This

When you see a whale jump out of the water andperception was strengthened by their reliance oncome by the trainermdashthatrsquos actually natural pred-their own eyes in the sense of ldquoseeing is believ-atory type of behavior for him when hunting

seals in the ocean ingrdquo For example Jim (52 Michigan) argued that

at Sea World you look at the people and theyrsquoreSome cases however might be judged differentlyall having a good time and the trainers look closeas illustrated by Michael (36 Britain) regardingto the animals and it looks like the animals are inbird exhibits a friendly environment

I find it harder to see a bird in a cage than any This notion was also illustrated by Heather (26other animal because of the nature of a bird Hersquos Florida)a flyer

When I was a kid my parents took me to a cir-Another reference to this issue was made by Kris- cus but I havenrsquot gone since I like it when theretin (27 Michigan) who stressed the importance of is more human interaction In regard to shows

like the Pet Ahoy and the dolphin showsmdashthethe animalrsquos free willanimals want to be there because theyrsquore [the an-imals and the trainers] friends for life You canAnything you do to instigate a reactionmdashridingsee the closeness and the bond between the ani-a bull or cockfightingmdashyou need to instigatemals and the trainersthem to do that Thatrsquos unnatural and unneces-

sary Itrsquos one thing if the animal wants to do itNevertheless some of the participants recognizedand itrsquos a different thing if you stab him with a

stick their limitations in judging whether an animal was

96 SHANI AND PIZAM

being abused during its training For example part of the visitors This point was illustrated byMark (43 Maryland) who statedBruno (53 Michigan) noted that

It upsets me to see in zoos teenagers whorsquore try-[in animal shows] you only see the finished prod-ing to impress their friends by throwing some-uct you donrsquot see the training You actually havething at the animals I think why wonrsquot you getto be there when the training is been conductedon the other side of the fence and do thatHowever from what I see on TV it seems that

the animals are pretty well trained and not abusedat all Another prominent example was given by Dana

(50 Wisconsin) regarding a dinner show she par-The Concept of Fairness Some of the partici-ticipated inpants brought up the point that certain uses of ani-

mals in attractions even if controversial becauseAfter the dinner they have a place where you canof the violence involvedmdashsuch as alligator wres-meet and greet the riders and the horses They let

tling bullfighting and rodeosmdashmight seem ethi- people sit on the top of the horses and these peo-cal if it is perceived that the animals receive a fair ple are sitting on the horses kicking and snap-chance during the activity Liza (54 Michigan) ping them The kids were pulling their mane

the parents sat there and let the kids do it It hasfor example told about her experience at a bull-a sign which says ldquoplease do not feed the ani-fight in Spainmalsrdquo But I have never seen anybody out therean employee who watches that nobody tries to

Well I donrsquot think that the bull even started with feed the horses popcorn nachos or potato chipsa chance I mean if yoursquore going to get in the which I saw the horses being fedring and fight that bull then the bull should notbe sent out of the pen already stabbed with a cou- Other A few other factors were mentioned asple of daggers and already wounded coming at conditions for the ethical operation of animal-you If you choose to take on that animal you based tourist attractionsmdashor at least it was notedshould take that creature at its maximum You

that their presence increases the chances for thedonrsquot paralyze it and then take him onattractions to be positively judged Among these

[Regarding gator wrestling] I donrsquot object to factors werethat I mean if they [the wrestlers] lose they

bull The provision of sufficient food and medicallose If yoursquore going to wrestle alligators at leastdo not have an unfair advantage As long as you care to the animalsdonrsquot wrestle with the alligator with his mouth or bull Employing educated people who will be sensi-his legs taped if you want to wrestle an alliga- tive enough to the animalstor and you have a 50ndash50 chance go for it bull A strong preference to see rescued animals inSafety Negative perceptions of certain animal the exhibits over animals that were simply cap-

displays and shows were also mentioned when tured in the wild andparticipants sensed that the activity involved some bull Decent working conditions for the animals es-form of risk Regarding alligator wrestling shows pecially in regard to reasonable number offor example Gloria (33 Puerto Rico) stated working hours a day

I donrsquot like it I think itrsquos dangerous for the peo- Discussion and Conclusionsple that do that work [the wrestlers] and for the

As previously indicated the purpose of this ex-people that look at it These animals donrsquot haveploratory study was to examine the attitudes ofthe intelligence of a man so they donrsquot under-

stand the difference between a baby or a boy or tourists toward the use of animals in tourist attrac-girl I heard that once an alligator bit a trainer tions while identifying the structure of these atti- I donrsquot like it

tudes The focus group sessions revealed that thevast majority of the participants were aware of theVisitorsrsquo Behavior Some participants men-

tioned that the ethical operation of animal-based ethical difficulties of keeping animals in captivityHowever the participants also viewed animal-basedtourist attractions does not depend only on the site

itself but also on the respectful behavior on the tourist attractions as a positive phenomenon in

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 97

general and raised various justifications for their and education (see Hutchins et al 1995 Jamie-son 2006 Mason 2000 2007 Snyder et alexistence In this regard similar to the findings of

Curtin (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) about 1996) Yet even in relation to these well-discussedissues the participants had some interesting in-people who swam with captive dolphins the par-

ticipants in this study demonstrated cognitive dis- sights The role of animal attractions in educationamong others was found especially relevant tosonance The awareness of the ethical dilemmas

involved in seeing animals in captivity led the par- children and to the development of their aware-ness of nature similar to the findings of Turleyticipants to raise various reasons for the impor-

tance of their presence and in which terms animal (1999 2001) In addition the attractions were alsoperceived as contributing toward softening theattractions can be considered ethical The partici-

pantsrsquo ethical evaluation of animal-based tourist negative image of certain animalsmdashbecause oftheir behavior in the wild andor their negativeattractions was found to consist of three main lay-

ers (see Figure 1) characteristicsHowever the participants also raised justifica-First ethical attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions were based on general argu- tions that to this day have been relatively littlediscussed To many participants the attractionsments in favor of (or against) their existence In

order to develop a favorable ethical attitude to- served as a safe socioeconomic alternative to au-thentic nature tours which are often perceived asward animal attractions one should be convinced

of the validity of the ethical arguments in favor of being expensive and dangerous (see Shackley1996 for a similar argument) They were also per-their presence in the first place These arguments

did not point toward a specific attraction but ceived as enabling ldquoordinaryrdquo people to participatein activities that are reserved exclusively forrather served as an ideological basis for justifying

the use of animals in entertainment ventures in wealthy tourists or wildlife professionals thusleading to a form of ldquosocial justicerdquo Another im-general Some of the justifications raised by par-

ticipants have been discussed in the academic lit- portant justification that emerged in the focusgroups was the perception that the animals exhib-erature Those justifications that are both men-

tioned in the literature and by many of the focus ited in the attractions are better off in captivitywhere they are free of the fear of predators or ofgroup participants included conservation research

Figure 1 The three layers of ethical perceptions of animal-based tourist attractions

98 SHANI AND PIZAM

the need to search for food Finally the attractions tence of these factors partially or completely af-fects the chances of an animal-based attraction toalso created the impression among some partici-

pants that they act as another form of wildlife reg- be considered ethicalThe structure of the ethical perception of ani-ulation which is necessary for the safety and secu-

rity of human society mal-based tourist attractions as identified in thisstudy seems hierarchical in nature A person whoAlthough many of the participants in the study

justified the existence of animal-based tourist at- rejects any justification for having these attrac-tions that is who favors the abolishment of alltractions in general they also recognize that these

are not always ethically operated especially in use of animals for entertainment is expected tohave a negative attitude toward an attraction evenhistorical context The second layer which consti-

tutes the ethical perception of animal-based tourist if it adopts an ethical and responsible treatment ofthe animals On the other hand even if the exis-attractions includes driving forces that are be-

lieved to cause the attractions to treat the animals tence of animal attractions is accepted by a personand heshe believes that contemporary attractionsresponsibly The belief that contemporary animal-

based tourist attractions are considerably more are controlled by both self- and external regula-ethical than in the past derives from two factors tions there are still specific conditions that needthe power of the media and public opinion which to be fulfilled in order for this person to have ais perceived to have major impact on the operation positive attitude toward each specific attractionof the attractions and the legal and enforcement To conclude although the tourism industry re-system which is trusted to supervise their opera- lies heavily on the incorporation of animals in itstions While the former creates a form of self- attractions to date there have been no serious at-regulationmdashit is worthwhile being ethical because tempts to investigate the issue in a holistic wayit prevents negative publicitymdashthe latter repre- Specifically the ethical attitudes of the visitorssents external regulation which ensures ethical and nonvisitors toward these attractions were onlyoperation The perception that both of these driv- ambiguous and speculative The current explor-ing forces have a crucial impact on the attractions atory study found that an ethical approach towardwas significant in accounting for the participantsrsquo animal-based tourist attractions is constructedreduced ethical concerns with regard to the ways along three main levels general justifications foranimals might be treated ldquobackstagerdquo having these attractions a belief in the driving

The last layer that determined visitorsrsquo ethical forces for ethical behavior on behalf of the attrac-attitudes toward animal-based tourist attractions is tions and certain conditions for the ethical opera-linked to their judgment of each specific attrac- tion of each specific attraction This can be seention The participants in this study clearly distin- as an additional step toward a deeper understand-guished between ethical and unethical attractions ing of the ethical perceptions and judgment of ani-and provided useful indications of which condi- mal-based tourist attractions on the part of the vis-tions need to be fulfilled in order for an attraction itorsto be considered ethical The core conditions men-tioned were the natural design of the animal dis- Managerial Implicationsplays and the perception that the animals perform

Beyond the theoretical contributions the find-natural behavior factors that have already beenings of this study can also assist specific animal-addressed by many animal-based tourist attrac-based tourist attractions in their operational andtions (eg Davey 2006 Hughes et al 2005 To-marketing functions The repositioning of manymas et al 2002) Among the other prominent con-animal-based tourist attractions as sites for educa-ditions mentioned were gentle training methodstion scientific research and conservation is clearlythe perception of a ldquofair chancerdquo given to the ani-effective in providing legitimacy to their exis-mals in sport or contest situations ensuring thetence The extra attention given nowadays to natu-safety of employees and visitors and respectfulral presentation of the animals (Hughes et albehavior on the part of the visitors The views ex-

pressed by the participants suggest that the exis- 2005 Ryan amp Saward 2004) also seems to pay

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 95

and exhibits was one of the main factors leading Training Methods Another factor that was re-peated during the focus group sessions was theto more positive attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions This notion was illustrated in ethical requirement that performing animals betrained gently without being inflicted any painthe words of Patrick (41 Miami)suffering or distress It is important to note thatanimal shows were not perceived as unethical inAttractions with animals are great to be around

and great to spend time with But I always themselves but only when associated with themind to the fact that they are caged You know cruel treatment of animals This perception wasthey try to make them as natural as possible but

exemplified by Kristin (27 Michigan)they have borders They are unnatural environ-ments and the animals must be aware of thatmdash

A lot of people thinkmdashoh training animals andthey can sense things like that I love to go thereteaching them tricks is cruel but you canrsquot teachbut you canrsquot help wondermdashare they feelinga trick if the animal doesnrsquot want to learn it un-trapped in this environment I prefer the moreless yoursquore harsh to it [In reference to a pet showupdated parks when the boundaries have beenshe saw]mdashThey have so many kinds of animalsincreased and enlarged and they try to bringthere Theyrsquore all rescued animals but the train-them back to their original habitaters donrsquot use whips and they donrsquot use any kind

Natural Behavior The negative public rela- of punishment only positive reinforcement MyGod I donrsquot like to see whips like they use intions that circuses and circus-like shows have beensome of the dinner shows As I said if the ani-absorbing in recent years was clearly expressed inmals want to perform itrsquos a different story A lot

the preference of some of the participants for of the dolphin attractions the dolphins like towatching (what they perceived as) natural behav- perform itrsquos fun itrsquos a game for them You donrsquotior of animals It should be noted that in some need to use a whip and you donrsquot need to use

something that is not a positive reinforcementcases even animal shows which have been criti-[In reference to a dinner show she had been to]cized in the past might be perceived as allowing

the performing animals to express natural behav-In this regard the common impression of theior For example Liza (54 Michigan) when refer-closeness between performing animals and theirring to dolphin shows argued thattrainers was for some of the participants a reassur-ance that the animals were not being abused This

When you see a whale jump out of the water andperception was strengthened by their reliance oncome by the trainermdashthatrsquos actually natural pred-their own eyes in the sense of ldquoseeing is believ-atory type of behavior for him when hunting

seals in the ocean ingrdquo For example Jim (52 Michigan) argued that

at Sea World you look at the people and theyrsquoreSome cases however might be judged differentlyall having a good time and the trainers look closeas illustrated by Michael (36 Britain) regardingto the animals and it looks like the animals are inbird exhibits a friendly environment

I find it harder to see a bird in a cage than any This notion was also illustrated by Heather (26other animal because of the nature of a bird Hersquos Florida)a flyer

When I was a kid my parents took me to a cir-Another reference to this issue was made by Kris- cus but I havenrsquot gone since I like it when theretin (27 Michigan) who stressed the importance of is more human interaction In regard to shows

like the Pet Ahoy and the dolphin showsmdashthethe animalrsquos free willanimals want to be there because theyrsquore [the an-imals and the trainers] friends for life You canAnything you do to instigate a reactionmdashridingsee the closeness and the bond between the ani-a bull or cockfightingmdashyou need to instigatemals and the trainersthem to do that Thatrsquos unnatural and unneces-

sary Itrsquos one thing if the animal wants to do itNevertheless some of the participants recognizedand itrsquos a different thing if you stab him with a

stick their limitations in judging whether an animal was

96 SHANI AND PIZAM

being abused during its training For example part of the visitors This point was illustrated byMark (43 Maryland) who statedBruno (53 Michigan) noted that

It upsets me to see in zoos teenagers whorsquore try-[in animal shows] you only see the finished prod-ing to impress their friends by throwing some-uct you donrsquot see the training You actually havething at the animals I think why wonrsquot you getto be there when the training is been conductedon the other side of the fence and do thatHowever from what I see on TV it seems that

the animals are pretty well trained and not abusedat all Another prominent example was given by Dana

(50 Wisconsin) regarding a dinner show she par-The Concept of Fairness Some of the partici-ticipated inpants brought up the point that certain uses of ani-

mals in attractions even if controversial becauseAfter the dinner they have a place where you canof the violence involvedmdashsuch as alligator wres-meet and greet the riders and the horses They let

tling bullfighting and rodeosmdashmight seem ethi- people sit on the top of the horses and these peo-cal if it is perceived that the animals receive a fair ple are sitting on the horses kicking and snap-chance during the activity Liza (54 Michigan) ping them The kids were pulling their mane

the parents sat there and let the kids do it It hasfor example told about her experience at a bull-a sign which says ldquoplease do not feed the ani-fight in Spainmalsrdquo But I have never seen anybody out therean employee who watches that nobody tries to

Well I donrsquot think that the bull even started with feed the horses popcorn nachos or potato chipsa chance I mean if yoursquore going to get in the which I saw the horses being fedring and fight that bull then the bull should notbe sent out of the pen already stabbed with a cou- Other A few other factors were mentioned asple of daggers and already wounded coming at conditions for the ethical operation of animal-you If you choose to take on that animal you based tourist attractionsmdashor at least it was notedshould take that creature at its maximum You

that their presence increases the chances for thedonrsquot paralyze it and then take him onattractions to be positively judged Among these

[Regarding gator wrestling] I donrsquot object to factors werethat I mean if they [the wrestlers] lose they

bull The provision of sufficient food and medicallose If yoursquore going to wrestle alligators at leastdo not have an unfair advantage As long as you care to the animalsdonrsquot wrestle with the alligator with his mouth or bull Employing educated people who will be sensi-his legs taped if you want to wrestle an alliga- tive enough to the animalstor and you have a 50ndash50 chance go for it bull A strong preference to see rescued animals inSafety Negative perceptions of certain animal the exhibits over animals that were simply cap-

displays and shows were also mentioned when tured in the wild andparticipants sensed that the activity involved some bull Decent working conditions for the animals es-form of risk Regarding alligator wrestling shows pecially in regard to reasonable number offor example Gloria (33 Puerto Rico) stated working hours a day

I donrsquot like it I think itrsquos dangerous for the peo- Discussion and Conclusionsple that do that work [the wrestlers] and for the

As previously indicated the purpose of this ex-people that look at it These animals donrsquot haveploratory study was to examine the attitudes ofthe intelligence of a man so they donrsquot under-

stand the difference between a baby or a boy or tourists toward the use of animals in tourist attrac-girl I heard that once an alligator bit a trainer tions while identifying the structure of these atti- I donrsquot like it

tudes The focus group sessions revealed that thevast majority of the participants were aware of theVisitorsrsquo Behavior Some participants men-

tioned that the ethical operation of animal-based ethical difficulties of keeping animals in captivityHowever the participants also viewed animal-basedtourist attractions does not depend only on the site

itself but also on the respectful behavior on the tourist attractions as a positive phenomenon in

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 97

general and raised various justifications for their and education (see Hutchins et al 1995 Jamie-son 2006 Mason 2000 2007 Snyder et alexistence In this regard similar to the findings of

Curtin (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) about 1996) Yet even in relation to these well-discussedissues the participants had some interesting in-people who swam with captive dolphins the par-

ticipants in this study demonstrated cognitive dis- sights The role of animal attractions in educationamong others was found especially relevant tosonance The awareness of the ethical dilemmas

involved in seeing animals in captivity led the par- children and to the development of their aware-ness of nature similar to the findings of Turleyticipants to raise various reasons for the impor-

tance of their presence and in which terms animal (1999 2001) In addition the attractions were alsoperceived as contributing toward softening theattractions can be considered ethical The partici-

pantsrsquo ethical evaluation of animal-based tourist negative image of certain animalsmdashbecause oftheir behavior in the wild andor their negativeattractions was found to consist of three main lay-

ers (see Figure 1) characteristicsHowever the participants also raised justifica-First ethical attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions were based on general argu- tions that to this day have been relatively littlediscussed To many participants the attractionsments in favor of (or against) their existence In

order to develop a favorable ethical attitude to- served as a safe socioeconomic alternative to au-thentic nature tours which are often perceived asward animal attractions one should be convinced

of the validity of the ethical arguments in favor of being expensive and dangerous (see Shackley1996 for a similar argument) They were also per-their presence in the first place These arguments

did not point toward a specific attraction but ceived as enabling ldquoordinaryrdquo people to participatein activities that are reserved exclusively forrather served as an ideological basis for justifying

the use of animals in entertainment ventures in wealthy tourists or wildlife professionals thusleading to a form of ldquosocial justicerdquo Another im-general Some of the justifications raised by par-

ticipants have been discussed in the academic lit- portant justification that emerged in the focusgroups was the perception that the animals exhib-erature Those justifications that are both men-

tioned in the literature and by many of the focus ited in the attractions are better off in captivitywhere they are free of the fear of predators or ofgroup participants included conservation research

Figure 1 The three layers of ethical perceptions of animal-based tourist attractions

98 SHANI AND PIZAM

the need to search for food Finally the attractions tence of these factors partially or completely af-fects the chances of an animal-based attraction toalso created the impression among some partici-

pants that they act as another form of wildlife reg- be considered ethicalThe structure of the ethical perception of ani-ulation which is necessary for the safety and secu-

rity of human society mal-based tourist attractions as identified in thisstudy seems hierarchical in nature A person whoAlthough many of the participants in the study

justified the existence of animal-based tourist at- rejects any justification for having these attrac-tions that is who favors the abolishment of alltractions in general they also recognize that these

are not always ethically operated especially in use of animals for entertainment is expected tohave a negative attitude toward an attraction evenhistorical context The second layer which consti-

tutes the ethical perception of animal-based tourist if it adopts an ethical and responsible treatment ofthe animals On the other hand even if the exis-attractions includes driving forces that are be-

lieved to cause the attractions to treat the animals tence of animal attractions is accepted by a personand heshe believes that contemporary attractionsresponsibly The belief that contemporary animal-

based tourist attractions are considerably more are controlled by both self- and external regula-ethical than in the past derives from two factors tions there are still specific conditions that needthe power of the media and public opinion which to be fulfilled in order for this person to have ais perceived to have major impact on the operation positive attitude toward each specific attractionof the attractions and the legal and enforcement To conclude although the tourism industry re-system which is trusted to supervise their opera- lies heavily on the incorporation of animals in itstions While the former creates a form of self- attractions to date there have been no serious at-regulationmdashit is worthwhile being ethical because tempts to investigate the issue in a holistic wayit prevents negative publicitymdashthe latter repre- Specifically the ethical attitudes of the visitorssents external regulation which ensures ethical and nonvisitors toward these attractions were onlyoperation The perception that both of these driv- ambiguous and speculative The current explor-ing forces have a crucial impact on the attractions atory study found that an ethical approach towardwas significant in accounting for the participantsrsquo animal-based tourist attractions is constructedreduced ethical concerns with regard to the ways along three main levels general justifications foranimals might be treated ldquobackstagerdquo having these attractions a belief in the driving

The last layer that determined visitorsrsquo ethical forces for ethical behavior on behalf of the attrac-attitudes toward animal-based tourist attractions is tions and certain conditions for the ethical opera-linked to their judgment of each specific attrac- tion of each specific attraction This can be seention The participants in this study clearly distin- as an additional step toward a deeper understand-guished between ethical and unethical attractions ing of the ethical perceptions and judgment of ani-and provided useful indications of which condi- mal-based tourist attractions on the part of the vis-tions need to be fulfilled in order for an attraction itorsto be considered ethical The core conditions men-tioned were the natural design of the animal dis- Managerial Implicationsplays and the perception that the animals perform

Beyond the theoretical contributions the find-natural behavior factors that have already beenings of this study can also assist specific animal-addressed by many animal-based tourist attrac-based tourist attractions in their operational andtions (eg Davey 2006 Hughes et al 2005 To-marketing functions The repositioning of manymas et al 2002) Among the other prominent con-animal-based tourist attractions as sites for educa-ditions mentioned were gentle training methodstion scientific research and conservation is clearlythe perception of a ldquofair chancerdquo given to the ani-effective in providing legitimacy to their exis-mals in sport or contest situations ensuring thetence The extra attention given nowadays to natu-safety of employees and visitors and respectfulral presentation of the animals (Hughes et albehavior on the part of the visitors The views ex-

pressed by the participants suggest that the exis- 2005 Ryan amp Saward 2004) also seems to pay

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

96 SHANI AND PIZAM

being abused during its training For example part of the visitors This point was illustrated byMark (43 Maryland) who statedBruno (53 Michigan) noted that

It upsets me to see in zoos teenagers whorsquore try-[in animal shows] you only see the finished prod-ing to impress their friends by throwing some-uct you donrsquot see the training You actually havething at the animals I think why wonrsquot you getto be there when the training is been conductedon the other side of the fence and do thatHowever from what I see on TV it seems that

the animals are pretty well trained and not abusedat all Another prominent example was given by Dana

(50 Wisconsin) regarding a dinner show she par-The Concept of Fairness Some of the partici-ticipated inpants brought up the point that certain uses of ani-

mals in attractions even if controversial becauseAfter the dinner they have a place where you canof the violence involvedmdashsuch as alligator wres-meet and greet the riders and the horses They let

tling bullfighting and rodeosmdashmight seem ethi- people sit on the top of the horses and these peo-cal if it is perceived that the animals receive a fair ple are sitting on the horses kicking and snap-chance during the activity Liza (54 Michigan) ping them The kids were pulling their mane

the parents sat there and let the kids do it It hasfor example told about her experience at a bull-a sign which says ldquoplease do not feed the ani-fight in Spainmalsrdquo But I have never seen anybody out therean employee who watches that nobody tries to

Well I donrsquot think that the bull even started with feed the horses popcorn nachos or potato chipsa chance I mean if yoursquore going to get in the which I saw the horses being fedring and fight that bull then the bull should notbe sent out of the pen already stabbed with a cou- Other A few other factors were mentioned asple of daggers and already wounded coming at conditions for the ethical operation of animal-you If you choose to take on that animal you based tourist attractionsmdashor at least it was notedshould take that creature at its maximum You

that their presence increases the chances for thedonrsquot paralyze it and then take him onattractions to be positively judged Among these

[Regarding gator wrestling] I donrsquot object to factors werethat I mean if they [the wrestlers] lose they

bull The provision of sufficient food and medicallose If yoursquore going to wrestle alligators at leastdo not have an unfair advantage As long as you care to the animalsdonrsquot wrestle with the alligator with his mouth or bull Employing educated people who will be sensi-his legs taped if you want to wrestle an alliga- tive enough to the animalstor and you have a 50ndash50 chance go for it bull A strong preference to see rescued animals inSafety Negative perceptions of certain animal the exhibits over animals that were simply cap-

displays and shows were also mentioned when tured in the wild andparticipants sensed that the activity involved some bull Decent working conditions for the animals es-form of risk Regarding alligator wrestling shows pecially in regard to reasonable number offor example Gloria (33 Puerto Rico) stated working hours a day

I donrsquot like it I think itrsquos dangerous for the peo- Discussion and Conclusionsple that do that work [the wrestlers] and for the

As previously indicated the purpose of this ex-people that look at it These animals donrsquot haveploratory study was to examine the attitudes ofthe intelligence of a man so they donrsquot under-

stand the difference between a baby or a boy or tourists toward the use of animals in tourist attrac-girl I heard that once an alligator bit a trainer tions while identifying the structure of these atti- I donrsquot like it

tudes The focus group sessions revealed that thevast majority of the participants were aware of theVisitorsrsquo Behavior Some participants men-

tioned that the ethical operation of animal-based ethical difficulties of keeping animals in captivityHowever the participants also viewed animal-basedtourist attractions does not depend only on the site

itself but also on the respectful behavior on the tourist attractions as a positive phenomenon in

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 97

general and raised various justifications for their and education (see Hutchins et al 1995 Jamie-son 2006 Mason 2000 2007 Snyder et alexistence In this regard similar to the findings of

Curtin (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) about 1996) Yet even in relation to these well-discussedissues the participants had some interesting in-people who swam with captive dolphins the par-

ticipants in this study demonstrated cognitive dis- sights The role of animal attractions in educationamong others was found especially relevant tosonance The awareness of the ethical dilemmas

involved in seeing animals in captivity led the par- children and to the development of their aware-ness of nature similar to the findings of Turleyticipants to raise various reasons for the impor-

tance of their presence and in which terms animal (1999 2001) In addition the attractions were alsoperceived as contributing toward softening theattractions can be considered ethical The partici-

pantsrsquo ethical evaluation of animal-based tourist negative image of certain animalsmdashbecause oftheir behavior in the wild andor their negativeattractions was found to consist of three main lay-

ers (see Figure 1) characteristicsHowever the participants also raised justifica-First ethical attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions were based on general argu- tions that to this day have been relatively littlediscussed To many participants the attractionsments in favor of (or against) their existence In

order to develop a favorable ethical attitude to- served as a safe socioeconomic alternative to au-thentic nature tours which are often perceived asward animal attractions one should be convinced

of the validity of the ethical arguments in favor of being expensive and dangerous (see Shackley1996 for a similar argument) They were also per-their presence in the first place These arguments

did not point toward a specific attraction but ceived as enabling ldquoordinaryrdquo people to participatein activities that are reserved exclusively forrather served as an ideological basis for justifying

the use of animals in entertainment ventures in wealthy tourists or wildlife professionals thusleading to a form of ldquosocial justicerdquo Another im-general Some of the justifications raised by par-

ticipants have been discussed in the academic lit- portant justification that emerged in the focusgroups was the perception that the animals exhib-erature Those justifications that are both men-

tioned in the literature and by many of the focus ited in the attractions are better off in captivitywhere they are free of the fear of predators or ofgroup participants included conservation research

Figure 1 The three layers of ethical perceptions of animal-based tourist attractions

98 SHANI AND PIZAM

the need to search for food Finally the attractions tence of these factors partially or completely af-fects the chances of an animal-based attraction toalso created the impression among some partici-

pants that they act as another form of wildlife reg- be considered ethicalThe structure of the ethical perception of ani-ulation which is necessary for the safety and secu-

rity of human society mal-based tourist attractions as identified in thisstudy seems hierarchical in nature A person whoAlthough many of the participants in the study

justified the existence of animal-based tourist at- rejects any justification for having these attrac-tions that is who favors the abolishment of alltractions in general they also recognize that these

are not always ethically operated especially in use of animals for entertainment is expected tohave a negative attitude toward an attraction evenhistorical context The second layer which consti-

tutes the ethical perception of animal-based tourist if it adopts an ethical and responsible treatment ofthe animals On the other hand even if the exis-attractions includes driving forces that are be-

lieved to cause the attractions to treat the animals tence of animal attractions is accepted by a personand heshe believes that contemporary attractionsresponsibly The belief that contemporary animal-

based tourist attractions are considerably more are controlled by both self- and external regula-ethical than in the past derives from two factors tions there are still specific conditions that needthe power of the media and public opinion which to be fulfilled in order for this person to have ais perceived to have major impact on the operation positive attitude toward each specific attractionof the attractions and the legal and enforcement To conclude although the tourism industry re-system which is trusted to supervise their opera- lies heavily on the incorporation of animals in itstions While the former creates a form of self- attractions to date there have been no serious at-regulationmdashit is worthwhile being ethical because tempts to investigate the issue in a holistic wayit prevents negative publicitymdashthe latter repre- Specifically the ethical attitudes of the visitorssents external regulation which ensures ethical and nonvisitors toward these attractions were onlyoperation The perception that both of these driv- ambiguous and speculative The current explor-ing forces have a crucial impact on the attractions atory study found that an ethical approach towardwas significant in accounting for the participantsrsquo animal-based tourist attractions is constructedreduced ethical concerns with regard to the ways along three main levels general justifications foranimals might be treated ldquobackstagerdquo having these attractions a belief in the driving

The last layer that determined visitorsrsquo ethical forces for ethical behavior on behalf of the attrac-attitudes toward animal-based tourist attractions is tions and certain conditions for the ethical opera-linked to their judgment of each specific attrac- tion of each specific attraction This can be seention The participants in this study clearly distin- as an additional step toward a deeper understand-guished between ethical and unethical attractions ing of the ethical perceptions and judgment of ani-and provided useful indications of which condi- mal-based tourist attractions on the part of the vis-tions need to be fulfilled in order for an attraction itorsto be considered ethical The core conditions men-tioned were the natural design of the animal dis- Managerial Implicationsplays and the perception that the animals perform

Beyond the theoretical contributions the find-natural behavior factors that have already beenings of this study can also assist specific animal-addressed by many animal-based tourist attrac-based tourist attractions in their operational andtions (eg Davey 2006 Hughes et al 2005 To-marketing functions The repositioning of manymas et al 2002) Among the other prominent con-animal-based tourist attractions as sites for educa-ditions mentioned were gentle training methodstion scientific research and conservation is clearlythe perception of a ldquofair chancerdquo given to the ani-effective in providing legitimacy to their exis-mals in sport or contest situations ensuring thetence The extra attention given nowadays to natu-safety of employees and visitors and respectfulral presentation of the animals (Hughes et albehavior on the part of the visitors The views ex-

pressed by the participants suggest that the exis- 2005 Ryan amp Saward 2004) also seems to pay

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 97

general and raised various justifications for their and education (see Hutchins et al 1995 Jamie-son 2006 Mason 2000 2007 Snyder et alexistence In this regard similar to the findings of

Curtin (2006) and Curtin and Wilkes (2007) about 1996) Yet even in relation to these well-discussedissues the participants had some interesting in-people who swam with captive dolphins the par-

ticipants in this study demonstrated cognitive dis- sights The role of animal attractions in educationamong others was found especially relevant tosonance The awareness of the ethical dilemmas

involved in seeing animals in captivity led the par- children and to the development of their aware-ness of nature similar to the findings of Turleyticipants to raise various reasons for the impor-

tance of their presence and in which terms animal (1999 2001) In addition the attractions were alsoperceived as contributing toward softening theattractions can be considered ethical The partici-

pantsrsquo ethical evaluation of animal-based tourist negative image of certain animalsmdashbecause oftheir behavior in the wild andor their negativeattractions was found to consist of three main lay-

ers (see Figure 1) characteristicsHowever the participants also raised justifica-First ethical attitudes toward animal-based

tourist attractions were based on general argu- tions that to this day have been relatively littlediscussed To many participants the attractionsments in favor of (or against) their existence In

order to develop a favorable ethical attitude to- served as a safe socioeconomic alternative to au-thentic nature tours which are often perceived asward animal attractions one should be convinced

of the validity of the ethical arguments in favor of being expensive and dangerous (see Shackley1996 for a similar argument) They were also per-their presence in the first place These arguments

did not point toward a specific attraction but ceived as enabling ldquoordinaryrdquo people to participatein activities that are reserved exclusively forrather served as an ideological basis for justifying

the use of animals in entertainment ventures in wealthy tourists or wildlife professionals thusleading to a form of ldquosocial justicerdquo Another im-general Some of the justifications raised by par-

ticipants have been discussed in the academic lit- portant justification that emerged in the focusgroups was the perception that the animals exhib-erature Those justifications that are both men-

tioned in the literature and by many of the focus ited in the attractions are better off in captivitywhere they are free of the fear of predators or ofgroup participants included conservation research

Figure 1 The three layers of ethical perceptions of animal-based tourist attractions

98 SHANI AND PIZAM

the need to search for food Finally the attractions tence of these factors partially or completely af-fects the chances of an animal-based attraction toalso created the impression among some partici-

pants that they act as another form of wildlife reg- be considered ethicalThe structure of the ethical perception of ani-ulation which is necessary for the safety and secu-

rity of human society mal-based tourist attractions as identified in thisstudy seems hierarchical in nature A person whoAlthough many of the participants in the study

justified the existence of animal-based tourist at- rejects any justification for having these attrac-tions that is who favors the abolishment of alltractions in general they also recognize that these

are not always ethically operated especially in use of animals for entertainment is expected tohave a negative attitude toward an attraction evenhistorical context The second layer which consti-

tutes the ethical perception of animal-based tourist if it adopts an ethical and responsible treatment ofthe animals On the other hand even if the exis-attractions includes driving forces that are be-

lieved to cause the attractions to treat the animals tence of animal attractions is accepted by a personand heshe believes that contemporary attractionsresponsibly The belief that contemporary animal-

based tourist attractions are considerably more are controlled by both self- and external regula-ethical than in the past derives from two factors tions there are still specific conditions that needthe power of the media and public opinion which to be fulfilled in order for this person to have ais perceived to have major impact on the operation positive attitude toward each specific attractionof the attractions and the legal and enforcement To conclude although the tourism industry re-system which is trusted to supervise their opera- lies heavily on the incorporation of animals in itstions While the former creates a form of self- attractions to date there have been no serious at-regulationmdashit is worthwhile being ethical because tempts to investigate the issue in a holistic wayit prevents negative publicitymdashthe latter repre- Specifically the ethical attitudes of the visitorssents external regulation which ensures ethical and nonvisitors toward these attractions were onlyoperation The perception that both of these driv- ambiguous and speculative The current explor-ing forces have a crucial impact on the attractions atory study found that an ethical approach towardwas significant in accounting for the participantsrsquo animal-based tourist attractions is constructedreduced ethical concerns with regard to the ways along three main levels general justifications foranimals might be treated ldquobackstagerdquo having these attractions a belief in the driving

The last layer that determined visitorsrsquo ethical forces for ethical behavior on behalf of the attrac-attitudes toward animal-based tourist attractions is tions and certain conditions for the ethical opera-linked to their judgment of each specific attrac- tion of each specific attraction This can be seention The participants in this study clearly distin- as an additional step toward a deeper understand-guished between ethical and unethical attractions ing of the ethical perceptions and judgment of ani-and provided useful indications of which condi- mal-based tourist attractions on the part of the vis-tions need to be fulfilled in order for an attraction itorsto be considered ethical The core conditions men-tioned were the natural design of the animal dis- Managerial Implicationsplays and the perception that the animals perform

Beyond the theoretical contributions the find-natural behavior factors that have already beenings of this study can also assist specific animal-addressed by many animal-based tourist attrac-based tourist attractions in their operational andtions (eg Davey 2006 Hughes et al 2005 To-marketing functions The repositioning of manymas et al 2002) Among the other prominent con-animal-based tourist attractions as sites for educa-ditions mentioned were gentle training methodstion scientific research and conservation is clearlythe perception of a ldquofair chancerdquo given to the ani-effective in providing legitimacy to their exis-mals in sport or contest situations ensuring thetence The extra attention given nowadays to natu-safety of employees and visitors and respectfulral presentation of the animals (Hughes et albehavior on the part of the visitors The views ex-

pressed by the participants suggest that the exis- 2005 Ryan amp Saward 2004) also seems to pay

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

98 SHANI AND PIZAM

the need to search for food Finally the attractions tence of these factors partially or completely af-fects the chances of an animal-based attraction toalso created the impression among some partici-

pants that they act as another form of wildlife reg- be considered ethicalThe structure of the ethical perception of ani-ulation which is necessary for the safety and secu-

rity of human society mal-based tourist attractions as identified in thisstudy seems hierarchical in nature A person whoAlthough many of the participants in the study

justified the existence of animal-based tourist at- rejects any justification for having these attrac-tions that is who favors the abolishment of alltractions in general they also recognize that these

are not always ethically operated especially in use of animals for entertainment is expected tohave a negative attitude toward an attraction evenhistorical context The second layer which consti-

tutes the ethical perception of animal-based tourist if it adopts an ethical and responsible treatment ofthe animals On the other hand even if the exis-attractions includes driving forces that are be-

lieved to cause the attractions to treat the animals tence of animal attractions is accepted by a personand heshe believes that contemporary attractionsresponsibly The belief that contemporary animal-

based tourist attractions are considerably more are controlled by both self- and external regula-ethical than in the past derives from two factors tions there are still specific conditions that needthe power of the media and public opinion which to be fulfilled in order for this person to have ais perceived to have major impact on the operation positive attitude toward each specific attractionof the attractions and the legal and enforcement To conclude although the tourism industry re-system which is trusted to supervise their opera- lies heavily on the incorporation of animals in itstions While the former creates a form of self- attractions to date there have been no serious at-regulationmdashit is worthwhile being ethical because tempts to investigate the issue in a holistic wayit prevents negative publicitymdashthe latter repre- Specifically the ethical attitudes of the visitorssents external regulation which ensures ethical and nonvisitors toward these attractions were onlyoperation The perception that both of these driv- ambiguous and speculative The current explor-ing forces have a crucial impact on the attractions atory study found that an ethical approach towardwas significant in accounting for the participantsrsquo animal-based tourist attractions is constructedreduced ethical concerns with regard to the ways along three main levels general justifications foranimals might be treated ldquobackstagerdquo having these attractions a belief in the driving

The last layer that determined visitorsrsquo ethical forces for ethical behavior on behalf of the attrac-attitudes toward animal-based tourist attractions is tions and certain conditions for the ethical opera-linked to their judgment of each specific attrac- tion of each specific attraction This can be seention The participants in this study clearly distin- as an additional step toward a deeper understand-guished between ethical and unethical attractions ing of the ethical perceptions and judgment of ani-and provided useful indications of which condi- mal-based tourist attractions on the part of the vis-tions need to be fulfilled in order for an attraction itorsto be considered ethical The core conditions men-tioned were the natural design of the animal dis- Managerial Implicationsplays and the perception that the animals perform

Beyond the theoretical contributions the find-natural behavior factors that have already beenings of this study can also assist specific animal-addressed by many animal-based tourist attrac-based tourist attractions in their operational andtions (eg Davey 2006 Hughes et al 2005 To-marketing functions The repositioning of manymas et al 2002) Among the other prominent con-animal-based tourist attractions as sites for educa-ditions mentioned were gentle training methodstion scientific research and conservation is clearlythe perception of a ldquofair chancerdquo given to the ani-effective in providing legitimacy to their exis-mals in sport or contest situations ensuring thetence The extra attention given nowadays to natu-safety of employees and visitors and respectfulral presentation of the animals (Hughes et albehavior on the part of the visitors The views ex-

pressed by the participants suggest that the exis- 2005 Ryan amp Saward 2004) also seems to pay

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 99

off as it was found to be an important factor in lishing relationships with journalists and medianetworks for the purpose of generating positivepeoplersquos attitudes toward the attractions Never-

theless despite certain improvements in the wel- publicity is likely to prove beneficial to enhancingthe image of the attractions as responsible opera-fare and presentation of wildlife in many modern

animal-based tourist attractions concerns regard- tions Similarly cooperating with animal rights or-ganizations which are perceived as providinging the ethical operation of these sites were still

raised in the focus group sessions To ease these some type of institutional supervision on the at-tractions can also aid in establishing the ethicalconcerns and improve the peoplersquos ethical evalua-

tion of the attractions it seems that management image of the sitesteams should follow the principle according towhich ldquojustice must not only be done but must be Limitations and Future Researchseen to be donerdquo Providing effective signs and

The current study has its limitations First oflabels at the animal exhibits and shows and havingall this study being of an exploratory nature andthe keepers present explanations regarding thehaving been conducted with nonprobability sam-conditions in which the animals are kept andpled participants in focus groups cannot be con-trained is likely to contribute to further reduce vis-sidered representative of the opinions of all tour-itorsrsquo ethical concerns regarding the training meth-ists attending animal-based tourist attractionsods of the animals and their welfare Note thatSecond the focus group sessions were held amongWoods (1998) also mentioned that keeper talksvisitors to Orlando Florida a tourist destinationhave the potential to improve positive attitudes to-that includes major well-known animal attractionsward the attractionssuch as SeaWorld Busch Gardens Animal King-Emphasizing the measures that are taken to en-dom Gatorland and numerous dinner shows fea-sure the safety of the animals staff and visitors isturing animals Therefore most of the referencesalso expected to have a positive effect on visitorsof the participants in the study related to theseBecause people expect that in ethical attractionssites Different themes and issues related to animalthe exhibited animals will express ldquonatural behav-attractions may surface at other sites Third as aiorrdquo it is necessary to (1) prevent captive (stereo-qualitative research method focus groups havetypical) behavior on behalf of the animals (seeseveral shortcomings In the current study someWickins-Drazilova 2006) and (2) provide suffi-of the concerns expressed by the participants to-cient explanations regarding the behavior of theward the use of animals in attractions might haveanimals in nature thus avoiding misperceptionsbeen the result of social pressure although itregarding whether the captive animals indeed ex-should be noted that many participants did expresspress natural behavior or not Finally the evidencecontroversial and sometimes unexpected opinionsthat disrespectful visitor behavior toward the ani-Last but not least the focus groupsrsquo participantsmals in the attractions contributes to generatingmostly discussed animal-based tourist attractionsnegative attitudes toward the sites also needs to bein captive or semicaptive settings (eg zoos themetaken into considerations by managerial teams Inparks dolphinaria bullfights) presumably becausethis regard placing staff and supervisors at the an-of the context of Orlando Relatively few refer-imal displays might have a positive effect on visi-ences were made to animal-related activities in thetor behavior Other tools may include the estab-wild (eg safaris feeding wildlife and swimminglishment of a code of behavior for visitors andwith dolphins in the wild) Therefore the structureemphasizing their contribution to the welfare ofof ethical perceptions that emerges from the cur-the animalsrent study may be applied to captive or semicap-The findings provide further implications fortive attractions onlyanimal-based tourist attractions with regard to

Additional research is needed to validate the re-their marketing function During the focus groupsults of this study especially at other tourist desti-sessions the role of the mass media was clearlynations However the findings of this study mayemphasized by the participants as a watchdog of

animal-based tourist attractions Therefore estab- be used to develop tools for future quantitative re-

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

100 SHANI AND PIZAM

during a 40 year period International Zoo Yearbooksearch that will investigate touristsrsquo attitudes to-41(1) 217ndash225ward animal-based tourist attractions in a larger

Davey G (2007b) Public perceptions in urban China to-context and explore the weights of the different ward zoos and their animal welfare Human Dimensionsfactors found in this study on their ethical judg- of Wildlife 12(5) 367ndash374ment Future quantitative research should also ex- Fazio R H (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior In

R M Sorrentino amp E T Higgins (Eds) Handbook ofamine the effects of the factors explored in thismotivation and cognition Foundations of social behav-study on behavioral intentions andor actual visita-ior (pp 204ndash243) New York Guilford Presstions to animal-based tourist attractions

Finn M Elliott-White M amp Walton M (2000) Tourismand leisure research methods Data collection analysisand interpretation New York Pearson EducationReferences

Fossey E Harvey C McDermott F amp Davidson LAgaramoorthy G (2004) Ethics and welfare in Southeast (2002) Understanding and evaluating qualitative re-

Asian zoos Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science search Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychi-7(3) 189ndash195 atry 36(6) 717ndash732

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1977) Attitude-behavior rela- Frost W amp Roehl W S (2007) Zoos aquaria and tour-tions A theoretical analysis and review of empirical re- ism Extending the research agenda Tourism Review In-search Psychological Bulletin 84(5) 888ndash918 ternational 11(3) 191ndash196

Anheuser-Busch (2008) Welcome to Anheuser-Busch Com- Gibbs A (1997) Focus groups Social Research Updatepanies Retrieved October 5 2008 from httpwww 19 1ndash4anheuser-buschcomBEChtml Glesne C (2006) Becoming qualitative researchers An

Barbour R S (2001) Checklists for improving rigour in introduction (3rd ed) New York Pearson Educationqualitative research A case of the tail wagging the dog Hayward J amp Rothenberg M (2004) Measuring successBritish Medical Journal 322(7294) 1115ndash1117 in the ldquoCongo Gorilla Forestrdquo conservation exhibition

Beardsworth A amp Bryman A (2001) The wild animal Curator 47(3) 261ndash282in late modernity Tourist Studies 1(1) 83ndash104 Hollander J A (2004) The social contexts of focus

Becken S (2007) Touristsrsquo perception of international air groups Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5)travelrsquos impact on the global climate and potential cli-

602ndash637mate change policies Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Hughes M Newsome D amp Macbeth J (2005) Case15(4) 351ndash368

study Visitor perceptions of captive wildlife tourism onBen-Ari ET (2001) Whatrsquos new at the zoo BioScience

a Western Australian natural setting Journal of Eco-51(3) 172ndash177

tourism 4(2) 73ndash91Benkenstein M Yavas U amp Forberger D (2003) Emo-

Hughes P (2001) Animals values and tourismmdashstruc-tional and cognitive antecedents of customer satisfac-tural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision Tourismtion in leisure services The case of Rodstock ZooManagement 22(4) 321ndash329Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing 10(34)

Hutchins M Dresser B amp Wemmer C (1995) Ethical173ndash184considerations in zoo and aquarium research In B GBostock S S C (1993) Zoos and animal rights LondonNorton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L MapleRoutledge(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare andCain L amp Meritt D (2007) The demand for zoos andwildlife conservation (pp 253ndash276) Washington DCaquariums Tourism Review International 11(3) 295ndashSmithsonian Institution Press306

Jamieson D (2006) Against zoos In P Singer (Ed) InCatibog-Sinha C (2008) Zoo tourism Biodiversity con-defense of animals The second wave (pp132ndash143)servation through tourism Journal of Ecotourism 7(2amp3)Oxford Blackwell Publishing155ndash173

Jiang Y Luck M amp Parsons E C M (2007) PublicCurtin S (2006) Swimming with dolphins A phenome-awareness education and marine mammals in captiv-nology exploration of tourist recollections Internationality Tourism Review International 11(3) 237ndash249Journal of Tourism Research 8(4) 301ndash315

Luck M amp Jiang Y (2007) Keiko Shamu and friendsCurtin S amp Wilkes K (2007) Swimming with captiveEducating visitors in marine parks and aquaria Journaldolphins Current debates and post-experience disso-of Ecotourism 6(2) 127ndash138nance International Journal of Tourism Research 9(2)

Lukas K E amp Ross S R (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge131ndash146and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees TheDavey G (2006) Relationships between exhibit natural-Journal of Environmental Education 36(4) 33ndash48ism animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese

Marshall C amp Rossman G B (2006) Designing qualita-zoo Applied Animal Behaviour Science 96(12) 93ndashtive research Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications102

Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism The need for more re-Davey G (2007a) An analysis of country socio-demo-graphic and time factors on worldwide zoo attendance search Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8(4) 333ndash339

THE USE OF ANIMALS IN TOURIST ATTRACTIONS 101

Mason P (2007) Roles of the modern zoo Conflicting or Shackley M (1996) Wildlife tourism London Interna-tional Thompson Business Presscomplementary Tourism Review International 11(3)

251ndash263 Smith L amp Broad S (2007) Do zoo visitors attend toconservation messages A case study of an elephant ex-McLafferty I (2004) Focus group interviews as a data col-

lecting strategy Journal of Advanced Nursing 48(2) hibit Tourism Review International 11(3) 225ndash235Snyder N F R Derrickson S R Beissinger S R187ndash194

McPhee M E Foster J S Sevenich M amp Saunders Wiley J W Smith T B Toone W D amp Miller B(1996) Limitations of captive breeding in endangeredC D (1998) Public perceptions of behavioral enrich-

ment Assumptions gone awry Zoo Biology 17(6) species recovery Conservation Biology 10(2) 338ndash348525ndash534

Moscardo G (2007) Understanding visitor experiences in Stewart D W Shamdasani P N amp Rook D W (2007)Focus groups Theory and practice Thousand Oakscaptive controlled and noncaptive wildlife-based tour-

ism settings Tourism Review International 11(3) 213ndash CA Sage PublicationsStoinski T S Allen M T Bloomsmith M A Forth-223

Mowen A J amp Graefe A R (2006) An examination man D L amp Maple T L (2002) Educating zoo visi-tors about complex environmental issues Should we doof familygroup roles in the decision to visit a public

zoological park Journal of Park and Recreation Ad- it and how Curator 45(2) 129ndash143Stone S M Tucker P amp Dornan D (2007) The valueministration 24(1) 104ndash123

Orams M B (2002) Feeding wildlife as a tourism attrac- of animals in vacation preferences of college studentsJournal of Travel and Tourism Research 2(Fall) 96ndashtion A review of issues and impacts Tourism Manage-

ment 23(3) 281ndash293 102Tomas S R Scott D amp Crompton J L (2002) An in-Peterson K I (1994) Qualitative research methods for the

travel and tourism industry In J R B Ritchie amp C R vestigation of the relationship between quality of ser-vice performance benefits sought satisfaction and fu-Goeldner (Eds) Travel tourism and hospitality re-

search A handbook for managers and researchers (pp ture intention to visit among visitors to a zoo ManagingLeisure 7(4) 239ndash250487ndash492) New York Wiley

Pope C Ziebland S amp Mays N (2000) Analyzing qual- Tribe A amp Booth R (2003) Assessing the role of zoosin wildlife conservation Human Dimensions of Wildlifeitative data British Medical Journal 320(7227) 14ndash

116 8(1) 65ndash74Turley S K (1999) Exploring the future of the traditionalPowell R A Single H M amp Lloyd K R (1996) Focus

groups in mental health research Enhancing the validity UK zoo Journal of Vacation Marketing 5(4) 340ndash355Turley S K (2001) Children and the demand for recre-of user and provider questionnaires International Jour-

nal of Social Psychology 42(3) 193ndash206 ational experiences The case of zoos Leisure Studies20(1) 1ndash18Randall D M amp Fernandes M F (1991) The social de-

sirability response bias in ethics research Journal of Weeden C (2005) A qualitative approach to the ethicalconsumer The use of focus groups for cognitive con-Business Ethics 10(11) 805ndash817

Regan T (1995) Are zoos morally defensible In B G sumer research in tourism In B W Ritchie P Burnsamp C Palmer (Eds) Tourism research methods Inte-Norton M Hutchins E F Stevens amp T L Maple

(Eds) Ethics on the ark Zoos animal welfare and grating theory with practice (pp179ndash190) OxfordCABI Publishingwildlife conservation (pp 38ndash51) Washington DC

Smithsonian Institution Press Wickins-Drazilova D (2006) Zoo animal welfare Journalof Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 19(1)Rhoads D L amp Goldsworthy R J (1979) The effects of

zoo environments on public attitudes toward endan- 27ndash36Woods B (1998) Animals on display Principles for inter-gered wildlife International Journal of Environmental

Studies 13 283ndash287 preting captive wildlife Journal of Tourism Studies9(1) 28ndash39Ryan C amp Saward J (2004) The zoo as ecotourism at-

tractionmdashvisitor reactions perceptions and manage- World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (2007) Someinteresting zoo facts Retrieved November 1 2007 fromment implication The case of Hamilton Zoo New

Zealand Journal of Sustainable Tourism 12(3) 245ndash httpwwwamericanzoosinfoZoofactshtml266