Examining Foreign Policy Positions

Issue/Event Description Evaluation from Class Discussion

Foreign Policy Issues Leading to War of 1812

Monroe Doctrine as a Foreign Policy Statement

American Justifications for the Mexican War

Lincoln’s Approach to Trent Affair

The Decision to Annex Hawaii

Websites for Foreign Policy Decisions

War of 1812 Causes of the War of 1812. Niagara Falls Museum. 7 October 2009 <http://niagarafallsmuseums.blogspot.com/2008/02/causes-of-war-of-1812.html >

War of 1812. Thematic Pathfinders for All Ages. 42 Explore. 7 October 2009 <http://www.42explore2.com/1812war.htm>.

Monroe Doctrine Monroe Doctrine. U.S. Department of State. 7 October 2009 <http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/jd/16321.htm>.

James Monroe. 7 October 2009 <http://www.monroedoctrine.net/>.

Mexican WarUS Mexican War. Prelude to War. 7 October 2009 <http://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/prelude/md_an_ideal_or_a_justification.html>.

The Mexican War. The Lone Star Internet. 7 October 2009 <http://www.lone-star.net/mall/texasinfo/mexicow.htm>

Trent Affair The Trent Affair, 1861. U.S. Department of State. 7 October 2009 <http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/cw/92452.htm>.

The Trent Affair. Library of Congress. 7 October 2009 <http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/today/nov08.html>

Annexation of Hawaii Annexation of Hawaii, 1898. U.S. Department of State. 7 October 2009 <http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/gp/17661.htm>.

Teaching With Documents: The 1897 Petition Against the Annexation of Hawaii. National Archives and Records Administration. 7 October 2009 <http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/hawaii-petition/>.

Foreign Policy Views

Exclusively Expansionistic

Growing Sense of US Potential

Clear Sense of National Limitations

Reckless/Unrealistic Sense of Foreign Policy

Reassessing Meaning of America’s Core Values

Timed Reading (ACT Prep)

At the end of the nineteenth century, American imperialism and journalistic dynamism came together to create one of the darkest moments in the history of American journalism. The United States raced onto the global stage as a world power, eager both to flex its muscles and to expand its geographic and economic boundaries. Journalism bounded forward as well, driven by a desire to reach the surging population and by technological innovations that improved how news was pursued and packaged -- the typewriter, telephone, half-tone engraving, and automated press among them.

The changing news business attracted entrepreneurs who saw journalism as an exciting frontier worthy of their creative talents. Two publishing visionaries in particular dominated the era and ultimately changed the profession, as well as the world: Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst. Beginning in 1878, Joseph Pulitzer pioneered a new style of newspaper. This new approach targeted the masses of American humanity who previously had been ignored by the comparatively staid sheets of the older order. According to Pulitzer’s revolutionary concept, newspapers should be cheap, should be written clearly and concisely, and should actively crusade in the community interest.

Pulitzer’s innovative enterprise was not, however, without controversy. Many erudite New Yorkers denounced the World as cheap and vulgar. They accused Pulitzer of introducing multicolumn illustrations and dramatic headlines-such as “Baptized in Blood” and “A Child Flayed Alive: A Brutal Negro Whips His Nephew to Death”-merely to shock readers. Pulitzer defended the techniques as essential to attracting more people to buy his newspaper and, therefore, read his progressive editorials.

William Randolph Hearst, who idolized Pulitzer, worked briefly on the World and then persuaded his wealthy father to let him edit the San Francisco Examiner, a financially failing newspaper the elder Hearst had purchased to support his political career. With Pulitzer as his model and his father’s deep pockets at his disposal, Hearst hired the best staff money could buy and undertook ambitious and progressive crusades, including campaigns to lower city water rates and end the Southern Pacific Railroad’s dominance of the Republican state political machine.

Hearst, like Pulitzer, appealed to the masses, telling his reporters: “Don’t write a single line [a workingman] can’t understand and wouldn’t read.” Hearst hammered at injustice while highlighting murder and scandal. Hearst was also a showman who set out to entertain and startle his readers every day. And when the actual news of the day was too dull, Hearst created stupefying events. He paid a young couple to be married in a hot-air balloon and hired hunters to go into the mountains to trap a grizzly bear and bring it to San Francisco-while writing exclusive stories for the Examiner. Readers became so eager to see what Hearst would come up with next that the publisher kept the city at a carnival pitch. He loved it, saying, “Putting out a newspaper without promotion is like winking at a girl in the dark-well-intentioned but ineffective.”

1

5

10

15

20

25

30

After they revolutionized journalism, their bitter rivalry gave birth to the double-barreled brand of sensationalism known as yellow journalism. Its toxic formula-one part news to two parts hype-was devised to fuel the infamous Hearst-Pulitzer circulation war. In an effort to boost circulation, Hearst began championing the cause of Cuban rebels. Hearst treated the Cuban rebels as courageous freedom fights struggling against Spanish oppressors.

To champion the Cuban cause, Hearst painted an alarming portrait of Spanish brutality. Journal readers found the accounts compelling, even though the stories could not be verified. Although Joseph Pulitzer initially opposed American involvement in Cuba he began to support it because of the opportunity it provided to increase circulation of his newspaper. Although Pulitzer’s paper, The World, did not manufacture stories with the abandon the Journal did, Pulitzer also sent correspondents to Cuba and published sensationalized reports. One announced, “Old men and little boys were cut down and their bodies fed to the dogs.” The World editorial page demanded that the American government take immediate action: “No man’s life is safe. American citizens are imprisoned or slain without cause. Blood on the roadsides, blood in the field, blood on the doorsteps, blood, blood, blood! Not a word from Washington! Not a sign from the president! The lurid coverage reaped the benefits the dueling newspapers wanted. The World’s and Journal’s circulation figures and resources far surpassed those of any other newspaper in the country, and so hundreds of small papers reprinted the World and Journal stories – hyperbole and all.

As Hearst’s campaign intensified and Pulitzer joined in, the Cuban crusade led to a level of irresponsible and unethical behavior that redefined the limits of the shameful acts the news media can commit-from distortion and the staging of events to disinformation and the systematic manufacturing of news. The grotesque sensationalism that Hearst and Pulitzer practiced, especially their coverage of the 1898 explosion of the battleship U.S.S. Maine, created a high-pitched and bumptious jingoism and a national hunger for war. That public frenzy ultimately pushed the president of the United States to abandon his antiwar policy and thrust America into a war with Spain that, in a less hysterical climate, may have been avoided.

Adapted from Streitmatter, Rodger. Mighter than the Sword: How the News Media Have Shaped American History. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 68-81.

1

5

10

15

20

25

30

40

45

50

55

60

65

Questions for Timed Reading (ACT Prep)

1. In line 6 the word “innovations” most nearly means:a. experimentsb. instrumentsc. habitsd. changes

2. In lines 8 to 15 the author claims that Pulitzer’s approach to journalism stressed all of the following except: f. cheap newspapersg. clear writingh. traditional values j. community interest

3. In lines 16 to 21 the author states that Pulitzer defended his sensationalist methods by claiming that:a. they were ethical in principleb. more people would read his progressive editorials c. more people would become aesthetically awared. violent crime would be reduced

4. The author’s primary aim in the first paragraph is to:

f. set the historical context

g. make an historical argument

h. raise questions about a period of history

j. criticize prevailing historical accounts

5. In lines 29 to 38 it is stated that Hearst sometimes:

a. ignored newsworthy eventsb. promoted the artsc. created news events d. ignored his readers interests

6. The author claims that Hearst’s support for Cuban liberation was motivated by:f. his preoccupation with Yellow Journalismg. his need for individualismh. antipathy for Joseph Pulitzerj. a desire to sell more newspapers

7. In line 13 the word “staid” most nearly means:a. unimaginative b. idlec. thoughtfuld. artistic

8. In lines 45 to 49 the author asserts that Pulitzer wanted America to become involved in Cuba because he:f. was appalled by Spanish atrocitiesg. believed Heart’s accounts of the Revolutionh. wanted to increase his newspaper’s circulation j. believed in the cause of liberty

9. In lines 60 to 68 the author argues that Hearst and Pulitzer helped to:a. create imperialism in the United Statesb. promote responsible journalismc. push America into war with Spain d. define and promote popular culture

10. In line 65 the word “jingoism” most nearly means:f. earnestnessg. belligerence h. policyj. technique

Enlargement of Paul Revere's Engraving of the Boston Massacre

Enlargement of Paul Revere’s Engraving of the Boston Massacre. Archiving Early America. 7 October 2009

<http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/winter96/enlargement.html>.

The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

A Look at the Press

New York TimesArticle

DESTRUCTION OF THE WAR SHIP MAINE WAS THE WORK OF AN ENEMYAssistant Secretary Roosevelt Convinced the Explosion of the War Ship Was Not an Accident.

The Journal Offers $50,000 Reward for the Conviction of the Criminals Who Sent 258 American Sailors to

Their Death. Naval Officers Unanimous That the Ship Was Destroyed on Purpose.

NAVAL OFFICERS THINK THE MAINE WAS DESTROYED BY A SPANISH MINE.

George Eugene Bryson, the Journal’s special correspondent at Havana, cables that it is the secret opinion of many Spaniards in the Cuban capital, that the Maine was destroyed and 258 men killed by means of marine mine or fixed torpeda. This is the opinion of several American naval authorities. The Spaniards, it is believed, arranged to have the Maine anchored over one of the harbor mines. Wires connected the mines with a... magazine, and it is thought the explosion was caused by sending an electric current through the wire. If this can be proven, the brutal nature of the Spaniards will be shown by the fact that they waited to spring the mine after all the men had retired for the night. The Maltese cross in the picture shows where the mine may have been fired.

Mine or a Sunken Torpedo Believed to Have Been the Weapon Used Against the American Man-Of-War---Officer and Men tell Thrilling Stories of Being Blown into the Air Amid a Mass of Shattered Steel and Exploding Shells—Survivors Brought to Key West Scou[t] the Idea of Accident—Spanish Officials Protest Too Much---Our Cabinet orders a Searching Inquiry—Journal Sends Divers to Havana to Report Upon the Condition of the Wreck. Was the Vessel Anchored Over a Mine?

Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt says he is convinced that the destruction of the Maine in Havana Harbor was not an accident. The Journal offers a reward of $50,000 for exclusive evidence that will convict the person, persons or government criminally responsible for the [destruction] of the American battleship and the death of 258 of its crew.

The suspicion that the Maine was deliberately blown up grows stronger every hour. Not a single fact to the contrary has been produced....

Source: Spanish- American War. Historical Thinking Matters. 7 October 2009 <http://historicalthinkingmatters.org/spanishamericanwar/0/inquiry/intro/>.As printed in New York Journal and Advertiser, February 17, 1898.

MAINE’S HULL WILL DECIDE

Divers to Find Whether the Force of the Explosion Was from the Exterior or Interior.

SHE WAS AFLOAT FOR AN HOUR

Spontaneous Combustion in Coal Bunkers a Frequent Peril to the Magazines of Warships – Hard to Blow Up

the Magazine.

WASHINGTON, Feb. 16 – After a day of intense excitement at the Navy Department and elsewhere, growing

out of the destruction of the battleship Maine in Havana Harbor last night, the situation at sundown, after the

exchange of a number of cablegrams between Washington and Havana, can be summed up in the words of

Secretary Long, who when asked as he was about to depart for the day whether he had reason to suspect

that the disaster was the work of the enemy, replied: “I do not. In that I am influenced by the fact that Capt.

Sigsbee has not yet reported to the Navy Department on the cause. He is evidently waiting to write a full

report. So long as he does not express himself, I certainly cannot. I should think from the indications,

however, that there was an accident – that the magazine exploded. How that came about I do not know. For

the present, at least, no other warship will be sent to Havana.”

Capt. Schuley, who has had experience with such large and complicated machines of war as the New York,

did not entertain the idea that the ship had been destroyed by design. He had found that with frequent and

very careful inspection fire would sometimes be generated in the coal bunkers, and he told of such a fire on

board of the New York close to the magazine, and so hot that the heat had blistered the steel partition

between the fire and the ammunition before the bunkers and magazine were flooded. He was not prepared

to believe that the Spanish or Cubans in Havana were supplied with either the information or the appliances

necessary to enable them to make so complete a work of demolition, while the Maine was under guard…

Source: Spanish-American War. Historical Thinking Matters. 7 Oct. 2009 <http://historicalthinkingmatters.org/spanishamericanwar/0/inquiry/intro/resources/10/> from The New York Times, Feb. 17, 1898.

Examining the Source1. Sourcing Strategy : This is the practice of identifying important

characteristics of the document and the context in which it was written so that you can examine it critically. To think about the author and the document’s creation, historians ask questions such as: Who wrote it? When? Why did they write it? This helps to establish the time and place in which the primary source was created. It also helps to identify the author’s motivation and biases. Remember – All sources are written from a particular point of view!

a. TYPE OF DOCUMENT (Check one):

___ Newspaper ___ Letter ___ Patent ___ Memorandum

___ Map___ Telegram ___ Press release ___ Report

___ Advertisement ___ Congressional record ___ Census report ___ Other

b. DATE(S) OF DOCUMENT: ___________________________________________________________________________c. AUTHOR (OR CREATOR) OF THE DOCUMENT: ___________________________________________________________________________

d. POSITION (TITLE): ___________________________________________________________________________e. FOR WHAT AUDIENCE WAS THE DOCUMENT WRITTEN?___________________________________________________________________________

2. Contextualizing Strategy: This requires the reader to situate the primary source in the time and place of its creation. This allows one to put the source in “context.”

a. Where was this created?

b. What was happening there at that time?

c. What else was happening in the region, country or the world?

3. Close Reading: This requires the reader to carefully read the document and consider exactly what it is saying and the particular words and phrases used, even when they might be unfamiliar to you.

a. List three things the author said that you think are important:

b. Why do you think this document was written?

c. What evidence in the document helps you know why it was written? Quote from the document.

d. Write a question to the author that is left unanswered by the document:

4. Corroboration Strategy : This is the practice of using multiple sources to compare where they agree and disagree about a particular event. It is through the use of multiple sources of evidence that historians draw conclusions about what happened in the past.

a. Which piece of evidence was most convincing (textbook, Journal, Times)? Why?

b. Which piece of evidence was least convincing? Why?

c. According to your own interpretation of the sources, what happened?

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 3

The Spanish-American WarCauses

Cuban Revolution

Yellow Press

Sinking of the USS Maine

US Desires to Expand

Consequences

Influence of Media on Foreign Policy

US acquires overseas possessions (Guam, Puerto Rico, Philippines)

Platt Amendment

Increased Support for Central American Canal

Changing Perception of the U.S. by Europe and Japan

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 3

Outline M

ap of the World

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 3

World Map

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 3

In the Text (What?) The Open Door Policy In My Head (So What?)China was in political and economic disarray as the end of the 19th century approached. The giant was not recognized as a sovereign nation by the United States and Europe who were busy elbowing one another for trading privileges and plotting how the country could be partitioned. The imperial nations sought influence and control in China.The United States took Far Eastern matters more seriously after the Spanish-American War, when they came into possession of the Philippines. In the fall of 1898, President McKinley stated his desire for the creation of an "open door" that would allow all trading nations access to the Chinese market.The Open Door policy sought equal trading rights for all nations in all parts of China and for recognition of Chinese territorial integrity (meaning that the country should not be carved up). The impact of such a policy would be to put all of the imperial nations on an equal footing and minimize the power of those nations already operating in China.No nation formally agreed to Open Door policy. After the United States announced that agreement had been reached, Russia and Japan voiced displeasure.On the surface, it appeared that the United States had advanced a reform viewpoint, but the truth was otherwise. The U.S. had no sphere of influence in China, but had long maintained an active trade there. If other nations were to partition China, the United States would likely be excluded from future commercial activities. In short, the US was simply trying to protect the prospects of American businessmen and investors.

http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h908.html>

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 4

Presidential Approaches to Foreign Policy

PresidentDescription of the President’s Approach

Major Instances or Events

Successful or Unsuccessful?

Roosevelt

Taft

Wilson

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 4

The Change in Manifest Destiny

Old Manifest Destiny New Manifest Destiny

Who promoted the idea and

who benefited from it?

Goals

Where did expansion

occur?

Influencing Factors

Issues related to race

Origins of World War One

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 4

Factors Leading to World War I

Description Role in Starting the War

The Alliance System

Nationalism

Militarism

Imperialism

Other:

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 4

Causes of World War One – Student HandoutAlthough it was the assassination of the Austrian archduke, Franz Ferdinand that led to the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the actual causes of the war were more complicated and not confined to a single cause.

AlliancesAn alliance is an agreement made between two or more countries to give each other help if it is needed. When an alliance is signed, those countries become known as Allies. A number of alliances had been signed by countries between the years 1879 and 1914. These were important because they meant that some countries had no option but to declare war if one of their allies declared war first.

ImperialismImperialism is when a country takes over new lands or countries and makes them subject to their rule. By 1900 the British Empire extended over five continents and France had control of large areas of Africa. The amount of lands 'owned' by Britain and France increased the rivalry with Germany who had entered the scramble to acquire colonies late and only had small areas of Africa. Pink =

British Blue = FrenchRed = German

MilitarismMilitarism means that the army and military forces are given a high profile by the government. The growing European divide had led to an arms race between the main countries. The armies of both France and Germany had more than doubled between 1870 and 1914 and there was fierce competition between Britain and Germany for mastery of the seas. The British had introduced the 'Dreadnought', an effective battleship, in 1906. The Germans soon followed suit introducing their own battleships. The German, Von Schlieffen also drew up a plan of action that involved attacking France through Belgium if Russia made an attack on Germany.

NationalismNationalism means being a strong supporter of the rights and interests of one's country. During this period, nationalist feeling ran high as the countries of Europe sought to restructure themselves. The Congress of Vienna, held after the Napoleonic wars, left both Germany and Italy as divided states. Nationalism inspired the re-unification of Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871. For its part, France was angry because the settlement at the end of the Franco-Prussian war had given Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. Large areas of both Austria-Hungary and Serbia were home to differing nationalist groups, all of whom wanted freedom from the states in which they lived.

CrisesThe Moroccan Crisis - In 1904 Morocco had been given to France by Britain, but the Moroccans wanted independence and was supported by Germany. War was avoided, but in 1911, the Germans were again protesting against French possession of Morocco. Britain supported France and Germany was persuaded to back down for part of French Congo.

The Bosnian Crisis - In 1908, Austria-Hungary took over Bosnia. This angered Serbians who felt the province should be theirs. Serbia threatened Austria-Hungary with war, Russia, allied to Serbia, mobilized its forces. Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary mobilized its forces and prepared to threaten Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down. In 1911 and 1912 there was war in the Balkans when the Balkan states drove Turkey out of the area. The states then fought each other over which area should belong to which state. Austria-Hungary intervened and forced Serbia to give up land. Tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary was high.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 4

AlliancesAn alliance is an agreement made between two or more countries to give each other help if it is needed. When an alliance is signed, those countries become known as Allies.A number of alliances had been signed by countries between the years 1879 and 1914. These were important because they meant that some countries had no option but to declare war if one of their allies declared war first.

1879The Dual Alliance

Germany and Austria-Hungary made an alliance to protect themselves from

Russia

1881Austro-Serbian Alliance

Austria-Hungary made an alliance with Serbia to stop Russia gaining control of

Serbia

1882The Triple Alliance

 Germany and Austria- Hungary made an alliance with Italy to stop Italy from taking sides with Russia

1914Triple Entente (no separate peace)

Britain, Russia and France agreed not to

sign for peace separately.

1894Franco-Russian Alliance

 Russia formed an alliance with France to protect herself

against Germany and Austria-Hungary

1907Triple Entente

 This was made between Russia,

France and Britain to counter the increasing threat from Germany.

1907Anglo-Russian Entente

This was an agreement between Britain and Russia

1904Entente Cordiale

This was an agreement, but not a formal alliance,

between France and Britain.

Read the table above clockwise from the top left picture.

World War One Causes. History on the Net. 7 October 2009 <http://www.historyonthenet.com/WW1/causes.htm#Alliances>.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 4

Imperialism

Imperialism is when a country takes over new lands or countries and makes them subject to its rule. By 1900 the British Empire extended over five continents and France had control of large areas of Africa. With the rise of industrialism countries needed new markets. The amount of lands 'owned' by Britain and France increased the rivalry with Germany who had entered the scramble to acquire colonies late and only had small areas of Africa. Note the contrast in the map below.

The map above links countries and their colonies through the use of color. For example, the United Kingdom is colored in pink and corresponds with its colonies in present-day Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, Sudan, Egypt among others.

Price, Richard, History 219P. University of Maryland. Department of History. 7 October 2009 <http://www.history.umd.edu/Faculty/RPrice/Coursedirectory/219/maps.html#Empires1914>.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 4

Militarism

Militarism means that the army and military forces are given a high profile by the government. Countries build up their armed forces in the name of security, thereby intimidating other nations. The growing European divide had led to an arms race between the main countries. The armies of both France and Germany had more than doubled between 1870 and 1914 and there was fierce competition between Britain and Germany for mastery of the seas. The British had introduced the 'Dreadnought', an effective battleship, in 1906. The Germans soon followed suit introducing their own battleships. The German, Von Schlieffen, also drew up a plan of action that involved attacking France through Belgium if Russia made an attack on Germany. The map below shows how the plan was to work.

Nationalism Nationalism means being a strong supporter of the rights and interests of one's country. The Congress of Vienna, held after Napoleon's exile to Elba, aimed to sort out problems in Europe. Delegates from Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia (the winning allies) decided upon a new Europe that left both Germany and Italy as divided states. Strong nationalist elements led to the re-unification of Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871. The settlement at the end of the Franco-Prussian war left France angry at the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and keen to regain lost territory. Large areas of both Austria-Hungary and Serbia were home to differing nationalist groups, all of whom wanted freedom from the states in which they lived.

http://www.historyonthenet.com/WW1/causes.htm#Alliances

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 4

Outline of the Reasons for America’s Entry into World War I

Reasons for Neutrality

Submarine Warfare

Lusitania

Zimmermann Note

Economics and Munitions Makers

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 4

Wilson’s Speech to Congress, 2 April 1917

I have called the Congress into extraordinary session because there are serious, very serious, choices of policy to be made, and made immediately, which it was neither right nor constitutionally permissible that I should assume the responsibility of making.On the third of February last I officially laid before you the extraordinary announcement of the Imperial German Government that on and after the first day of February it was its purpose to put aside all restraints of law or of humanity and use its submarines to sink every vessel that sought to approach either the ports of Great Britain and Ireland or the western coasts of Europe or any of the ports controlled by the enemies of Germany within the Mediterranean.. . . Vessels of every kind, whatever their flag, their character, their cargo, their destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent to the bottom without warning and without thought of help or mercy for those on board, the vessels of friendly neutrals along with those of belligerents.Even hospital ships and ships carrying relief to the sorely bereaved and stricken people of Belgium, though the latter were provided with safe conduct through the proscribed areas by the German Government itself and were distinguished by unmistakable marks of identity, have been sunk with the same reckless lack of compassion or of principle.I was for a little while unable to believe that such things would in fact be done by any government that had hitherto subscribed to the humane practices of civilized nations.  International law had its origin in the attempt to set up some law which would be respected and observed upon the seas, where no nation had right of dominion and where lay the free highways of the world.. . . . I am not now thinking of the loss of property involved, immense and serious as that is, but only of the wanton and wholesale destruction of the lives of non-combatants, men, women, and children, engaged in pursuits which have always, even in the darkest periods of modern history, been deemed innocent and legitimate.  Property can be paid for; the lives of peaceful and innocent people cannot be.  The present German submarine warfare against commerce is a warfare against mankind.It is a war against all nations.  American ships have been sunk, American lives taken, in ways which it has stirred us very deeply to learn of, but the ships and people of other neutral and friendly nations have been sunk and overwhelmed in the waters in the same way.  There has been no discrimination.The challenge is to all mankind.  Each nation must decide for itself how it will meet it. . . .When I addressed the Congress on the twenty-sixth of February last I thought that it would suffice to assert our neutral rights with arms, our right to use the seas against unlawful interference, our right to keep our people safe against unlawful violence.But armed neutrality, it now appears, is impracticable.  Because submarines are in effect outlaws when used as the German submarines have been used against merchant shipping, it is impossible to defend ships against their attacks as the law of nations has assumed that merchantmen would defend themselves against privateers or cruisers, visible craft giving chase upon the open sea.  It is common prudence in such circumstances, grim necessity indeed, to endeavour to destroy them before they have shown their own intention.. . . .There is one choice we cannot make, we are incapable of making: we will not choose the path of submission and suffer the most sacred rights of our Nation and our people to be ignored or violated.  The wrongs against which we now array ourselves are no common wrongs; they cut to the very roots of human life.

With a profound sense of the solemn and even tragical character of the step I am taking and of the grave responsibilities which it involves, but in unhesitating obedience to what I deem my constitutional duty, I advise that the Congress declare the recent course of the Imperial German Government to be in fact nothing less than war against the government and people of the United States; that it formally accept the status of belligerent which has thus been thrust upon it; and that it take immediate steps

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 4

not only to put the country in a more thorough state of defence but also to exert all its power and employ all its resources to bring the Government of the German Empire to terms and end the war.. . . . Our object now, as then, is to vindicate the principles of peace and justice in the life of the world as against selfish and autocratic power and to set up amongst the really free and self-governed peoples of the world such a concert of purpose and of action as will henceforth insure the observance of those principles.Neutrality is no longer feasible or desirable where the peace of the world is involved and the freedom of its people, and the menace to that peace and freedom lies in the existence of autocratic governments backed by organized force which is controlled wholly by their will, not by the will of their people. . . .We have no quarrel with the German people.  We have no feeling towards them but one of sympathy and friendship.  It was not upon their impulse that their government acted in entering this war.  It was not with their previous knowledge or approval.. . . . We are now about to accept gauge of battle with this natural foe to liberty and shall, if necessary, spend the whole force of the nation to check and nullify its pretensions and its power. . . .   The world must be made safe for democracy.  Its peace must be planted upon the tested foundations of political liberty.  We have no selfish ends to serve.  We desire no conquest, no dominion.  We seek no indemnities for ourselves, no material compensation for the sacrifices we shall freely make.  We are but one of the champions of the rights of mankind.  We shall be satisfied when those rights have been made as secure as the faith and the freedom of nations can make them.. . . . I have said nothing of the Governments allied with the Imperial Government of Germany because they have not made war upon us or challenged us to defend our right and our honour. . . . We enter this war only where we are clearly forced into it because there are not other means of defending our rights.It will be all the easier for us to conduct ourselves as belligerents in a high spirit of right and fairness because we act without animus, not in enmity towards a people or with the desire to bring any injury or disadvantage upon them, but only in armed opposition to an irresponsible government which has thrown aside all considerations of humanity and of right and is running amuck. . . . It is a distressing and oppressive duty, Gentlemen of the Congress, which I have performed in thus addressing you.  There are, it may be, many months of fiery trial and sacrifice ahead of us.  It is a fearful thing to lead this great peaceful people into war, into the most terrible and disastrous of all wars, civilization itself seeming to be in the balance.But the right is more precious than peace, and we shall fight for the things which we have always carried nearest our hearts - for democracy, for the right of those who submit to authority to have a voice in their own Governments, for the rights and liberties of small nations, for a universal dominion of right by such a concert of free peoples as shall bring peace and safety to all nations and make the world itself at last free.To such a task we can dedicate our lives and our fortunes, everything that we are and everything that we have, with the pride of those who know that the day has come when America is privileged to spend her blood and her might for the principles that gave her birth and happiness and the peace which she has treasured.  God helping her, she can do no other.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

Domestic Impact of World War IResearch Websites

War Industries BoardWar Industries Board. Encyclopedia.com. 7 October 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O119-WarIndustriesBoard.html>.

War Industries Board. Absolute Astronomy.com. 7 October 2009 <http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/War_Industries_Board>.

Function of the War Industries Board. 7 Oct. 2009 <http://personal.ashland.edu/~jmoser1/warindustriesboard.htm>.

National War Labor BoardNational War Labor Board. Answers.com. 7 Oct. 2009 <http://www.answers.com/topic/national-war-labor-board-world-war-i>.

National War Labor Board. Encyclopedia.com. 7 Oct. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3401802880.html>.

Records of the National War Labor Board. National Archives. 7 October 2009 <http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/002.html>.

National War Labor Board. High Beam Research. 7 October 2009 <http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3401802880.html>.

Espionage and Sedition Acts Espionage Act of 1917. 7 October 2009<http://law.jrank.org/pages/6568/Espionage-Act-1917.html>.

Primary Documents. US Espionage Act. First World War.com. 7 October 2009 <http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/espionageact.htm>.

The U.S. Sedition Act. <http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/The_U.S._Sedition_Act>.

Sedition Act of 1918. US History.com. 7 October 2009 <http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1345.html>.

Intelligence Encyclopedia: Espionage Act of 1917. Answers.com. 7 October 2009 <http://www.answers.com/topic/espionage-act-of-1917>.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

Domestic Impact of World War IResearch Websites

(continued)

The Committee on Public InformationPropaganda. 7 October 2009 <http://www.propagandacritic.com/articles/ww1.cpi.html>.

Committee on Public Information. Sourcewatch. 7 October 2009 <http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Committee_on_Public_Information>.

World War One and Propanda. Modern US History. 7 October 2009 <http://modern-us-history.suite101.com/article.cfm/world_war_one_and_propaganda>.

Poster Art from World War I. PBS/WGBH. 7 October 2009 <http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/gallery/posters.html>.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

Domestic Impact of World War One Chart

Act or Organization

Description Arguments For Arguments Against

War Industries Board

National War Labor Board

Espionage and Sedition Acts

The Committee on Public Information

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

National Interests

The term is often used by politicians seeking to support a particular public policy.

National interest is a powerful tool for invoking support of public policy by the citizenry.

With respect to foreign policy, a claim of national interest invokes an image of the nation’s security needs in the international community. National interest often conveys the idea that the policy is best for the nation.

National interest is sometimes seen as a subjective term, as defined by those in power.

The most important national interest is the survival of the state.

Sources:“National Interest.” Political Dictionary. Answers.com. 7 October 2009 <http://www.answers.com/topic/national-interest>.“National Interest.” Encyclopedia Britannica. 7 October 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1082114/national-interest>.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

14 Points in My Own Words

Points In My Own Words1. Open covenants of peace must be arrived at, after which there will surely be no private international action or rulings of any kind, but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants.3. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.4. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest points consistent with domestic safety.5. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the population concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined.6. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national policy, and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy.7. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure and validity of international law is forever impaired.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

14 Points in My Own Words (continued)

8. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all.

9. A re-adjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.

10. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity of autonomous development.

11. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan states should be entered into.12. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees.13. An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant.

14. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

Congressional Republicans

Republicans were not united in their opposition to the Treaty of Versailles or American participation in the League of Nations. Some were extreme isolationists philosophically opposed to any international involvement. Others stood much closer to Wilson's position, agreeing with the underlying principle of the organization but expressing reservations about a controversial section that committed the United States to collective security. Between these two groups was the majority faction, led by Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts, which exhibited determination to have the League of Nations on their terms or not have it at all.

Partisanship motivated Lodge to oppose ratification of the peace treaty in order to prevent Wilson and Democrats from taking credit for it in the November election. Combining his partisan opposition to Wilson with a lifelong passion to defend American freedom of action in foreign affairs, Lodge waged a fierce campaign against Wilson's version of the peace.

During this struggle over the treaty Wilson suffered his paralyzing strokes. In November 1919, when the Senate voted on the treaty as amended by Lodge's committee, Democrats dutifully opposed the treaty as Wilson had instructed. The combined opposition of Democrats and isolationist Republicans defeated this version of the treaty.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

The British Perspective

British interests at the Paris Peace Conference were represented by Prime Minister David Lloyd George, who developed an easier relationship with Woodrow Wilson than French Premier Georges Clemenceau. However, the prime minister was capable of diplomatic sharp dealing and deception when necessary. Leading British concerns included the following:

Primacy on the Seas. British economic and diplomatic strength were rooted in a vigorous international trade, protected worldwide by the British Royal Navy. They held little interest in Wilson's call for freedom of the seas and wanted to continue a long tradition of ruling the waves with little interference from other nations.

Territorial Gain. To keep merchant and naval vessels afloat, the British needed to expand a network of repair and fueling stations across the globe. They hoped to divide German island possessions in the Pacific with their ally Japan and secure access to a newly important fuel — oil — by gaining a position of primacy in the Middle East. The British also hoped to acquire some German holdings in Africa.

British Aspirations and Compromise. Foreign Affairs, 1919. US History.com. 6 Oct. 2009 <http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1331.html>.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

The French Perspective Woodrow Wilson arrived back in Europe on March 14, 1919, following a contentious work session at home. Lines of division had been drawn sharply between the president and the Republican-controlled Senate over the nature of the pending peace agreement. Relationships in Paris were, if anything, worse. The crafty and cynical Premier Georges Clemenceau, known to his countrymen as “the Tiger,” was an effective advocate of French interests and held little sympathy for Wilson’s idealistic approach to peace. He remarked, “God gave us the Ten Commandments and we broke them. Wilson gives us the Fourteen Points. We shall see.” Having suffered two devastating invasions from Germany in the past 50 years, the French in 1919 were intent on humbling Germany, not just for the immediate future, but for generations. Two issues dominated French thinking:

1. Reparations. Clemenceau insisted on receiving compensation for damages incurred during the war, but sought to defer the determination of the actual amount to be collected from the aggressor. Instead, Germany would in effect be asked to sign a “blank check” for reparations in an amount to be set at a later time.

2. Buffer Zones. In addition to monetary awards, the French sought the creation of buffer territories to insulate them against future German aggression. The French asked for the right to occupy all territory up to the west bank of the Rhine River or, failing that, for the creation of a new buffer state. These demands were resisted by Wilson as running counter to his ideal of territorial self-determination; he did not want Germans living under French control — an obvious source of irritation and a likely contributor to future conflict.

The French press and public, which had recently held Wilson in almost reverential terms, turned sharply against the president for resisting their national aspirations. Suffering from fatigue and the flu, Wilson clashed bitterly with Clemenceau and at one point in early April threatened to return to the United States. Perhaps in part due to that threat, a compromise was reached on two territorial issues of vital importance to France:

The Rhineland. The area bordering the great river was to be occupied by the French for a maximum of 15 years.

The Saar Basin. This area, rich in coal, also was to be occupied by the French for up to 15 years, then a plebiscite would be held to determine its ultimate allegiance.

As a further inducement to accept compromise, the French were offered a defensive treaty with the United States and Britain, pledging military assistance in the event of an unprovoked attack by Germany — a measure certain to raise the ire of the increasingly isolationist U.S. Senate.

French Aspirations and Compromise. Wars and Battles, World War I - Spring 1919. US History.com. 6 Oct. 2009 <http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1329.html>.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

The Italian Perspective

The Italian premier, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, was a member of the Big Four at the Paris Peace Conference at the end of World War I. His sole interest was to gain control of neighboring territory that he felt was promised in the secret Treaty of London in 1915. That agreement had induced a reluctant Italy to desert the Central Powers and join forces with the Allies. The Italians anticipated establishing their northern border at the Brenner Pass and adding lands on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea.

Later, Italian demands were levied upon the city of Fiume (later Rijeka), which was inhabited largely by Croats. Orlando’s effort to extend Italian control over non-Italians ran counter to Woodrow Wilson’s principle of national self-determination. During often bitter negotiations, the American president took the unprecedented step of making an appeal directly to the Italian people. His effort failed miserably. The Italians were caught up in a wave of nationalism and clearly supported their delegates at the conference. Wilson, who had earlier been greeted as an international savior in Rome, became the object of ridicule.

Wilson reluctantly agreed to the northward Italian expansion, overlooking the fact that the area was home to more than 200,000 German-speaking people. However, he held firm in his opposition to the absorption of Fiume (which remained essentially independent until Italian Fascists staged a coup in 1924). Italian delegates protested Wilson's stance by walking out of the negotiations and remaining absent for two weeks. Wilson was unmoved and Fiume continued as a source of bitterness between the two nations.

Italian Aspirations. World Affairs, World War I. US History.com. 6 Oct. 2009. <http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1332.html>.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

German Perspective

Germany surrendered in the face of mounting defeats at the hands of the French, British, and American armies, as well as political and economic instability at home. Under the terms of the ceasefire, Germany was allowed to retain its army and it did not have to admit defeat by surrender. Germany was not invited to participate in the negotiations over the peace treaty at Versailles. While Germany was aware of Wilson’s proposal for peace through the Fourteen Points, they found a very different peace treaty presented to them. Below is the statement issued by German Foreign Minister Brockdorff-Rantzau:

I have the honor to transmit herewith the observations of the German Delegation on the Draft of the Treaty of Peace. We had come to Versailles in the expectation of receiving a proposal of peace on the basis actually agreed upon. . . We hope to get the Peace of Right which has been promised us. We were aghast when, in reading (the treaty), we learned what demands Might Triumphant has raised against us. The deeper we penetrated into the spirit of this Treaty, the more we became convinced of its impracticability. The demands raised go beyond the power of the German Nation.

In spite of such monstrous demands the rebuilding of our economic system is at the same time made impossible. We are to surrender our merchant fleet. We are to give up all foreign interests. We are to transfer to our opponents the property of all German undertakings abroad, even of those situated in countries allied to us. Even after the conclusion of peace the enemy states are to be empowered to confiscate all German property. No German merchant will then, in their countries, be safe from such war measures. We are to completely renounce our colonies, not even in these are German missionaries to have the right of exercising their profession. We are, in other words, to renounce every kind of political, economic and moral activity.

But more than this, we are also to resign the right of self-determination in domestic affairs. Dictatorial powers are conferred on the International Reparation Commission . . . .

Also in other respects Germany's right of sovereignty is abrogated. Her principal rivers are placed under international administration, she is obliged to build on her own territory the canals and railways desired by the enemy, she must, without knowing the contents, assent to agreements which her adversaries intend concluding with the new states in the East [i.e., Poland and the Baltic states] and which affect Germany's own boundaries. The German people is excluded from the League of Nations to which all common work of the world is confided.

Thus a whole nation is called upon to sign its own proscription, yea, even its own death warrant.

Germany knows that she must make sacrifices in order to come to Peace. Germany knows that she has promised such sacrifices by agreement and wishes to carry them through to the utmost limit she can possibly go to.

O'Brien, Joseph V. Department of History. John Jay College of Criminal Justice A German View of the Treaty of Versailles. 6 October 2009 <http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob94.html>.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

Wilson’s Fourteen Points

1. Open covenants of peace must be arrived at, after which there will surely be no private international action or rulings of any kind, but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.

2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants.

3. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.

4. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest points consistent with domestic safety.

5. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the population concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined.

6. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national policy, and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy.

7. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure and validity of international law is forever impaired.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

8. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all.

9. A re-adjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.

10. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity of autonomous development.

11. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan states should be entered into.

12. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees.

13. An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant.

14. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

Woodrow Wilson 14 Points. 7 October 2009 <http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/wilson-points.htm>.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

Views about Peace

Group/ Country

Description of Position at end of

War

View of Versailles Treaty

In General

View of US Participation in

League of Nations

View of Redrawing European Political

Boundaries

Wilson’s 14 Points

Domestic Opponents

British

French

Italian

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

The Treaty of Versailles included 440 articles.

The principal items were:

Germany has to cede territory to France, Belgium, Italy, and Poland

Germany has to give up all of its colonies All German properties in foreign countries are confiscated Germany has to cede all war material to the allies German can no longer have a draft into military service Germany is not allowed to have military weapons The total size of the Germany army is not to exceed 100,000

men. The German navy has a maximum of 15,000 men. Germany is not to take part in the League of Nations. Turkey has to cede all foreign possessions. England gets Iraq,

Palestine and Trans-Jordan, France gets Syria and Lebanon. Germany has to cede to the allies all large seagoing ships

Furthermore 1/4 of the fishing fleet and 2/5 of the inland navigation fleet has to be ceded.

Germany has to cede large amounts of machinery and building materials, trains and trucks.

Germany has to deliver certain amounts of coal, chemicals, dye and fuel for many years.

All German sub-ocean telegraph cables are confiscated. The payment of retributions. Germany was ordered to accept

responsibility for the damages it, and its allies, caused in the

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

war. It had to pay reparations to the tune of $6.6 billion. This was an astounding sum for that time.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 6

The Results of the Treaty of Versailles (1919)

On January 8, 1918, U.S. President Wilson made an address to Congress titled the Fourteen Points. In it he outlined his ideas for the reconstruction of post-war Europe. While some of his points were used in the Treaty of Versailles, some were not. Perhaps the most significant idea taken from Wilson’s plan was the creation of a world court. This court was to mediate conflicts between nations in order to avoid anything like WWI happening again.

The result was the League of Nations, a predecessor to today’s United Nations. With the breakdown of the old empires and the creation of new, independent nation-states (another of Wilson's Fourteen Points) the League of Nations was to oversee all. The League of Nations was a grouping of many of these new countries in a world tribunal that would stop conflicts before they started. While its intentions were noble, the League of Nations had a few fundamental faults, leading to its demise at the onset of WWII. Some of these faults included:

1. The United States, Russia and Germany were not made members of the League of Nations. The U.S. stayed out by choice, Russia was barred from joining due to the other nations' refusal to recognize its Communist government, and Germany was left in the cold as a punitive clause of the Treaty of Versailles.

2. The League of Nations had no army. Should a conflict have risen, each member-state was expected to supply its own army, much to the dismay of Britain and France (since they had the strongest military of all the member countries). With no military support, the League resorted to economic sanctions as a means of containing conflict. The sanctions however, could easily be avoided by petitioning non-member nations for the goods and supplies that were being cut off.

3. The faulty distribution of power. While each member-state sent representatives to the Assembly, the bulk of the real power was centered in the hands of the Council. The Council was made up of Britain, France, Italy and Japan. Each Council member had veto power, meaning that Assembly nations could be heard but any resolution could be overturned with a single vote

Many theories exist about the faults within the League of Nations. The weaknesses of the League, combined with the fury of the German people from having to surrender to such a humiliating agreement as the Treaty of Versailles, created an unstable political climate in Germany. This climate allowed Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist (Nazi) Party to rise to power in the decades that followed WWI. The theory further states that the failure of the League of Nations to stop Hitler's quest for more power in the 1930’s laid the groundwork for the factors that sparked World War II.

Adapted from Treaty of Versailles. The Heritage of the Great War. 6 Oct. 2009 <http://www.greatwar.nl/versailles/versail-summary.html>; Treaty of Versailles. Encyclomedia.com. 6 Oct. 2009 <http://www.encyclomedia.com/treaty_versailles.html>.

United States History and Geography SS0904Becoming a World Power Lesson 7

US declares war on Spain. Beginning of the Spanish-American War.

US annexes Hawaii

Treaty of Paris ending

Spanish American

War

US enters World

War I on the side of the Allies.

The Treaty of Versailles is signed, ending World War I.

Obtain territory for future canal.

Panama Canal Opens

Germany declares unrestricted submarine

warfare against all ships.

Archduke Ferdinand of the Ottoman Empire assassinated. Beginning of

World War I

1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920

The Allied and Central Powers

sign an armistice, ending World War

I.

US annexes Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto

Rico

The United States on the World Stage

United States History and GeographySS0904

Becoming a World Power Lesson 7