1 Module Two Appreciative Inquiry, Expectations, and Learning

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Module Two

Appreciative Inquiry, Expectations, and Learning

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Key Elements in this Module• Expectations and Self-fulfilling Prophecy• Dialogue about learning -- goals, context, process and

content – toward a psychological contact • Learning styles • Cognitive development• Experiential learning – Learning-by-doing• Appreciative inquiry

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Expectations: Some Definitions

• Many organizational problems can be traced to expectations and expectation discrepancies.

• Expectations are the driving force behind subordinate response to managers.

• Self-fulfilling prophecy (SFP) – raising manager’s performance expectations can cause increase in their subordinates performance.

• Golem – Low manager expectations restrict subordinate achievement.

• General-Self-efficacy (GSE) – general belief in one’s capacity to mobilize the physical, intellectual, and emotional resources needed to succeed. (Different from Self Esteem which relates to person’s sense of self-worth).

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Expectations, SFP and GSE @ Work – Few Empirical Studies

• Pygmalion study (Eden & Shani, 1981)• SFP and seasickness (Eden & Zuk, 1995)• GSE training to speed reemployment

(Aviram, 2003)• SFP and NPD Teams

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Pygmalion study (Eden & Shani, 1981)

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SFP and Seasickness (Eden & Zuk, 1995)

• Using SFP to combating seasickness.• Naval cadets; randomly assigned to two

groups; experimental group – was told that based on physical examination they are unlikely to experience seasickness; control group.

• At the end of 5-day training cruise, experimental cadets reported less seasickness and were rated better performers by naïve training officers when compared to the control group (of cadets).

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GSE training to speed reemployment (Aviram, 2003)

• The impact of training designed to boost general self-efficacy (GSE) on job-search activity and on reemployment was assessed among unemployed for up to 18 weeks.

• Randomly assigned experimental participants attended 8 behavioral modification workshop sessions over 2 ½ weeks. The manipulation check showed that training boosted GSE as intended.

• The treatment increased reemployment among participants low in initial GSE.

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Dialoguing to Overcome Differences in Expectations in Business

“Where I Am”

BOSS

SUBORDINATE

“Where We Are”

My expectations of what subordinates should, ought, and must do

My Managerial Philosophy

What I hope subordinates will get out of the workplace

What I want from the workplace, etc.

Our expectations of what bosses & organizations should, ought, and must do

Our attitudes towards work, the work place, bosses, & peers

Our goals - what we want out of our work, jobs, and organization

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Dialoguing to Overcome Differences in Expectations in the Classroom

“Where I Am”

INSTRUCTOR

PARTICIPANTS

“Where We Are”

My expectations of what students should, ought, and must do

My Educational Philosophy

What I hope students will get out of the workplace

What I want from this course, etc.

Our expectations of what instructors should, ought, and must do

Our attitudes towards education, professors, college life

What we want out of this course, etc.

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Dialoguing to Overcome Differences in Expectations in Business or the Classroom

My expectations of what students should, ought, and must do. My educational philosophy. What I hope students will get out of this course. What I want from this course, etc.

Our expectations of what instructors should, ought, and must do. Our attitudes toward education, professors, college life. What we want out of this course, etc.

My expectations of what subordinates should, ought, and must do. My managerial philosophy, etc.

Our expectations of what bosses and organizations should, ought, and must do. Our goals - what we want out of our jobs, etc.

“Where I Am”INSTRUCTOR

Dialoguing to bring out these views.

PARTICIPANTS“Where We Are.”

“Where I Am”BOSS

Dialoguing to bring out these views.

SUBORDINATES“Where We Are.”

In Business In the Classroom

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Activity 2-1: EXPECTATIONS - DIALOGING ABOUT LEARNING

1. CAPTURE AN EXPERIENCE THAT ILLUSTRATES A DIFFICULT PROBLEM THAT YOU HAVE ENCOUNTERED WHILE WORKING

2. CAPTURE AN EXPERIENCE THAT ILLUSTRATES GOOD MANAGEMENT

3. THINKING ABOUT YOUR FUTURE CAREER, FIVE YEARS DOWN THE ROAD; YOU SEE YOURSELF AS..; YOUR JOB DESCRIPTION IS… YOU SPEND MOST OF YOUR TIME ON...

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Activity 2-1: EXPECTATIONS - DIALOGING ABOUT LEARNING, cont’d

4. BASED ON YOUR CAREER GOALS, KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCE THUS FAR, YOUR PERSONAL LEARNING GOALS FOR THIS COURSE ARE:

Specific desired managerial skills …..Specific desired managerial knowledge …

5. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE THINGS THAT YOU HAVE TO CONTRIBUTE TO THIS COURSE:

6. BASED ON YOUR EXPERIENCE THUS FAR AS A STUDENT, THE IDEAL FEATURES OF A LEARNING COMMUNITY/ENVIRONMENT (IN WHICH YOU LEARN BEST) ARE:

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My Expectations of Me

High Expectations (I anticipate with a high degree of certainty that I will:)

1. Be fair and thorough with grading

2. Be on-time to class

3. Be well-prepared

4. Be quick to respond to your queries outside of class

5. Be courteous to you as an individual

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My Expectations of YouMore High Expectations: I expect you…

• To be courteous to others• To provide constructive feedback to your teammates• To ensure the room is clean when you leave, no cells, no

talking while I or others are speaking• To put in good amount of effort in this course• To speak with me if you have a concern about the class

or if you need clarification on an assignment.• To come to me if you have any question about your

progress in the class

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More Expectations…

More High Expectations: I expect you…

• To be on-time to class • To contact me prior to firing someone from your

team• To attend all classes, sans your free-bee• To write papers that are written to the best of

your ability (e.g., few spelling and grammatical errors)

• To read the syllabus and assignments’ aids if you expect to get a “high” grade in this class

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LEARNING, EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING, AND LEARNING STYLES

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LEARNING: THEORETICAL FOUNDATION

• Wide array of theories that are embedded in different academic disciplines, such as behavioral, cognitive, social, experiential.

• For the purpose of this course our focus is on the experiential theories of learning.

• The field of Experiential Learning is encored in three traditions that are based on the research work by Lewin, Dewey and Piaget.

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EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING (1)(Kolb)

• Learning is viewed as ‘experiential’ -- experience plays a central role in the learning process (in contrast for example to cognitive theories of learning that place emphasis on acquisition, manipulation and recall of abstract symbols)

• Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes

• Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience

• Learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world

• Learning involves transactions between the person and the environment

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EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING (2)(Kolb)• Learning is the process whereby knowledge is

created through the transformation of experience.• The process is conceived as a four stage cycle:

Concrete Experience (CE) is followed by Observation and Reflection (RO), which leads to the formulation of Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and generalization, which lead to hypotheses to be tested in future action - Active Experimentation (AE), which leads to new experiences.

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The Learning Style Model for Managers

ABSTRACT

CONCRETE

COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE

Thinking Planner Feeling Planner

Task Implementer Participative Implementer

0

0

10

10

5

5

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Ken Murrell’s Managerial Learning Model: Key Points

ABSTRACT

CONCRETE

COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE



The learning model for managers introduces four domains of learning based on a person’s preferences for cognitive or affective learning and the person’s preference for concrete or abstract experiences.

Learning comes not only through thinking or cognition, but also from experience and affect or feeling.

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Ken Murrell’s Managerial Learning Model: Key Points

ABSTRACT

CONCRETE

COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE



The learning model for managers contains two primary axes, ranging from cognitive to affective inthe horizontal dimension and from concrete to abstract in the vertical dimension.

The axes divide the model into the following four domains:

* Thinking Planner* Feeling Planner* Task Implementer* Participative Implementer

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Cognitive Development – Bloom’s Taxonomy

• Insert figure 2-2 from text

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Application of Bloom’s Taxonomy

• Insert figure 2-3 from text

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Experiential Learning Sequence

Exercise Experience

Discussion

Instructor Input

Reading Assignment

Application During Course

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Self-Learning Competency Skills

The ability to engage in divergent thinking (Develop and be in touch with curiosities)

The ability to perceive one’s self objectivity and accept feedback about one’s performance non-defensively

The ability to diagnose one’s learning needs in the light of models of competencies required for performing life roles

* Modified from the work by Knowles, M. S., (1990), The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company.

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The ability to formulate learning objectives in terms that describe performance outcomes

The ability to identify human, material, and experiential resources for accomplishing various kinds of learning objectives

The ability to design a plan of strategies for making use of appropriate learning resources effectively


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The ability to carry out a learning plan systematically and sequentially

The ability to collect evidence of the accomplishment of learning objectives and have it validated through performance


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Self-Learning Competency (SLC)*

Self-Learning Competency enables people to actively learn in a variety of situations throughout their life

This means for example that people have the skills to apply knowledge gained in one situation to other situations; are able to engage in divergent thinking; . . .

* Modified version of the work by Nyhan, B., (1993), Developing People’s Ability to Learn, Brusseles: European Interuniversity Press.

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Self-Learning Competency (SLC)*

This competency makes people aware of and open to learning opportunities in their day to day experiences

The “Self” refers to the fact that the learner must take primary responsibility for his or her own learning, and that the learning is an inner activity

SLC means an active Self-Managed Learning Competency

* Modified version of the work by Nyhan, B., (1993), Developing People’s Ability to Learn, Brusseles: European Interuniversity Press.

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Ways of thinking• Inductive reasoning• Deductive reasoning• Viewpoints--e.g., change as a way

of life Models• Application of theories and conceptsSkills• Interaction• Communications• Working with feelings and emotionsLearning-to-learn skills

Theories and conceptsKnowledgeFactsData base for reasoning

Differences b/w Types of Learning & Methods Used in Process (Involvement) & Content Courses

Process Learning Content Learning

Involvement exercises• Group exercises• Application case studies• Role playingDiscussion

ReadingLecturing Discussion

Methods of Instruction Methods of Instruction

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The Technology of Human Relations Training*

Rea

ding

Didactic:Meaning external to learner

Experiential:Meaning internal to learner

Lec

ture

Exp

erie

ntia

l Lec

ture

Dis

cuss

ion

Part

icip

atio

n Tr

aini

ngC

ase

Stud

y

Rol

e Pl

ayin

gIn

stru

men

tatio

nSt

ruct

ured

Exp

erie

nce

Inte

nsiv

e G

row

th G

roup

Low involvement High involvement

R L EL D PT CS RP I SE IGG

* The following discussion of learner involvement in various training approaches is extracted and adapted from Pfeiffer and Jones (1979 pp. 1-3).

* From Pfeiffer and Jones (1979 ). Source: University Associates

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What is Appreciative Inquiry?

• A co-evolutionary search for the best in people, their organizations, and the relevant world around them

• AI suggests that every human system has something that works right--things that give it life when it is vital, effective, and successful

• AI begins by identifying this positive core and connecting to it in ways that heighten energy, sharpen vision, and inspire action for change

• Seeks to strengthen a system’s capacity to apprehend, anticipate, and heighten positive potential through the art and practice of asking questions

• Involves the mobilization of inquiry through the crafting of the “unconditional positive question”

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Difference Between Two Paradigms • Problem-Solving

– Identify Problem– Conduct Root Cause Analysis– Brainstorm Solutions & Analyze– Develop Action Plans

Metaphor: Organizations are problems to be solved

• Appreciative Inquiry– Appreciate “What

is”– Imagine “What

Might Be”– Determine “What

Should Be”– Create “What Will

Be”

Metaphor: Organizations are a solution/mystery to be embraced

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Appreciative Inquiry “4-D” Cycle

DISCOVERY“What gives life?”

(the best of what is)Appreciating

DISCOVERY“What gives life?”

(the best of what is)Appreciating

DESTINY“How to empower, learn, and

adjust / improvise?”Sustaining

DESTINY“How to empower, learn, and

adjust / improvise?”Sustaining

DESIGN“What should be the ideal?”

(the best of what is)Co-constructing

DESIGN“What should be the ideal?”

(the best of what is)Co-constructing

DREAM“What might be?”

(What is the world calling for?)Envisioning Results

DREAM“What might be?”

(What is the world calling for?)Envisioning Results

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The Art of the Question

o What’s the biggest problem here?

o Why did I have to be born in such a troubled family?

o Why do you blow it so often?

o Why do we still have those problems?

o What possibilities exist that we have not thought about yet?

o What’s the smallest change that could make the biggest impact?

o What solutions would have us both win?

o What makes my questions inspiring, energizing, and mobilizing?

“What would the universe look like if I were riding on the end of a light beam at the speed of light?” --- Albert Einstein

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Assumptions of AI1. In every human system, something works2. What we focus on, and the language we

use, becomes our reality3. Reality is created in the moment and there

are multiple realities4. The language we use shapes our reality5. The act of asking questions influences the

group in some way6. People have more confidence & comfort to

move to an unknown future when they carry forward parts of the past

7. What we carry forward should be what is best about the past

8. It is important to value differences

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Evidence• When organizations or groups capture positive

imagery internally and make it visible, it starts to drive change in an individualistic, self-directed way. It creates a sense of focus.

Our image of thefuture drives our

ACTION!

Placebo EffectHelp someone construct an

image of how something mighthappen, and it drives behavior

which creates a change in that direction

Pygmalion EffectChange a teacher’s image of a

student, and their behavior changestoward the student, improving

student performance

SociologyThe study of problems creates

an increase in number & severity of problems. But

opposite also occurs.

SportsVivid visualization of one’s

performance guides physical performance. Speed of learning when only correct images are

reviewed.

Internal ConversationsStudies of pre and post operativepatients. Difference in recoverybetween positive and negative

imagery.

Documents

1 Module Two Appreciative Inquiry, Expectations, and Learning