151207_LSPR-CC14-s59

Master of Arts in Communication : Corporate Communication Studies

elearning.lspr.edu

Course : Crisis Communication (1512CC14)

Session Topic : Parameters for Crisis

Communication

Course: Crisis Communication

By Syafiq B. Assegaff, MA, MD, CBM, IAPR

LSPR eLearning Program

Powered by HarukaEdu.com - 1512CC14- S.3

• Part 1 Crisis, Risk & Issues

• Part 2 Frequent Types of Crises

• Part 3 Crisis Response Phase

• Part 4 Transition Crisis Communication Research

Content

Part1: Crisis, Risk & Issues


Crisis: Crisis, Risk & Issues

Crisis, risk, & issues areInterdependent, as well as unique matters.

Risk. Defn: • A probabilistic assessment of

‘what can go wrong’, • with certain impact & magnitude. • Remember Insurance Company

‘rules’

Crisis occurs when the risk manifests itself, &• people are harmed (or worry that

they are, & • perhaps even wonder why they

were not). • When a risk happens (Eg. ‘Puting

Beliung’), a crisis may occur.

Issues can arise from risks. As such, an issue is,1. A contestable matter of fact

(masalah yg diperdebatkan), 2. Value (nilai2), 3. Policy (kebijakan), or4. Identification.

Known risks can be contested issues

1. Magnitude, 2. Harm, 3. Occurrence, 4. Prevention, 5. Mitigation.


Crisis: Crisis, Risk & Issues (Cont.)

An issue can become a crisis. Examples: • The issue over the health hazards of tobacco use.• Risk of health effects became crisis for:1. Tobacco industry &2. Public health authorities at the state & federal levels.

RiskIssue

Crisis


Crisis: Crisis, Risk & Issues (Cont.)

The triangle connection between:

1. Risk2. Issue3. Crisis

Can…a. Have public policy implications;b. Arise from & lead to private sector threats &

opportunities

A risk can create the opportunity for:a. A product (a medication) orb. Public policy (public health campaign).

Example:Toys: a vital part of seasonal giving & marketing,• can pose risks, a crisis for parents & companies, • And become a matter of public policy.

This interconnection enriches the rationale for & theory to advance the understanding of public relations.


Crisis: Crisis Defined

Crisis management: seeks to prevent crises.

Prevention protects:1. People, 2. Property, 3. Financial resources, & 4. Reputation assets.

Crises are threats. But the outcomes can be (new) opportunities;• depend how you manage the

crisis.• Remember the Chinese proverb

about the word ‘Crisis’.1. Effective ‘crisis management’

stronger organizations.2. Management by crisis take a

heavy toll on stakeholders.

One of many definitions of crisis:• “Crisis is the perception of an

unpredictable event,• that threatens important

expectancies of stakeholders &• can seriously impact an

organization’s performance &• generate negative outcomes.”*


Crisis Defined: Role of Stakeholders

A point: the perceptual nature of crises.• How stakeholders view an

event has consequences for,• whether or not that event

becomes a crisis. • Honor stakeholder concerns it has a role in co-creating the meaning of a crisis.

Meaning is,• socially constructed (including

the meaning of ‘crises’, • also socially constructed). • Thus important to use a

definition that reflects the perceptual nature of crises.

Crises are not the same with incidents.

Crisis definitions reflect ‘serious events’, which bring ‘negative outcome’:1. Not only that have the

potential to seriously impact the organization.

2. But also harming stakeholders.

The definition uses “negative outcomes” to include any type of harm to stakeholders, including:1. Physical, 2. Financial, &3. Psychological.


Crisis: Perception & Potential

“Crisis is the perception of an unpredictable event, • that threatens important expectancies of stakeholders &• can seriously impact an organization’s performance & generate

negative outcomes.”

The word ‘Potential’ is,• used because actions taken by crisis managers may prevent a crisis

or • significantly reduce the damage one can inflict.

Crisis management is more than Reaction; it can be:1. Prevention2. Preparation


Crisis: Anomalies

This anomalous dimension of crises,• draws the attention of the media

& other stakeholders. • Just like people on the highway

gaze at accidents.

The Different between Crisis Management & Crisis Communication:Crisis…1. …Management: • can be defined as ‘a set of factors

designed to combat crises & • to lessen the actual damages

inflicted.’

2. …Communication is,• defined broadly as: ‘the

collection, processing, &• dissemination of information

required to address a crisis situation’.

Crises are unusual occurrences that:1. Cannot be predicted 2. But expected.

All crises are anomalies because they violate what stakeholders expect.

Consider the following stakeholder expectations:1. Trains should not derail, 2. Milk should not sicken children,3. Tacos from restaurants should not

contain e. coli.


Crisis: Fink & Mitroff

Field Model: 4 stages how Crises develop – a process view (by Fink):1. Prodromal Warning signs of a crisis appear

2. Acute, A crisis occurs

3. Chronic• Recovery period that can include…• …lingering concerns from the crisis;

4. Crisis ResolutionThe organization is back to operations as normal.

Dr. Ian Irving MitroffProf., Emeritus at the USC Marshall School of Business, Univ. of Southern California

Steven FinkPresident of Lexicon Communications Corp.,


Crisis: Fink & Mitroff (Cont.)

Mitroff’s five (5) model, more than just the crisis process: 1. Signal detection: Seek to identify warning signs & take preventative

measures;2. Probing and prevention: Active search & reduction of risk factors;3. Damage containment: Crisis occurs & actions taken to limit its spread;4. Recovery: Effort to return to normal operations5. Learning: People review the crisis management effort & learn from it.

In general,• the crisis models reflect the ‘emergency management process’ of:1. Mitigation (improvement, easing, lessening).2. Preparedness3. Response4. Recovery.

The primary difference is that Mitroff highlights learning (stage 5) as a separate stage.


Crisis: 3 Phases Model

The crisis management process can be organized around 3 PHASES model: 1. Pre-Crisis: a. Includes signal detection, b. Prevention, &c. Preparation (similar to no 1 & 2 in Mitroff’s).

2. Crisis: Covers recognition of the trigger event & response (see No 3 & 4 in Mitroff’s).

3. Post-Crisis: Considers actions after operations have returned to normal; Including:

a. Providing follow-up information to stakeholders, b. Cooperating with investigations, &c. Learning from the crisis event (see no 5 in Mitroff’s).

Part2: Frequent Types of Crises


Crisis: Frequent Types of Crises

1. Acquisition; alcohol/drug abuse; 2. Bankruptcy; boycott; bribery; 3. Chemical spill (leak);

earthquake; explosion; 4. Fire; lawsuits; layoffs; murder; 5. Product failure; protest

demonstrations; racial issues; 6. Strikes; tax problems;

transportation accident.

Can be 1 or combination of the above. Eg: boycott + sex discrimination.

Need involvement of entire company or department reps. ‘we-ness’ penting.

Each employee has,• unique perspective on things

that can go wrong. • Eg: janitors more aware on

heating, or possible gas leaking.

Crisis identification program is crucial; 1. If not, minimum should have staff

meetings: determine possible crises.

2. Questions must be answered:a. How likely is this crisis ?b. How devastating can the crisis

be ?


Crisis: The Proactive, Symmetrical Process

The proactive, Symmetrical Process has 4 StepsStep…a) …1: • Issues management with an…• …emphasis on environmental

scanning.

b) …2: Planning prevention.

c) …3:Crisis & is the ‘usual crisis management’.

d) …4: is post-crisis

Step…a) …1: Issues management1. Emphasis on environmental

scanning.

2. Crisis managers try to find early signs of a crisis (= an issue) &

3. Take actions designed to influence the development of the issue.

4. Early identification permits time for analysis & strategizing.


Crisis: The Proactive, Symmetrical Process (Cont.)

b) …2: Planning prevention1. Crisis managers take actions

(designed) to prevent a crisis from emerging.

2. Scanning how to ‘move on’step by step (without interruptions) into monitoring an issue.

3. Also assess the threat posed by the issue by:

• Examining it in terms of the damage it could cause to the organization,

• the degree of control over the situation, & options for an organizational response.

c) …3: is crisis & is the usual crisis management, focus on:

1. Having a plan, 2. Team, &3. Spokesperson that are applied

(assigned) to (talk about) the crisis.

d) …4: post-crisis1. The issue is, • still tracked in the media, &• drawing interest from other

stakeholders.2. Managers continue to,• communicate with stakeholders &• evaluate the crisis management

effort.


Crisis: Pre Crisis Phase

In the Pre Crisis, Communication concentrates on:1. Locating risk2. Reducing risk

The anticipatory model of crisis management (Olaniran & Williams 2008). 1. Prevention is the top priority. To aid crisis decision making & prevention.

2. Pre-crisis messages to immunize stakeholders about crises.

3. Help build up resistance to,• a negative reaction &• negative media coverage of the

crisis.

To integrate issues managementinto ‘crisis management’, • with the “proactive symmetrical

crisis management process”.

So that,• ‘crisis management’ would

become more proactive…• …when fused with ‘issues

management’.

Bolanle A. OlaniranProf., Dept. of Communication Studies, College of Arts & Sciences,Texas Tech Univ. Lubback, Texas.


Crisis: Crisis Sensing & EPPM

1. Monitor the media (includes the Internet);

2. Preparation: training for:a. Spokespersons:i. Avoid looking deceptive 3

cues:1) Solid eye contact, 2) Few vocal fillers, &3) few nervous adaptors;

ii. No ‘no comment’.

b. Decision making skills for team: situational awareness.

Media relations is a key element.

The Extended Parallel Process modelIn pre-crisis phase:1. The extended parallel process

model (EPPM) can be used to explain:

a. The positive effect of exercises &b. Related risk information on

community members.

2. EPPM: to understand,• how people will respond to risk

messages. • Fear can motivate people to

action if:a. A threat is perceived to be

relevant to people, &b. Significant.


Crisis: EPPM (Cont.)

Eg: • For people living near a facility

with hazardous materials, • the threat can be perceived as

relevant & significant.

3. When people believe a threat is real, they then make efficacy assessments.

4. To follow the advice given in a risk message, people must believe that:

a) The proposed action will work(response efficacy) &

b) That they can enact the proposed action (self-efficacy).

5. If people do not believe,• the response will work &/or do

not think they can execute the response,

• they ignore the risk and messages associated with it.

a. Exercises,• help community members

understand that…• …the organization’s emergency

plan can work.

b. Community members learn how the plan affects them,

• how they can be a part of the plan, &

• the general efficacy of the crisis plan.



6. In emergencies, • people have two basic options:

stay or leave. • (Staying is known as shelter-in-

place). a) People stay inside & close doors,

windows, & air conditioning.

b) Leaving (evacuation).• Using designated routes & take

“go bags” with them. • Go bags contain essential items

such as medicine, water, & some food.

7. By participating in exercises, community members can:

• Learn that they can enact the actions required in the emergency plan,

• → they can take the steps necessary to evacuate or to shelter-in-place (stay).



8. To integrate the relevance of,• risk communication to crisis

preparation: Heath & Palenchar(2000).

a) Knowledge of emergency warning systems:

• increased concern over risks…• …while still increasing acceptance

for the organization.

b) Knowing about the emergency warning:

a. Make community members vigilant(alert)

b. And not making them calm (into a false sense of security).

c. Vigilance (alertness) is preferable to complacency in a crisis;

c) Proper crisis communication during preparation foundation for a more effective crisis response.

Robert L. Heath

• Emeritus Professor of

Communication, Houston

Univ.

• Published many award-

winning books

Michael J. Palenchar, Ph.D.

Mass Communication, Univ.

of Florida (2005)



9. The value of pre-crisis communication & perceptions of efficacy (Heath, Lee, & Ni, 2009).

a. People more likely to comply with the message,

• when pre-crisis messages are…• …from people similar to the

audience in:1) Race/ethnicity, 2) Gender, 3) Age, or4) Are sensitive to their concerns.

b. Message sensitivity is,• correlated with self-efficacy &• some forms of response efficacy.

Robert L. Heath, Ph.D.Univ. Illinois, Professor Emeritus,Univ. Houston, Texas, USA

Jaesub Lee, Ph.D.Professor,Univ. Houston, Texas, USA

Part3: Crisis Response Phase


Crisis: Crisis Response Phase

1. Tacticala. It’s a “how to” instruction 1) No ‘no comment’ – 1 voice, train

the spokespersons (several of them);

2) Be quick (in 1st hour), especially in this Internet era.

3) Be accurate: it builds credibility;

4) Be consistent: also builds credibility;

• can have several spokespeople (as crisis may extend over days),

• but all have to be trained, 1 voice (message) & compact (consistent).

b. Stealing Thunder: it is better for organization,

• to disclose information about the crisis first,

• rather than letting (before) news media deliver the information.

c. It proofs that organizations,• must discuss the crisis &• not remain silent.


Crisis: Crisis Response Phase (Cont.)

2. Strategica. The emphasis is,• on how various crisis response strategies are

used to…• …pursue various organizational objectives.

b. Sturges (1994) provides a useful framework for,

• categorizing crisis responses by strategic focus.

• Sturges’ three (3) strategic focus


Crisis Response Phase: Strategic Advice

Sturges crisis responses by 3 strategic focus. 1. Instructing information, how to

cope physically with the crisis;

2. Adjusting information, how to cope psychologically with the crisis; &

3. Reputation repair, attempts to improve the damage a crisis inflicts on an organization.

All (3) are related, • as instructing & adjusting

information will influence reputation repair.

• It is surprising how researchers frequently overlook instructing

• & adjusting information.

Instructing information. Defn:• The first priority in a crisis.• Yes, public safety should be the

preeminent concern in a crisis.• Oddly, instructing information

is taken for granted in most crisis communication research.

If an organization fails to provide instructing information, • the stakeholders &

organizations will suffer even more.

• Safety is a binding force in a crisis.


Crisis Response Phase: Strategic Advice (Cont.)

Organizations must,• protect stakeholders to protect

themselves. • A lack of regard for

stakeholder safety will…• …intensify the damage a crisis

inflicts on an organization.• In essence, a failure to protect

the safety of stakeholders will breed a second crisis.

• Not only has the organization had a problem,

• but it did not seem to care about its stakeholders.

Adjusting information, • includes the need to express

sympathy &• to explain what the

organization is doing to prevent a repeat of the crisis.

• Efforts to prevent a repeat of the crisis are also known as corrective action.

• Adjusting information has been studied as reputation repair…

• …rather than adjusting information.


Crisis Response Phase: Strategic Advice (Cont.)

Researchers,• have treated expression of

sympathy &• corrective action as reputation

repair strategies &• studied them as part of that

research.

It is great value to the organization & stakeholders when,• management expresses

concern for victims &• explains what actions are

being taken…• …to prevent a recurrence of

the crisis.

Adjusting information is,• an essential part of crisis

communication &• is second in importance to

instructing information.

Of the strategic research, • the vast majority emphasizes

reputation repair…• …in one way or another.


Crisis: Reputation Repair

Of the strategic research, • the vast majority emphasizes

reputation repair…• …in one way or another.

Research by methods: 3 categories (Stacks): 1. Informal research methods are

subjective, • provide little control over

variables, &• are not systematic in the collection

& interpretation of the data. • The results provide an in-depth

understanding of the phenomenon but…

• …do not permit generalization or prediction.

2. Transition: Content analysis is,• the transition method between

formal & informal research.• The method is informal but data

can be randomly sampled &counted.

• Content analysis can answer questions of fact.

3. Formal research involves the controlled, objective, &

• systematic collection of data.• Generalizations & predictions

can be made from formal research.

Rhetorical theories, in Informal crisis Communication research & reputation.


Crisis: Reputation Repair (Cont.)

Informal Crisis communication research & reputationa) The informal crisis communication research, related to reputation repair

utilizes the case study methods.

b) The researchers are heavily influenced by rhetoric in both theory & method.

c) Rhetorical theories are, • used as analytic tools to dissect & to interpret cases &• to generate insights into crisis communication.

3 schools of thought dominate the informal research: a) Corporate apologia; b) Image restoration; & c) Renewal.


Informal Research: Corporate Apologia

Apologia. Defn:• a rhetorical concept that

explores…• …the use of communication for

self-defense.

A person’s character is, • called into question when she or

he is accused of engaging in…• …an action that involves

wrongdoing.• When one’s character is attacked,• 1 of 4 communication strategies

can be used to defend 1’s character.

Those 4 strategies are:1. Denial (person was not involved in

any wrongdoing), 2. Bolstering (remind people of the

good things the person had done), 3. Differentiation (remove the action

from its negative context), &4. Transcendence (place the action in

a new, broader context that is more favorable).

Crises, for instance, • could be viewed as wrongdoing &• create the need for “corporate

apologia.”

The “corporation” speaks to defend its reputation.


Informal Research: Image Restoration Theory/Image Repair Theory

The most prolific framework for,• informal crisis communication

research is…• …image restoration theory,

developed by William Benoit (1995, 2005).

The name of the theory has evolved over the years.

Known also as image restoration theory (IRT).

However, in 2008,• Benoit & Pang refer to the

framework as…• …the theory of image repair

discourse or image repair theory.• The abbreviation ‘IRT’.

IRT begins with an attack that threatens a reputation (what Benoit terms image) 2 components: 1. An offensive act2. An accusation of responsibility for

the act.

William Benoit, Ph.D.

Professor,

School of

Communication

Studies, Scripps

College of

Communication


Informal Research: Image Restoration Theory/Image Repair Theory (Cont.)

The offensive act can be a threat to a reputation.

It becomes a threat when, • an individual or organization is…• …accused of being responsible for

the offensive act.

If there is no offensive act or,• no accusations of responsibility

for the act, • there is no reputational threat

(Benoit 1995a; Benoit & Pang 2008).

IRT was….a. …“crafted to understand, • the communication options

available for those, • whether organizations or persons, • who face threats to their

reputations” (Benoit 2005: 407).

b. …not developed specifically for crisis communication,

• but is applicable because…• …a crisis is a reputation threat.



IRT uses communication to defend reputations. • IRT holds that corporate

communication is goal-directed & • a positive organizational

reputation is 1 of the central goals of this communication (Benoit 1995).

• Drawing from rhetorical & interpersonal communication (account giving),

• IRT offers a list of potential crisis response strategies (image restoration strategies).

IRT has been applied to a vast array of crises, including:1. Corporations 2. Celebrities, & 3. Politics.

The primary communicative recommendations, • to emerge from IRT have been an

emphasis on apology &• accepting responsibility for crises

(Benoit & Pang 2008).

IRT Crisis Responses Strategies1. Deniala. Simple Denial: did not do it;b. Shift the Blame: • Blame someone or • thing other than the organization.



2. Evading Responsibilitya. Provocation: response to someone

else’s actions;b. Defeasibility: • Lack of information about or• control over the situation;

c. Accidental: did not mean for it to happen;

d. Good intentions: actor meant well.

3. Reducing Offensivenessa. Bolstering: remind of the actor’s

positive qualities;b. Minimize offensiveness of the act:

claim little damage from the crisis;c. Differentiation: compare act to

similar ones;

d. Transcendence: place act in a different context;

e. Attack the accuser: challenge those who say there is a crisis;

f. Compensation: offer money or goods;

g. Corrective Action:• Restore situation to pre-act status

&/ or promise change &• prevent a repeat of the act;

h. Mortification: ask for forgiveness, admit guilt & express regret.


Informal Research: Rhetorical of Renewal

The most recent informal line of,• crisis communication research is…• …the rhetoric of renewal.

What separates the rhetoric of,• renewal from corporate apologia

& IRT is,• its emphasis on a positive view

of the organization’s future• (rather than dwelling on the

present & discussions of responsibility).

1) The focus is on helping victims. 2) The crisis communication strategies

emphasize on:a. The future, &b. How things will be better for the

organization & its stakeholders.

The Rhetoric of Renewal is: 1. An extension of,• adjusting information &• is consistent with a number of IRT

strategies as well.

2. Is limited in its applicability.• Because certain conditions must

exist for…• …the rhetoric of renewal to be

viable, • it is not an option in every crisis

situation.


Informal Research: Rhetorical of Renewal (Cont.)

4 (Four) Criteria necessary for the use of renewal:The organization…1. …has a strong pre-crisis ethical

standard; 2. …can focus on life beyond the

crisis rather than seeking to escape blame;

3. …desires to engage in effective crisis communication.

4. The constituency-organization pre-crisis relationships are,

a) Strong & b) Favorable;

Events that occur before &• during the crisis determine

whether or not an effective crisis response can…

• …include the ‘Rhetoric of Renewal’ (RoR)

The rhetoric of renewal emphasizes the value &• nature of a positive crisis

communication –• an emphasis on the future and

recovery.

While the rhetoric of renewal uses case studies, • it has been innovative…• …in the use of what can be

called ‘first-person case studies’.


Informal Research: Rhetorical of Renewal (Cont.)

The researchers talk with, • the people involved in the crisis…• to get the crisis managers’ insights

into the communicative process (e.g., Ulmer 2001).

Corporate apologia and IRT rely on ‘third-person case studies’. 1. Third party data are,• limited to news reports &• public statements from the

organization.

2. There is no contact & insights from the people managing the crisis.

While both case study (Apologia & IRT) approaches are subjective …

The ‘first-person cases’ (RoR) offer some unique insights into how crisis managers view the process.

This approach,• can yield valuable insights into…• …the decision making process of

crisis managers.

Robert R. UlmerDean, UNLV's GreenspunCollege ofUrban Affairs

Part4: Transition Crisis Communication Research


Crisis Research: Content Analysis & Formal Research

Transition crisis communication research: Content analysisa) The content analysis studies, • share an analysis of actual

messages related to…• crisis communication.

b) Researchers try to illuminate, • how crisis response strategies are

used by crisis managers.• The data include:1. Media reports,

Messages from…2. …the organization, &3. …social media (Internet postings).

c) Though varied, • all the studies provide insights into

how crisis communication strategies have been used &,

• in some cases, the effects of those strategies on the crisis situation.

Formal Research1) The informal & transition research,• examine the messages the crisis

managers (senders) create &• seek to infer effects on the

audience. 2) The formal crisis communication

research is more audience-oriented. 3) The emphasis is,• on how the receivers/audience

react to crisis events & • crisis response strategies.


Crisis Research: Crisis Response Strategies in the SCCT Cluster Analysis Study

1. Denial: Management claims there is no crisis;

2. Scapegoat: Blames some outside entity for the crisis;

3. Attack the accuser: • Confronts the group (person) who… • …claim that something is wrong;

1. Excuse: • Management attempts to minimize

crisis responsibility by…• …claiming lack of control over the

event or lack of intent to do harm;

5. Justification: • Attempt to minimize the perceived

damage caused by the crisis;

6. Ingratiation: • Management praises other

stakeholders &/or• reminds people of past good

works by the organization;

7. Concern: Management expresses concern for victim;

8. Compassion: Offers money or other gifts to victims;

9. Regret: management indicates they feel badly about the crisis;

10. Apology: • Accept full responsibility for the

crisis & • ask stakeholders for forgiveness.


Crisis Research: Audience Effects Crisis Communication Research

The audience effects crisis communication research…a) …seeks to understand:How…1. …stakeholders perceive & react to crises &2. …crisis response strategies affect those

perceptions and reactions.

b) …is dominated by 2 perspectives: 1. Attribution theory &2. Contingency theory.


Crisis Research: Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT)

a) The premise of SCCT was very simple:

1. Crises are negative events,2. Stakeholders will make attributions

about crisis responsibility, &3. Those attributions,• will affect how stakeholders

interact with…• …the organization in crisis(Coombs 1995; Coombs & Holladay 1996; Schwarz 2008).

b) SCCT is,1. Audience oriented;2. It seeks to illuminate how people

perceive crises, • their reactions to crisis response

strategies, & • audience reactions to the

organization in crisis.

c) The idea is, • to understand how people make

attributions about crises &• the effects of those attributions

on their attitudes &• behavioral intentions.

d) The core of SCCT is crisis responsibility.

W. Timothy Coombs Ph.D

Prof. Advertising-Public

Relations, Univ. of Central

Florida

Sherry J. Holladay, Ph.D

Prof. at the Nicholson School of

Communication, Univ. of Central

Florida, Orlando


Crisis Research: Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) (Cont.)

e) Attributions of crisis responsibility,• have a significant effect on how

people perceive…• …the reputation of an

organization in crisis & their affective &

• behavioral responses to that organization following a crisis.

f) A crisis is a threat to an organization’s reputation.

g) Reputation matters,• because it is an important

intangible resource…• …for an organization.

h) Moreover, • crises can generate negative

affect &• behavioral intentions toward an

organization.

i) Crisis responsibility is,• a major factor in determining…• …the threat posed by a crisis.

j) The initial SCCT research,• sought to identify the factors that

shape crisis responsibility &• the threat posed by a crisis(Coombs 1995; Coombs & Holladay 1996, 2001, 2002).


Crisis Research: Model for The Situational Crisis Communication Theory Variables

Crisis

Crisis

Responsibility

Organizational

Reputation

Behavioral

Intention

Crisis Response

Strategies

Affect

Crisis History

Prior

Relationship/

Reputation


Crisis Research: SCCT Recommendations

All victims…1. …or potential victims should

receive instructing information, • including recall information. • This is 1-half of the base

response to a crisis.

2. …should be provided an expression of sympathy,

• any information about corrective actions, &

• trauma counseling when needed.• This can be called the “care

response.” • This is the second-half of the base

response to a crisis.

For crises with minimal attributions of crisis responsibility & …3. …no intensifying factors,• instructing information &• care response is sufficient.

4. …an intensifying factor, • add excuse &/or justification

strategies to…• …the instructing information &

care response.


Crisis Research: SCCT Recommendations

For crises with low attributions of crisis responsibility, &5. …no intensifying factors,• add excuse &/or justification

strategies to…• …the instructing information &

care response.6. …an intensifying factor,• add compensation &/or

apology strategies to…• …the instructing information &

care response.

7. For crises with strong attributions of crisis responsibility,

• add compensation &/or apology strategies to…

• …the instructing information & care response

8. The compensation strategy is,• used anytime victims suffer serious

harm.

9. The reminder & ingratiation strategies can be used to supplement any response.

10.Denial & attack the accuser strategies are,

• best used only for combating rumors &/or challenges to…

• …the morality of an organization’s behaviors.


Crisis Research: Contingency Theory & Crisis Communication

Contingency theory…1. …is a grand theory of public

relations,• that explains the degree to which

an organization uses an advocacy or…

• …accommodative response to conflicts with stakeholders

(e.g., Cancel, Cameron, Sallot, & Motrook 1997; Cameron, Pang, & Jin 2008).• Contingency theory is Associated

most strongly with Glen Cameron & • is a very complex

conceptualization of public relations.

• As a grand theory, contingency theory seeks to explain…

• …how public relations as a whole operates.

• More specifically, it helps us to understand…

• …what guides policy-level decisions an organization makes about goals,

• alignments, ethics, & relationshipswith publics & other forces in its environment (Botan 2006).

• Historically, grand theories try to explain an entire discipline &

• can be adapted to specific areas of the discipline.


Crisis Research: Contingency Theory & Crisis Communication (Cont.)

2. …is being adapted to develop a line of inquiry involving crisis communication.

Stance…a) …is the key variable in

contingency theory. b) …is how an organization

responds to competition &conflicts with other parties.

c) …are placed on a continuum anchored by advocacy &accommodation.

• Advocacy is when an organization argues for its own interests,

• while accommodation is when the organization makes concessions to the other parties.

• The stance an organization should take depends on the nature of the public relations situation.

• Sometimes an organization needs to be accommodative,

• while at others it may need to favor advocacy (Cameron et al. 2008).

3. …draws on over 80 variables,• to help predict what stance should

be used in…• …a particular situation.


Crisis Research: Contingency Theory & Crisis Communication (Cont.)

4. Predisposing variables shape stances prior to the situation &represent “predisposed” stances.

5. In other words an organization will have a default stance. Predisposing variables include,

a) Organizational characteristics, b) PR department characteristics, &c) Individual characteristics (Cancel et al. 1997; Shin, Cameron,

& Cropp 2006).

6. Situational factors, if they are strong enough, can alter an organization’s stance.

7. The situational factors can be divided into,

a) 5 external factors &b) 7 internal factors (Shin et al.

2006).

Jae-Hwa Shin, Ph.D., MPH

• Prof. & head public relations,

School of Mass

Communication &

• Journalism, Univ. of Southern

Mississippi

Glen Cameron

Prof. & the Maxine Wilson

Gregory Chair in Journalism

Research, Missouri School of

Journalism.


Crisis Research: Internal & External Factors in Contingency Theory

1. Internal variablesa. Organization characteristicsb. Public relations department characteristicsc. Characteristics of dominant coalitiond. Internal threatse. Individual characteristicsf. Relationship characteristics

2. External variablesa. Threatsb. Industry environmentc. General political/social environment/external cultured. External public

These are variable labels & each label contains multiple variables. See Cameron et al. (2008) for a complete list of the variables.


Crisis Research: Post-Crisis Communication

a) The focus on,• managing the crisis is over, • but managing the effects of the

crisis continue.

b) Given that it can be difficult, • to precisely locate when a crisis is

over, • post-crisis communication is largely

an extension of crisis response communication…

• …coupled with learning from the crisis.

Continuation of crisis communication1) Post-crisis communication heavily, • uses stakeholder reaction

management communication.

2) As an organization returns to,• normal operations stakeholders…• …must be updated on the business

continuity efforts.

3) Employees, suppliers, &• customers all want to know when

“normal” operations will occur &• require regular updates on the

situation.


Crisis Research: Post-Crisis Communication (Cont.)

4) Organizations,• may need to cooperate with

investigations, • generate their own reports, &/or

issue their reactions to…• …investigation reports form

external agencies such as the government.

5) Investigations are an extension of information about the crisis.

6) The final reports are,• very important when…• …they are the first documented

evidence of the cause of the crisis.

• The reported cause could raise a new round of concerns for…

• …the organization that demand a response.

• An organization must deliver all “promised” information.

7) If stakeholders requested information during a crisis &

• were promised that information later,

• the organization must deliver on that promise or

• lose trust from the stakeholders.



8) Memorials & commemoration are,• distinct forms of adjusting

information that…• …extend well beyond the crisis.• A physical memorial might be

created, or• there may be memorial services

held on anniversaries.

9) Reputation repair continues,• in the post-crisis phase as well. • Renewal is an example of how

reputation repair efforts extend beyond the crisis.

• The focus of renewal is the future & rebuilding.

• It could take months or years of communicative efforts to rebuild a reputation.

10)Consider the years it took Tyco, • to recover from the crisis of its

leadership siphoning…• …millions of dollars from the

company.

11)A new CEO, new ethics officer, &new ethics program were,

• part of the changes…• …that needed to be communicated

to stakeholders.



Organizational learninga) A common statement in crisis

management writings is,• that crises are a perfect learning

experience. • After the initial focus on

managing the crisis,• people realize there is a problem

& a need for change

b) A crisis provides an opportunity,• to evaluate what an organization

has been doing,• including what led to the crisis &

the crisis management effort.

c) Crisis expert Ian Mitroff has,• emphasized the need to learn from

crises, but • the problem is that organizations

are reluctant to learn from crises.

d) People get defensive &• resist intensive investigations into

the crisis. • Reviewing what happened &• why becomes a threat as people

fear blame & punishment.

e) Effective crisis learning reflects,• the crisis knowledge management

aspect of…• …crisis communication.



f) Crisis learning experts note the need,• to collect information about the

crisis & • to analyze that information.

g) A multifunctional team (composed of people from various departments),

• should run the crisis post-mortem &• collect information from a wide

range of stakeholders,• including external stakeholders.

h) Management must model &, • promote an open climate that

focuses on lessons learned…• …that is not blame oriented.

Learning…i) …must be rewarded & evaluated.1) Were the lessons implemented ?2) Was the implementation

successful ? 3) Were people rewarded for the

change ?

j) …audits, • can be used to determine if the

lessons are still being used &• reinforced after the initial

implementation.


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Course : Crisis Communication (1512CC14)

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151207_LSPR-CC14-s59