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}\fs12\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 360\uc1\u8211X377, 2001}\par\pard\li746\ri0\sl-173\slmult0 \fs12\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u63193X}{ }\fs12\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved}\par\pard\li2093\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs12\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Printed in Great Britain}\par\pard\li2240\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs12\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0160-7383/01/$20.00}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pard\li2426\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {PII: S0160-7383(00)00051-7}\b0 \par\pard\li653\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li653\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li653\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li653\ri0\sl-533\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {OUTDOOR ADVENTURE TOURISM}\b0 \par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {A Review of Research Approaches}\b0 \par\pard\li5506\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li5506\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Karin Weber}\b0 \par\pard\li3880\ri0\sl-240\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {La Trobe University, Australia}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-280\slmult0 \*\tx1226\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Abstract:}\b0 \tab \fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A review of the existing literature on adventure tourism reveals that research on}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {this subject has so far focused mainly on preconceived notions of scholars and practitioners.}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {This paper argues that individuals\uc1\u8217X subjective experience of adventure and their perceptions}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {of what constitutes it have to be also researched and considered in the study of adventure}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {tourism. Qualitative research methods should be afforded greater prominence in its investi-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {gation. The proposed shift in focus to individuals\uc1\u8217X perceptions of adventure also challenges}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the exclusivity of only certain market segments and independent travelers being associated}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {with this form of tourism. Further research, marketing, and management implications are}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {discussed.}{ }\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Keywords:}\b0 { }\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {adventure tourism and recreation, overland travel, individual adventure}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {experience.}{ }\fs16\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u63193X}{ }\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-173\slmult0 \*\tx1173\fs12\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Re}\b0 \fs12\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {sume}\b0 \fs12\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {:}\b0 \tab \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Tourisme d\uc1\u8217Xaventure au grand air: un bilan des approches de recherche. Dans}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-146\slmult0 \fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cet article, on passe en revue la litte}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {rature du tourisme d\uc1\u8217Xaventure. Le bilan re}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ve}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {`}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {le que la}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {recherche sur le tourisme d\uc1\u8217Xaventure s\uc1\u8217Xest concentre}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {e jusqu\uc1\u8217Xa}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {` }\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {pre}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sent sur les ide}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {es pre}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {con-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ues des savants et des practiciens. Cet article soutient qu\uc1\u8217Xil faut examiner e}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {galement les}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {expe}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {riences subjectives des individus au sujet de l\uc1\u8217Xaventure et leurs perceptions de ce qui}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {constitue une aventure. Par conse}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {quent, il faudrait accorder plus d\uc1\u8217Ximportance aux}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {me}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {thodes de recherches qualitatives dans l\uc1\u8217Xinvestigation de ce genre de tourisme. Un tel}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {changement d\uc1\u8217Xobjectif sur les perceptions des individus met en question l\uc1\u8217Xexclusivite}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 { }\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {de}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {certains segments du marche}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 { }\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {et l\uc1\u8217Xassociation entre voyageurs inde}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {pendants et tourisme d\uc1\u8217Xav-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {enture. On discute des implications pour les recherches futures, le marketing et la gestion.}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-160\slmult0 \fs12\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Mots-cle}\b0 \fs12\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {}\b0 \fs12\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {s:}\b0 { }\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {tourisme d\uc1\u8217Xaventure, re}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cre}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ation d\uc1\u8217Xaventure, voyage par voie de terre, expe}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {rience}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {d\uc1\u8217Xaventure individuelle.}{ }\fs16\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u63193X}{ }\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {INTRODUCTION}\par\pard\li613\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {De\uc1\u64257Xnitions of adventure tourism have traditionally centered on}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {adventure recreation (Hall and Weiler 1992; Sung, Morrison and O\uc1\u8217XLe-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ary 1997). Such experiences are characterized by the interplay of com-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {petence and risk (Martin and Priest 1986). Recently, Walle (1997)}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {offered an expansion and rede\uc1\u64257Xnition of adventure tourism by propos-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ing the insight model as its basis. He argues that it is the quest for}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {insight and knowledge (rather than risk) that underlies adventure}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {tourism. Common to these de\uc1\u64257Xnitions is that it is researchers who have}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {determined what constitutes it with research taking place within these}\par\pard\li573\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li573\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li573\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li573\ri0\sl-173\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Karin Weber}\b0 { }\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is a PhD candidate (School of Tourism & Hospitality, La Trobe University,}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Victoria 3083, Australia. Email}{ }\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {k}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {k.weber@latrobe.edu.au.}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {l}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {). She holds a MSc in Hotel Admin-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-146\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {istration from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas and has previously worked as a Lecturer in}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-146\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Tourism Management at Monash University, Australia. Her current research interests include}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-146\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {convention tourism and strategic alliances.}\par\pard\li3506\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li3506\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {360}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage\pgwsxn8640\pghsxn13373\marglsxn666\margrsxn133\margtsxn666\margbsxn306\cols2\colno1\colw6600\colsr-0\colno2\colw1240\pard\li2120\ri0\sl-266\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {OUTDOOR ADVENTURE TOURISM}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {361}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn8640\pghsxn13373\marglsxn666\margrsxn133\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {set parameters. The question, however, is whether such a relatively nar-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {row focus of research is suf\uc1\u64257Xcient to gain a comprehensive understand-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ing of adventure tourism.}\par\pard\li613\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {This paper proposes an alternative, yet complementary, approach.}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {It argues that individuals\uc1\u8217X subjective experience and perception of}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {adventure need also to be considered for a more complete understand-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ing. In developing this argument, the paper \uc1\u64257Xrst reviews the current}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {literature on the subject, especially Walle\uc1\u8217Xs (1997) proposal to replace}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the prevalent \uc1\u8220Xrisk theory\uc1\u8221X as the foundation of adventure tourism\uc1\u8212X}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a proposition that requires critical assessment. The literature review}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {suggests that at present adventure tourism is essentially viewed as an}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {extension of adventure/outdoor recreation; the contribution of the}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {tourism aspect is generally ignored.}\par\pard\li613\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {To address this shortcoming, the paper discusses the overland tour-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ist. This turns from the traditional focus on the destination region to}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {that of the transit route and necessitates a review of some previously}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {forwarded propositions. Most importantly, however, the paper shifts}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {focus to differences in individuals\uc1\u8217X perceptions, resulting from differ-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ences in personality and previous tourism experience, to open up}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {further research. The proposed change in research focus to individ-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {uals\uc1\u8217X perception has implications for both the management and mar-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {keting of adventure tourism.}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {OUTDOOR ADVENTURE TOURISM}\par\pard\li613\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {When assessing adventure tourism it is necessary to also refer to}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {adventure recreation, as the latter is at the heart of the former as it is}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {currently de\uc1\u64257Xned. The vast majority of studies accept adventure rec-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {reation as its integral part (Christiansen 1990; Hall 1989; Johnston}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1992). Adventure recreation has its origin in traditional outdoor rec-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {reation. While both types involve activities and speci\uc1\u64257Xc skills in outdoor}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {settings, they differ, according to Ewert, in the \uc1\u8220Xdeliberate seeking of}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {risk and uncertainty of outcome\uc1\u8221X (1989:8) associated with adventure}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {recreation. To him, risk takes on a central role as satisfaction with the}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {experience, and a desire to participate may decrease if risk is absent.}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {In this context, risk is most commonly equated to the physical risk of}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {serious injury or death. This notion characterizes an adventure rec-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {reation experience as does the construct of perceived competence}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(Martin and Priest 1986; Priest 1992), or more accurately the interplay}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {between them (Ewert and Hollenhorst 1989; Martin and Priest 1986).}\par\pard\li613\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Walle sought to expand the notion of adventure by arguing that one}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {can distinguish between two types: risk taking adventure and that}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {which is pursued to gain knowledge and insight. While this expansion}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to incorporate insight seeking is useful, several comments in regard to}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {his argument are in order. He refers to Maslow\uc1\u8217Xs (1954) hierarchy of}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {needs to point out contradictions between this and the prevalent risk}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {theory of adventure, to open his argument for the need for the alterna-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {tive insight theory. It is, however, important to note that Maslow\uc1\u8217Xs}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {theory itself has been questioned on several grounds. Cooper, Fletcher,}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Gilbert and Wanhill, for example, note that:}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn8640\pghsxn13373\marglsxn666\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage\pgwsxn8640\pghsxn13373\marglsxn666\margrsxn133\margtsxn666\margbsxn306\cols2\colno1\colw773\colsr-0\colno2\colw7066\pard\li413\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {362}\par\column\pard\li2240\ri0\sl-266\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {KARIN WEBER}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {While a great deal of tourism demand theory has been built upon}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-200\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Maslow\uc1\u8217Xs approach, it is not clear from his work why he selected \uc1\u64257Xve}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-200\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {basic needs; why they are ranked as they are; how he could justify his}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-200\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {model when he never carried out clinical observation or experiment;}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-200\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and why he never tried to expand the original set of motives}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-200\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(1993:21).}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn8640\pghsxn13373\marglsxn666\margrsxn133\pard\li413\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {When discussing Maslow\uc1\u8217Xs theory, Walle implies that lower level needs}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {have to be fully satis\uc1\u64257Xed before individuals attempt to ful\uc1\u64257Xll needs at}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {higher levels of the hierarchy. However, it has been shown that individ-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {uals move on to focus on the ful\uc1\u64257Xllment of the latter once the former}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {are satis\uc1\u64257Xed to a degree acceptable to them (Mills 1985). In the context}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {of adventure tourism it would mean that individuals, by not fully}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {addressing their safety needs, do accept a certain element of risk and}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {danger in order to satisfy higher level needs through adventurous pur-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {suits. But such a situation is not indicative of Walle\uc1\u8217Xs claim that adven-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {turers willingly abandon safety in order to ful\uc1\u64257Xll themselves at a higher}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {level. In fact, research has shown that they are very much concerned}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {with safety, re\uc1\u64258Xected in the meticulous preparation of their equipment,}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the careful examination of environmental conditions, or in a commer-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cial setting in the selection of experienced operators (Celsi, Rose and}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Leigh 1993; Ewert 1994; Hall and McArthur 1994).}\par\pard\li613\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Walle continues by stating that according to the conventional risk}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {theory, the adventurer seeks risk for its own sake and because of the}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {emotional rewards provided by experiencing it. Consequently, \uc1\u8220Xadven-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ture involves pursuing risk as an end in itself\uc1\u8221X (1997:269). While such}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {an interpretation contrasts rather nicely with his alternative \uc1\u8220Xinsight}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {seeking\uc1\u8221X theory, it is somewhat inaccurate. Numerous studies have}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {shown that risk is not pursued as an end in itself (Ewert 1985, 1993,}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1994). In fact, risk often plays a negligible role. Ewert and Hollenhorst}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {note that \uc1\u8220Xalthough adventure recreators seek out increasingly dif\uc1\u64257Xcult}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and challenging opportunities, they paradoxically do not necessarily}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {seek higher levels of risk\uc1\u8221X (1994:188). However, what they do seek is}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to match their skills and competence with the situational risk. In sum-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {mary, an adventure recreation experience is a \uc1\u8220Xsearch for competence}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {with a valuation of risk and danger\uc1\u8221X (1989:127). Therefore, learning}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and gaining insight are not possible side effects of risk/adventure rec-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {reation as argued by Walle, they are integral parts. This is particularly}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {pronounced for adventure recreationists at a higher level of engage-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ment (Celsi Rose and Leigh 1993; Ewert 1994).}\par\pard\li613\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Therefore, gaining insight is a motive for both the traditional adven-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ture recreationist and the insight seeker. Yet, what is likely to vary is}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the level of risk accepted by the individual. Walle asserts that certain}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {activities such as \uc1\u64258Xy \uc1\u64257Xshing and bird watching constitute adventure}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {activities since participants seek insight and knowledge. He goes}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {further to imply that ecotourism at large, by virtue of participants gain-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ing insight, can be regarded as adventure tourism. While most ecotour-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ism activities do not involve great actual risk for participants, some of}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {these activities, for example bird watching, may not pose any risk at}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {all to an individual, neither actual nor perceived. Thus, at this point}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {it becomes necessary to ask \uc1\u8220Xwhat is the original meaning of adven-}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn8640\pghsxn13373\marglsxn666\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage\pgwsxn8640\pghsxn13373\marglsxn666\margrsxn133\margtsxn666\margbsxn306\cols2\colno1\colw6600\colsr-0\colno2\colw1240\pard\li2120\ri0\sl-266\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {OUTDOOR ADVENTURE TOURISM}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {363}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn8640\pghsxn13373\marglsxn666\margrsxn133\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ture?\uc1\u8221X If risk\uc1\u8212Xphysical, psychological, or social\uc1\u8212Xis completely absent}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and a person only gains insight and knowledge, can these experiences}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {still be regarded as adventure?}\par\pard\li613\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The}{ }\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {Oxford English Dictionary}\i0 { }\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(Brown 1993:31) de\uc1\u64257Xnes adventure as}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8220Xa chance of danger or loss; risk, jeopardy; a hazardous enterprise or}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {performance.\uc1\u8221X Clearly, it has in the English language acquired a con-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {notation of risk and uncertainty. Suggesting that \uc1\u8220Xinsight seeking\uc1\u8221X}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {could replace \uc1\u8220Xrisk\uc1\u8221X to refer to adventure appears to be in clear con-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {trast to its historic meaning. It seems more appropriate that both risk}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and insight seeking have to be present, in varying degrees, for an}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {adventure to take place.}\par\pard\li613\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {In accord to this line of thinking, gaining insight as one motive for}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and a result of adventure has been pointed to in earlier writings. Quinn}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(1990) notes that the human desire or drive to experience what is}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {hidden and unknown initiates adventure. Similarly, Dufrene states:}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8220XWe are attracted by a deep forest or lake because it gives the}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {impression that there is some truth to discover, some secret to abduct}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {from the heart of the object. It is the eternal seduction of the hidden\uc1\u8221X}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(1973:398). The reward for those who seek adventure lies in the dis-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {covery and unveiling of the hidden and unknown.}\par\pard\li613\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Therefore, adventure is quite obviously linked with exploration. Yet}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the focus of the latter has changed over the centuries. Originally adven-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ture was associated with the exploration of foreign, faraway places to}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {search for new land, wealth, and scienti\uc1\u64257Xc advances. Examples include}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the voyage of Pytheas (c. 330 BC) to the ultima Thule (ultimate}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {land)\uc1\u8212Xthe Arctic Circle, Pizarro\uc1\u8217Xs journey to Peru (1526) and Cook\uc1\u8217Xs}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {expedition to Tahiti (1768\uc1\u8211X71). In the latter part of the 19th century,}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {however, resulting from a new appreciation of the wilderness and the}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {emerging need for adventure}\par\pard\li773\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the reason for adventuring shifted from the necessary by-product of}\par\pard\li773\ri0\sl-200\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {searching for scienti\uc1\u64257Xc knowledge [land and wealth] to reasons}\par\pard\li773\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {related to an individual\uc1\u8217Xs own personal desires. Adventure became a}\par\pard\li773\ri0\sl-200\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {legitimate quest for its own sake, or an end in itself rather than a}\par\pard\li773\ri0\sl-200\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {means to an end (Ewert 1989:26).}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Mountains were climbed and wild rivers navigated, purely for the}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {experience and to determine one\uc1\u8217Xs strengths and abilities. It is debat-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {able whether adventure was only a by-product of travel in earlier times,}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {as claimed by Ewert, rather than also a primary motive. However, until}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the end of the 19th century, outdoor adventure recreation did not}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {have the widespread acceptance it would gain in the following decades.}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {All this bears on the question of how adventure recreation relates to}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {adventure tourism. As mentioned earlier, the former has long been}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {accepted as the integral part of the latter. Hall and Weiler\uc1\u8217Xs de\uc1\u64257Xnition}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {of adventure tourism represents one of the most frequently cited de\uc1\u64257X-}\par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {nitions on the subject:}\par\pard\li773\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A broad spectrum of outdoor touristic activities, often commercialized}\par\pard\li773\ri0\sl-200\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and involving an interaction with the natural environment away from}\par\pard\li773\ri0\sl-200\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the participant\uc1\u8217Xs home range and containing elements of risk; in}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn8640\pghsxn13373\marglsxn666\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft1906\shptop9760\shpright6693\shpbottom11760\shpfhdr0\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shplid2031\shpz0\shpbxpage\shpbypage{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 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