CENTURY: EVENTS AND FACES

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Contents

Unit 1. Leaders and Leadership ............................................................................ 4

Unit 2. Harry Truman and the Beginning of the Cold War ................................ 21

Unit 3. U.S. President Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis ........................... 33

Unit 4. General Charles de Gaulle and his Politics of Grandeur ........................ 47

Unit 5. Willy Brandt and his Ostpolitik .............................................................. 62

Unit 6. The World Leader in the Era of Globalization ....................................... 76

Appendix 1. Tapescripts...................................................................................... 90

Appendix 2. Word Lists ...................................................................................... 99

Appendix 3. Functional Bank ........................................................................... 107

Appendix 4. Hints for Speaking Activity ........................................................... 112

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Unit 1

Leaders and Leadership

Lead-in 1. Work in groups. Discuss the questions.

What does a history-making individual mean? Should strong leaders be feared or admired? Do you think that a strong leader needs fasces? A: I suppose a history-making individual is an outstanding person because

B: I completely disagree with you because all people have an equal

opportunity to become a political leader.

C: I also share this point of view. Every day we see young men and women all

over the country in high schools, colleges, civic groups and local governments

who demonstrate their leadership abilities

Listening

2. a. You are going to listen to some information about important criteria

which can be applied to characterize a good leader. Before listening, discuss

the following in pairs.

Look at the bar chart and put a dot on each bar according to your opinion. Tell the class what features of character a good leader should possess.

docile contumelious pleasing alluring obstinate compliant cautious impulsive expressive eloquent

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How do these features of character can help him/her? A: In my opinion, a good political leader should be a contumelious person,

because he should know what to do.

B: There is something in what you say, but being too aggressive wont bring

any benefits as

b. Look at the statements below. Which one do you agree with more? Tell

your partner.

The challenge of leadership is to be strong but not rude, be kind but not

weak, be bold but not bully, be thoughtful but not lazy, be humble but not timid,

be proud but not arrogant, have humor but without folly (Jim Rohn).

The real leader has no need to lead he is content to point the way (Henry

Miller).

c. The following words and phrases appear in the passage. How do you think

they will be related to the theme of the passage?

to move beyond appearances a containable situation to show poise a

perilous situation to make it through being articulate and compelling to be

persuasive in communication to acquire charisma

d. Now listen to the passage. For questions 1-3, match the extracts with the

criteria A-C. There are two criteria you will not need.

A. Ability to control oneself 1.

B. Ability to take active steps

C. Ability to be cooperative 2.

D. Ability to ease peoples pain

E. Ability to be inspiring and

influential

3.

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d. Discuss in groups.

Do you agree with the suggested criteria? Which is better for a country to have a routine leader or a charismatic one?

Reading 1

3. a. Look at the title of the article. What do you think the message of the

article is? How far do you agree with it?

b. Read the article below and say whether you consider repulsive features of

character to be an integral part of a political leader.

If You're a Liar, a Bully or a Cheat,

then You Too Could Be a Great

World Leader

If you want to get ahead, be egotistical, stubborn and disagreeable. And a

bit of untidiness will help too.

The research presented yesterday to the American Psychological

Association conference in Washington, examined the traits of the most

successful men in the US history all 41 Presidents and compared them to

more average individuals.

The truth is that being nice gets you nowhere not to the White House or

Number 10 or even on to a parish council.

The researchers discovered that the great Presidents were low on

straightforwardness, vulnerability and order. "The very characteristics which

mark people out as an unattractive choice as a spouse or a neighbour make them

successful as leaders", said Rubenzer. "One real surprise was that people who are

a little disorganized do a bit better. Abraham Lincoln was notoriously untidy, and

it certainly seems to be an asset".

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The psychologists asked 100 biographers and historians to help them fill in

questionnaires and then scored them on different characteristics. Forcefulness,

the willingness to flatter and manipulate, egotism and assertiveness all seemed

to help push Presidents up the ladder of greatness.

"As far as UK goes, Winston Churchill and Margaret Thatcher fit right into

our model. Stubborn, assertive and socially often obnoxious just the right stuff

to make them great figures in history", said Ruberzer.

The team further categorized the Presidents into seven personality types

innocents, autocrats, introverts, actors, philosophers, extroverts and maintainers.

Innocents: too nice for their own good, these people make it to the top through a fluke. In Britain John Major and the late Alec Douglas-Home, a Tory

Prime Minister in the sixties, are in this category.

Autocrats: the disagreeable, bossy bullies. Using the rules applied by the researchers, Margaret Thatcher, Winston Churchill and the US Presidents

Theodore Roosevelt and Richard Nixon are in this group.

Introverts: erratic, anxious and tense, like British PMs Ramsey MacDonald and Anthony Eden, and US President Herbert Hoover.

Extroverts: publicity-hungry, assertive, dominant, but somehow low on organizational skills. Bill Clinton destined for the history books if only for

his sex life, say researchers and Tony Blair are examples.

Actors: similar to extroverts but less open. They have low concentration. Ronald Reagan and Harold Macmillan are examples.

Philosophers: their interests are wide and they are not afraid of change like Clement Attlee, Labour's post-war election victor.

Maintainers: traditional, holding family values and not open to new experiences. George Bush and Harry Truman are in this group.

(Tracy McVeigh, the Observer)

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c. For questions (1-6), choose the best answer (A, B or C).

1. According to the research, if a person is pleasant to deal with, kind and

friendly

A it wont do him/her any good.

B it is necessary for him/her to conceal these features of character.

C it will bring some positive result in the future.

2. Leaders who dont have good and effective organization

A will never gain a high position in life or their job.

B are destined to succeed.

C can become leader easier than others.

3. Psychologists evaluated all leaders according to

A their influence on other people.

B the number of points they got for their qualities.

C the proportion of their negative features to the positive ones.

4. Presidents were classified on the grounds of

A their attitude to success.

B their nature and character.

C personal opinions of biographers and historians

5. Autocrats and extroverts show similarities in

A their behaviour in their private life.

B the way they treat weaker people.

C their abilities to organize.

6. Philosophers and maintainers represent an opposition because

A they regard everything new differently.

B they have different experience.

C other people dont share their values.

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Vocabulary practice

4. a. Match the words/phrases from the text to their meaning.

A B

1. a parish (council) a. famous or widely known for something bad

2. vulnerability b. very unpleasant and offensive

3. a spouse c. confident belief in ones own authority

4. notorious d. having, showing or causing nervous anxiety

5. an asset e. a husband or wife

6. assertiveness f. feeling worried and frightened, nervous

7. obnoxious g. changeable in behaviour without reason

8. erratic h. a valuable person or quality

9. anxious i. a quality of being easily hurt or sensitive

10. tense j. (in Britain) a small area (esp. a village),

having its own local government

b. Explain the meaning of the highlighted words and phrases.

Discussion

5. Discuss in groups.

Can you think of other examples of political leaders to fall into the given categories? Think of any other types of political leaders.

Rank the following factors according to how important you think they are for a person to become a good leader (1= most important, 10 = least important).

Then compare your ranking with that of another student. What other factors can

you think of?

attractive appearance

charisma

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reputation

circumstances

close-knit team

public support

willingness to compromise

ruthlessness

ability to delegate

foresight

A: Personally I think that first of all a good politician should have an

attractive appearance because

B: I partly agree with this idea but sometimes circumstances are the most

important thing as they help to reveal a personality

Reading 2

6. a. Study two opposing points of view on the question of leadership below.

Compare them and decide which one you agree with more. Tell your

partner.

1. The subject of political leadership appears to be outdated. The division

of society into leaders and followers is rooted in a predemocratic culture of

deference and respect in which leaders "knew best" and the public needed to be

led, mobilized or guided. Democratic politics has certainly placed powerful

constraints on leadership, notably by making leaders publicly accountable and

establishing an institutional mechanism through which they can be removed.

2. The politics of leadership has become increasingly significant, helping

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to contribute to the establishment of a separate discipline of political psychology,

whose major concerns include a study of the psychological makeup and

motivations of political leaders. Furthermore, as society becomes more complex

and fragmented, people may increasingly look to the personal vision of individual

leaders to give coherence and meaning to the world in which they live.

A: On the one hand, I agree with the first statement because

B: Yes, I see what you mean. Nevertheless there is a lot to be said for looking

at it differently

b. What are the incentives for the growing focus on leadership? Decide how

much the following stimuli influence the growth. Discuss in pairs.

- the desire of leaders to gain electoral support

- modern means of mass communication

- manipulation of leaders public images

- individual leaders determine the world in which ordinary people live

. Read the title of the text. What styles of leadership can you think of?

Discuss in groups.

d. Look at the following styles of leadership. What do you think they mean?

A. transactional leadership B. transformational leadership C. laissez-faire leadership (laissez-faire means not to

interfere)

e. Read the text and decide which paragraph describes the given styles of

leadership.

Styles of Leadership

A style of leadership refers to the strategies and behavioural patterns

through which a leader seeks to achieve his or her goals. Quite simply, leaders

are not all alike: leadership can be exercised in a number of different ways. The

factors that shape the adoption of a particular leadership strategy or style are, of

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course, numerous. Amongst the most obvious are the personality and goals of the

leader, the institutional framework within which he or she operates, the political

mechanisms by which power is won and retained, the means of mass

communication available, and the nature of the broader political culture. Three

distinctive styles of leadership have been identified:

1 The reluctance of the leader to interfere in matters outside his or her

personal responsibility is the chief feature of this style of leadership. Such leaders

have a hands off approach to cabinet and departmental management. An

example of such leadership could be found in the Reagan White House, and the

relatively slight interest that Reagan took in the day-to-day workings of his

administration. George W. Bush, similarly, was strongly inclined to delegate

responsibilities to key advisers, but the so-called 'war on terrorism', launched in

2001, forced him to adopt a more forthright leadership style. The strengths of

this approach to leadership are that, because subordinates are given greater

responsibility, it can foster harmony and teamwork, and it can allow leaders to

concentrate on political and electoral matters by relieving them of their

managerial burdens. On the other hand, it can also lead to the weak

coordination of government policy, with ministers and officials being allowed too

much freedom to pursue their own interests and initiatives. The Iran-Contra

affair, for example, demonstrated how little President Reagan knew about the

activities of the Central Intelligence Agency officers and White House officials

for whom he was supposedly responsible.

2 In contrast, the second type of leadership is a more hands-on style of

leadership. Such leaders adopt a positive role in relation to policy-making and

government management, but are motivated by essentially pragmatic goals and

considerations. Prominent amongst these are likely to be the maintenance of

party unity and government cohesion, and the strengthening of public support and

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electoral credibility. Such leaders act as brokers who are concerned to uphold

the collegiate face of government by negotiating compromises and balancing

rival individuals, factions and interests against one another. In the USA, Lyndon

Johnson and George Bush Sr could be seen as leaders of this type, as could

Harold Wilson and John Major in the UK. This is above all a managerial, even

technocratic, style of leadership, its advantage being that it is fiercely practical

and allows scope for tactical flexibility. Its central drawback, however, is that

such leaders may be seen as opportunistic wheeler-dealers who are devoid of

firm principles or deep convictions. This was illustrated by George Bush's

damaging admission during the 1992 US presidential election that he did not

understand what he called the vision thing.

3 In the third style of leadership the leader is not so much a coordinator or

manager as an inspirer or visionary. Not only are such leaders motivated by

strong ideological convictions, but they also have the personal resolution and

political will to put them into practice. Instead of seeking compromise and

consensus, this type of leaders attempts to mobilize support from within

government, their parties and the general public for the realization of their

personal vision. The effectiveness of such a leader hinges on the degree to which

the leader in question 'embodies' the story, and the extent to which the story

resonates with the broader public. General de Gaulle, for instance, recast the

nature of political leadership in France as much by presenting himself as a 'father

figure' and 'national leader' as by establishing a presidential system in the form of

the Fifth Republic. A very similar style was adopted in the UK by Margaret

Thatcher, whose avowed aim when coming into office was to run a 'conviction

government'. The continued use of terms such as Gaullism and Thatcherism

bears witness to the enduring impact of these leaders' ideological visions. Not

uncommonly, the third type of leadership is linked to populism, reflecting the

desire of such leaders to demonstrate that they are articulating the concerns and

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interests of the people. Although the strength of this leadership is that it

provides a basis for pushing through radical programmes of social, economic or

political reform, it may also encourage a drift towards authoritarianism and lead

to ideological rigidity.

Vocabulary Practice

7. a. Match the words in columns A and B to form collocations. Then make

sentences using these collocations as in the example.

A B

avowed practical

to pursue cohesion

to be devoid of responsibilities

electoral ones own interests

fiercely firm principles

to delegate aim

government impact

enduring credibility

It is generally known that the councils avowed aim is to stop the growing

spread of racism.

b. Find a word in the text that has the same or similar meaning to the words

given below. Then make your own sentences using the words from the text.

held (past participle) unwillingness (n) disposed (adj) inferiors (n) breed (v) administrative (adj)

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freedom (n) beliefs (n) perception (n) depends on (v) changed (v)

c. Explain the highlighted words and phrases from the text.

Discussion

8. a. Discuss in groups.

Can you think of other examples of the present day world leaders to fit into each category?

Do you agree that if you can control your feelings, you can control the world?

Do we get political leaders we deserve? To what extent is leadership compatible with freedom and democracy? Does leadership inspire and motivate, or does it subdue and repress? A: If you ask me, people choose politician through voting, so we choose our

future ourselves

B: I completely disagree with you. No nation deserves a dictator because

b. Comment on the statements.

The personality of a leader has a great influence on the destiny of a nation. Whenever you have an efficient government, you have a dictatorship

(Harry S. Truman).

Use of English

9. Fill the gaps with one word. There is an example.

Regardless 1) ..of.. the leadership style they adopt, there are reasons to

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believe that modern political leaders face greater challenges 2) their

predecessors 3) . This is important, because attitudes 4) leaders, and

the perceived effectiveness of leadership, do much to influence people's general

view of the political process. The first difficulty 5) leaders face is that

modern societies have perhaps become 6) complex and enmeshed with

global influences that politicians find it almost impossible to get things done.

Leaders are therefore doomed to disappoint, to fail to live up 7)

expectations.

8) , leaders suffer because old ideological and moral certainties are

breaking down, and this makes 9) more difficult to construct compelling

narratives that have wide popular resonance.

Third, modern societies are becoming more diverse and fragmented.

Political leaders are therefore finding it increasingly difficult to construct a

political appeal 10) on a common culture and a set of shared values. Fourth

and finally, a cultural gap has perhaps developed between the political and the

nonpolitical worlds. Political leaders are increasingly career politicians 11) ...

lifestyles, sensibilities and even language are remote from the concerns of private

citizens. 12) from being seen as providing inspiration and articulating

popular hopes and aspirations, modern leaders tend to be viewed 13) self-

serving and 14) of touch. To the extent that this is true, people become

alienated from conventional politics, and perhaps look elsewhere 15) a

source of political leadership.

Speaking Activity

10. Get ready to discuss the problem of political ambition at a round-table

talk. Before it we should study its scenario. Read the following scenario and

the list of participants. Chose the part you are going to play.

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Political Ambition: a Virtue or a Sin.

The scenario

Stage 1 Chairpersons introductory speech

Stage 2

Debating Statement of position on the

1st problem

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5

Clarifying the position

Discussing

Conclusions on the 1st

problem

Statement of position on the

2nd /3d /etc. problem

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5

Clarifying the position

Discussing

Conclusions on the 2nd /3d

/etc. problem

Stage 3

Chairpersons concluding remarks

List of participants

Chairperson, hippie, family psychologist, clergyman, politician, primary

school teacher, journalist, sociologist, celebrity, historian.

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Study your role card and think of a number of arguments, examples

and illustrations to prove your stance. Get ready to defend it against

criticism. Make use of the conversational patterns given in Functional Bank. Politician Hippie

Ambition is the linchpin of society it holds society together. To discourage ambition is to discourage dreams of grandeur and greatness.

A world without ambition would probably be a kinder world: without demands, without abrasions, without disappointments. Competition would never enter in. Conflicts would be eliminated, tension become a thing of the past.

Family psychologist

Ambition is intimately connected with family, for men and women not only work partly for their families but harbour some of their most ardent ambitions for their children.

Primary school teacher Clergyman

One can be ambitious for the public good, for the alleviation of suffering, for the enlightenment of mankind so we should bring our children up according to the principles of sacrifice.

Ambition is jesuitical. It can argue those obsessed by it into believing that what they want for themselves is good for everyone, that the satisfaction of their own desires is best for the common will.

Sociologist

The person strongly imbued with ambition ignores the collectivity; socially detached, he is on his own and out for his own.

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Celebrity Historian Individuality and ambition are firmly linked. The ambitious man or woman sees the world as a battle; rivalry is their principal emotion because he desires a rank, fame or power.

Though ambition was once the domain chiefly of monarchs and aristocrats, it has, in more recent times, increasingly become the domain of the middle classes.

Journalist All politicians and people in

high places, thought to be ambitious, are understood to be without moral scruples. Those who achieved the common goals of ambition money, fame, power have achieved them through corruption of a greater or lesser degree.

Chairperson

Stage 1 Ladies and Gentlemen, I now declare open the round table devoted to the subject "Ambition in politics". On behalf of the University allow me to express our great appreciation for your presence here today and for the contributions you are ready to make to the coming discussion. The questions to be debated today are highly controversial and allow for a variety of opinions. The attacks on ambition are many and come from various angles; its public defenders are few and unimpressive, though they are not extremely unattractive. Yet, all those who assembled here today feel that the young generation needs to know the answers. The questions are as follows:

1. What is political ambition? Is ambition a virtue or a sin?

2. What can cause political ambition? 3. How does ambition manifest itself in our society?

I propose a time limit on statement of position of two minutes and one minute for all ther speakers during the debate. Is that agreed? Thank you. Stage 2 Will participants please identify themselves clearly to the Chair if they wish to speak or ask a question. I call Mr. ... Mr. ..., thank you for that stimulating speech.

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I now welcome Mr. ... Mr. ..., you have the floor. ay I remind the participants to identify themselves clearly to the Chair if they wish to ask a question or make an objection. Does anyone else wish to speak? We can't all speak at once; Mr.... Would you like to speak first? I shall have to call you to order, Mr. ... Now let me summarize the points of view on the first/second/third problem expressed by the participants. According to the majority of the opinions , though we should mention Stage 3 To sum up our discussion today, it seems we all agreed that... The discussion revealed that We weighed the pros and cons of Consequently, we took a closer look at Basing on the discussion we have had and the facts and arguments youve presented to us today, Id like to point out that I declare the discussion closed. Thank you, Ladies and Gentle-men.

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Unit 2

Harry Truman and the Beginning of the Cold War

Lead-in

1. a. Read the quotation. Discuss the questions.

The 20th century was marked by change faster than at any previous time in

human history. The period witnessed radical alterations in almost every area of

human endeavors. It saw a remarkable shift in the way that vast numbers of

people had lived, as a result of technological, medical, social, ideological, and

political innovation. Above all, the century is distinguished from most of human

history in that its most significant trends transformed the world in those hundred

years more than at any time in the past.(Brian ONeil)

1. What innovations in technological, medical, social, political and other

spheres of life which took place in the 20th century can you name?

2. How did these innovations improve the quality of life in the 20th century?

3. What new problems and fears appeared in the 20th century compared to

the 19th century?

b. Complete the table and get ready to give a brief talk on the main

cornerstones of the 20th century.

Event Time Causes Aftereffects World War I

the rise of communism

Great Depression industrial revolution

Fascism World War II the Holocaust

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Event Time Causes Aftereffects decolonization the Cold War

nuclear arms race space exploration

environmental movement

the founding of the League of Nations and

the United Nations

European integration

c. Work in groups. Discuss the following.

How challenging were the political events of the 20th century for the 20th century leaders?

Can you think of examples which illustrate that leaders of the 20th century could shape the way in which the world history was made?

What new features of character did the leaders have to possess to meet the requirements of the 20th century?

Listening

2. a. You are going to hear some information about the relationship between

the United States and the Soviet Union at the beginning of the Cold War.

Before listening, comment on the following.

War reached an unprecedented scale and sophistication in the 20th century. There appeared a new perverted type of war - a cold war.

The Cold War enhanced insecurities and increased a possibility of war in the world.

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b. The phrase Iron Curtain is associated with the Cold War. Read an extract

from Churchills Iron Curtain speech and decide what message Churchill

wanted to send. Discuss in groups.

From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain had

descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient

states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest,

Bucharest, and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie

in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another,

not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in many cases, increasing

measure of control from Moscow I do not believe that Soviet Russia desires

war. What they desire is the fruits of war and the indefinite expansion of their

power and doctrines.

c. The Cold War is considered to be a period of tension and competition

between the two superpowers following the Second World War the United

States and the Soviet Union. Study the reasons why these two superpowers

were so distrustful of each other and complete the table. There is an

example.

The USA The USSR

Capitalist Communist

Autocratic / Dictatorship

Free elections ..

Survival of the fittest

. Government controlled economy

Personal freedom

Freedom of the media

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Can you think of any similarities between the Soviet Union and the USA

at the beginning of the Cold War? Compare the countries in terms of

military development, economic position and political system.

d. The following words and phrases appear in the passage you are going to

hear. Explain their meaning in your own words. Then make up sentences

using them.

a full-scale war a proxy war to trace to relieve the pressure an ally

private ownership of assets a state-run market dissolution of private property

to bemoan to set precedents far reaching implications

e. Now listen to the recording about the relations between the USA and the

USSR. Decide whether the sentences given below are true (T) or false (F).

The relations between the USA and the USSR of that period can be

characterized in the following way:

1. America and the Soviet Union had hostile intention towards each other

2. They led a full-scale war

3. Both the USA and the USSR were highly suspicious towards each other

4. They were scared of each other and uncertain about their foreign policy

5. The two countries were eager to relieve the pressure they experienced

6. The relations between the countries were strained with much

apprehension

7. The Soviets wished to export communism to the West

8. The USA were sure to cope with Soviet aggressive expansion

9. The ideologies of the USA and the USSR were incompatible

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10. Both countries competed militarily as well as philosophically

11. Both the USA and the USSR were not interested in developing

countries

12. They resorted to overt and covert actions in their policy

13. The superpowers were reluctant to shape the future

14. A new world order was threatening

f. Discuss in groups.

Was the opposition of two superpowers inevitable? Do you agree with the idea that the Cold War teaches us the perils of

choosing allies based on common enemies instead of common ideals?

Reading

3. a. You will read an article about President Truman and the beginning of

the Cold War. Before you read the text, list the main features of the Cold

War. Check with your partner. Then read the information below and add up

more.

When the conflict ended in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union

emerged as the two most powerful nations, and while they had been allies in the

war, they soon became hostile to one other. The military alliances headed by

these nations were prepared to wage total war with each other throughout the

Cold War (19471991). The period was marked by a new arms race, and nuclear

weapons, the most devastating ones yet to have been developed, were produced

in their tens of thousands, sufficient to end most life on the planet had they ever

been used. This, paradoxically, ensured that the cold war never became hot; both

sides had too much to lose.

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b. Read the text. Nine sentences have been removed. Choose which of the

sentences (A-I) fit into the gaps (1-9).

Harry Truman and the Origins of the Cold War

Pam Vaughn

Westside High School

President Truman dealt with the challenges presented by the aftermath of

World War II, the nuclear age, and the threat from the Soviet Union. The

emergence of the United States as a superpower, with global responsibilities,

obligations, and interests, placed President Truman on a world stage.

The relations between the Soviet Union and the United States were

acknowledged to be spoilt by mutual suspicion and growing distrust after the

WWII and through 1963. These limits and remembrances constantly

factored into the practical questions concerning what was desired and what was

possible.

However, the application of this doctrine required actions that

were less than ideal. Democratic ideals are certainly worthy of pursuit.

However, the Cold War teaches us that goodness, like power, has its limits.

On February 22, 1946, George Kennan working out of the American

Embassy in Moscow sent a telegram that changed the course of history.

Truman and his staff reviewed it carefully, and this telegram formed

the basis for the policy of containment. Kennan provided an insightful

representation of the motivating factors behind Soviet aggression. He explained

that this was a nation grown accustomed to insecurity because the Soviets had

been a country surrounded by enemies with few natural frontiers. Kennans

position was that the Soviets, threatened by their lack of development, feared

exposure to the West.

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Kennan also posited that in his view, Stalin himself was ill

informed and held a conspiratorial interpretation of world events. In Kennans

view, the Soviets would respond to force and resistance by withdrawing from its

course of aggressive action.

Churchill delivered his famous Iron Curtain speech in Fulton,

Missouri only two weeks before The Long Telegram was received at the state

department (March 1946). The speech created a widespread condemnation.

This caught Truman off guard. He had anticipated the opposite reaction.

All of the bad press and criticism of both Trumans foreign policies and the

speech caught Truman by surprise and kind of took the wind out of him.

He later denied that he knew what was going to be in the speech.

This may explain why the Long Telegram, while eventually creating substantive

and significant change in U.S. foreign policy, was not initially put forward as the

foundation for new foreign policy.

It was only eighteen minutes long, but it was a landmark point

in foreign policy. Its message came from a report that analyzed U.S.-Soviet

relations, which had been influenced by the Long Telegram. It is the policy of

the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted

subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure. Truman in a very

straightforward way had delineated the threat from the Soviets and asked the

Congress to provide support for this new policy.

The Truman administration was riding the wild and new notion of a global

super power, whose military and economic superiority was without rival.

During the postwar years, the U.S. established a global military

presence and stepped into the role of the benevolent super-cop, out to defend

freedom, and more importantly, contain communism.

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A He went on to make the case that it was the Soviet intention to destroy

western traditions, authority, and power in order to preserve its own

existence.

B It was a tremendous blow.

C This false assumption led to a narrow set of strategies and tactics consistently

and tragically exercised in resisting the spread of the communism in the

developing world.

D He had to consider almost every foreign policy decision in terms of how it

would affect the balance-of-power with the Soviet Union.

E The Truman Doctrine was the manifestation of American idealism.

F Truman read The Long Telegram, of course, but he remained for a time at

least, relatively quiet on the substance of this message.

G The events of this era show that President Harry S. Truman inherited a

changing world in which the limits of power would be tested, the costs of

war remembered.

H Kennan articulated in a compelling way, the sources of Soviet behavior and

their view of the world. This message is known as The Long Telegram.

I Truman delivered the famous Truman Doctrine speech before Congress on

March 12, 1947.

Vocabulary Practice

3. a. Find synonyms for the following words. Then reproduce the situations

in which they are used in the text.

an aftermath to factor into insecurity to posit to withdraw

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to anticipate to delineate benevolent an assumption a manifestation

b. Explain the highlighted words and phrases. Choose five words or phrases

and make up your own sentences using them.

Discussion

4. a. Discuss in groups.

Was the Cold War an unavoidable event or it was President Truman who made fatal errors of judgment that precipitated the world's slide into the Cold

War?

How did President Truman manage to balance a view of a changing world and a changing role for America in the world with international, universal ideals?

A: In my opinion, Harry Truman failed to meet the requirements of a new

world because, always characterized as stubborn, he stuck to the policy of

American superiority.

B: I completely agree with you. The "Truman Doctrine" has become a

metaphor for emergency aid to keep a nation from communist influence.

C: I would object saying that the Truman Doctrine was the first in a

succession of containment moves by the United States, followed by economic

restoration of Western Europe through the Marshall Plan

b. Comment on the statements.

According to Harry Truman, totalitarian regimes coerced free peoples and represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United

States.

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The man who became US President in 1945 was less an incipient statesman than an intense nationalist... (Liz Blackstock)

Use of English

5. In most of the lines of this text there is an unnecessary word. For

questions 118, find the unnecessary words and write them on the lines

provided. If you think a line contains no unnecessary words, put a tick next

to it. There are two examples (0), (00).

Cold War history, studied from other varied perspectives, provides 0 other

a contradictory story. Talk of brinkmanship, containment, 00 V

resistance, subversion focuses on military force, proliferation of a 1

nuclear power, and spheres of influence. No comprehensive 2

treatment of the Cold War is complete without examining of the 3

most tragic mistake made of U.S. foreign policy during this period. 4

The Truman administration was riding the wild and new notion of 5

a global super power, whose military and its economic superiority 6

was without a rival. It possessed moral credibility backed off by 7

unquestioned superiority. After the war years time, the U.S. 8

became a military globocop assuming the role of the magnanimous 9

superpower, to safeguard liberal rights and to circumscribe on 10

communism. The U.S. main principle was that so as the developing 11

world progressed and had attempted to join an industrialized, 12

commercialized world, anything other rather than a pure, free 13

market, friendly to American institutions, had to have be opposed. 14

Foreign policy objectives, based on exaggerated threats instead of 15

common interests, pursued with by military means and therefore 16

limited to achieving only those goals which reached by the 17

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application of power instead of any diplomacy, led to costly 18

campaigns, crusades, missed opportunities and war.

Speaking Activity

6. Points of view on the beginning of the Cold War vary greatly. Consider

possible opinions and take part in a role play Interviewing diplomats.

Decide who would like to play the roles of journalists and politicians: a

foreign journalist is interviewing a Russian diplomat and a Russian

journalist is interviewing an American diplomat. The aim of the interview is

to find out what the representatives of different ideologies think about the

beginning of the Cold War. Make use of the conversation patterns given in

Functional Bank.

Each diplomat has his own background information. Study your stance.

Background information for a Russian diplomat

9 the imperialist United States is

responsible for the Cold War; 9 the Americans tried to strangle the

Soviet Union during its infancy and sought ever since, with the brief interlude of World War II (known as the Great Patriotic War) to contain Russia by surrounding it with hostile states; 9 the United States and its allies

menaced the Soviet Union with the atomic bomb and tried to isolate and destroy the motherland with their economic power and trade restrictions; 9 the Soviet Union depicted itself as

a defensive outpost of progressive reform in a world dominated by ruthless but ultimately doomed capitalist imperialists; 9 the United States, not just the

Soviet Union, had been an expansionist power throughout its history.

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Background information for an American diplomat

9 the responsibility for the Cold War is

placed on the Soviet Union; 9 the breakdown of postwar peace was the

result of Soviet expansionism into Eastern Europe in the immediate postwar years; 9 U.S. officials were forced to respond to

Soviet aggression with the Truman Doctrine, plans to contain communist subversion around the world, and the Marshall Plan; 9 the United States was facing a new type

of enemy and had to adapt accordingly; 9 the Soviet Union is to blame for arms

race and the proliferation of nuclear weapons, as well as apportioning an overriding share of the blame for a series of local wars around the world.

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Unit 3

U.S. President Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis

Lead-in

1. a. What Cold War events that influenced the development of the

confrontation between the two blocks can you think of?

b. Analyze the approaches of the opposing blocks to liberalism given below

and discuss the roots of the conflict with your partner.

1. Khrushchev in a speech bragged about how revolutionist the Soviet Union

was and referred to Soviet support for wars of national liberation. He said that

colonialists did not grant independence, that resistance to imperialism was

inevitable, and that wars of national liberation would lead to communism.

2. Kennedy was alarmed by Khrushchevs bluster, and he was moved to

include in his inaugural speech defiant words about paying any price, bearing any

burden, meeting any hardship in order to assure the survival and the success of

liberty.

A: I suppose the opposition is rooted in confronting ideologies because

B: I cant but agree with you but we should not forget about the colonial

policy of the Soviet Union and the United States, which could have led to the

crisis.

c. Read the abstract given below and guess what country is being discussed.

Work in groups and decide why it was important for the USSR to have such

an ally. Why was the USA against this cooperation?

The revolution in this country on January 1, 1959 initially attracted little

attention in Moscow because Soviet planners, resigned to U.S. dominance over

the Western hemisphere, were unprepared for the possibility of a future ally in

the region.

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Listening

2. a. You are going to hear some information about the Bay of Pigs Invasion

and its consequences. Before listening, compare the two historic facts about

Kennedys policy towards the invasion in Cuba below. Discuss in pairs

Kennedys decisions.

1. On April 12, Kennedy held a news conference at which he was asked

whether the U.S. was going to help an uprising against Castro. Kennedy

answered: First, I want to say that there will not be, under any conditions, an

intervention in Cuba by the United States Armed Forces. This government will

do everything it possibly can, I think it can meet its responsibilities, to make sure

that there are no Americans involved in any actions inside Cuba The basic

issue in Cuba is not one between the United States and Cuba. It is between the

Cubans themselves.

2. Kennedy decided that nighttime landing at the Bay of Pigs would be

better than an early morning at landing Trinidad. The invading force learned at

the last minute that they were heading for the Bay of Pigs. They landed at

midnight as planned, but nothing else went right. They were exposed to Castro's

airforce, and no air cover from the U.S. came to rescue them. The invaders felt

betrayed, and they blamed Kennedy for not sending help. Although Kennedy had

never promised it, they believed that there was supposed to be back-up insurance

by the U.S. military. Kennedy blamed the CIA and asked how he could have been

so stupid. But publicly he took responsibility for the failure.

b. The following words and phrases appear in the passage you are going to

hear. Explain their meaning in your own words. Choose five words or

phrases and make up sentences using them.

to launch an attack to overthrow/topple a government a refugee an exile

substantial a defeat an initial objective inflammatory rhetoric to go

through with a venture to call off to bring smth under the public eye a

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rallying point citizenry rapid counterattack to refrain from an uprising to

capture to solidify ones power a missile to spark to come to blows to be

pilloried to unseat a stance to redeem a botched mission

c. Now listen to the recording. For questions 1-7, choose the best answer (A,

B or C) according to what you hear.

1. The Cuban government was supposed to

A be subverted by Cuban refugees.

B finance Cuban refugees.

C be supported by the United States.

2. The outcome of the attack was that

A Cubans joined American soldiers in their fight against Fidel Castro.

B the Cuban government was disrespected by many Cubans.

C more people in Cuba followed Fidel Castros concepts.

3. The American government considered Fidel Castro to be a threat

A because of his anti-American military campaigns.

B for his opposition to the American governments policy.

C since Soviet protection for Cuba was very strong.

4. Kennedy took the decision to launch an attack on Cuba

A to appear sympathetic towards the communistic movement.

B as he wanted to become popular with American people.

C since the affair could have been disclosed if it hadnt been put into practice.

5. The American mission wouldnt have failed

A only if Cuban residents hadnt joined the exiles.

B but for the absence of the necessary support from the USA.

C if the defense of Castros forces had been more active.

6. Casros power in Cuba became stronger after the attack,

A and consequently he had a chance to count on Soviet support.

B that is why the USA installed missile bases in Cuba.

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C which led to further controversies between the USA and the USSR.

7. Kennedys political objective after the military failure was

A the formation of sympathetic public opinion about its reasons.

B to atone for it by attributing the blame to his own maladministration.

C keeping his position of an irresolute person.

d. Discuss in groups.

What conclusions could the head of the Soviet government Nikita Khrushchev have made about the American military might after the Bay of Pigs

Invasion?

What were the consequences of the attack and what impact did it have on the situation in the world? Reading

2. a. You will read the text about Cuban Missile Crisis. Before you read,

think why it is regarded as one of the most critical moments in the Cold

War.

b. Read the text. Five paragraphs have been removed from it. Choose the

most suitable paragraph from the list (AG) for each part (15) of the text.

There one extra paragraph which you do not need to use. There is an

example at the beginning (0).

At the beginning of September 1962, U-2 spy planes discovered that the

Soviet Union was building surface-to-air missile (SAM) launch sites. There

was also an increase in the number of Soviet ships arriving in Cuba which the

United States government feared were carrying new supplies of weapons.

President Kennedy complained to the Soviet Union about these developments

and warned them that the United States would not accept offensive weapons

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(SAMs were considered to be defensive) in Cuba. As the Cubans now had SAM

installations they were in a position to shoot down U-2 spy-planes.

0 B

Kennedy feared that any trouble over Cuba would lose the Democratic Party

even more votes, as it would remind voters of the Bay of Pigs disaster where the

CIA had tried to oust Castro from power. One poll showed that over 62 per cent

of the population were unhappy with his policies on Cuba.

1

At the first meeting of the Executive Committee of the National Security

Council, the CIA and other military advisers explained the situation. After

hearing what they had to say, the general feeling of the meeting was for an air-

attack on the missile sites. Several of the men were having doubts about the

wisdom of a bombing raid, fearing that it would lead to a nuclear war with the

Soviet Union. The committee was now so divided that a firm decision could not

be made.

2

As well as imposing a naval blockade, Kennedy also told the air-force to

prepare for attacks on Cuba and the Soviet Union. The army positioned 125,000

men in Florida and was told to wait for orders to invade Cuba. If the Soviet ships

carrying weapons for Cuba did not turn back or refused to be searched, a war

was likely to begin. Kennedy also promised his military advisers that if one of

the U-2 spy planes were fired upon he would give orders for an attack on the

Cuban SAM missile sites.

3

On October 24, President Kennedy was informed that Soviet ships had

stopped just before they reached the United States ships blockading Cuba. That

evening Nikita Khrushchev sent an angry note to Kennedy accusing him of

creating a crisis to help the Democratic Party win the forthcoming election.

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4

While the president and his advisers were analyzing Khrushchevs two

letters, news came through that a U-2 plane had been shot down over Cuba. The

leaders of the military, reminding Kennedy of the promise he had made, argued

that he should now give orders for the bombing of Cuba. Kennedy refused and

instead sent a letter to Khrushchev accepting the terms of his first letter.

Khrushchev agreed and gave orders for the missiles to be dismantled.

5

Eight days later the elections for Congress took place. The Democrats

increased their majority and it was estimated that Kennedy would now have an

extra twelve supporters in Congress for his policies.

A President Kennedys first reaction to the information about the missiles in

Cuba was to call a meeting to discuss what should be done. Fourteen men

attended the meeting and included military leaders, experts on Latin America,

representatives of the CIA, cabinet ministers and personal friends whose

advice Kennedy valued. This group became known as the Executive

Committee of the National Security Council.

B Kennedy was in a difficult situation. Elections were to take place for the United

States Congress in two month's time. The public opinion polls showed that his

own ratings had fallen to their lowest point since he became president. In his

first two years of office a combination of Republicans and conservative

southern Democrats in Congress had blocked much of Kennedys proposed

legislation.

C The world waited anxiously. A public opinion poll in the United States

revealed that three out of five people expected fighting to break out between

the two sides. There were angry demonstrations outside the American

Embassy in London as people protested about the possibility of nuclear war.

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Demonstrations also took place in other cities in Europe. However, in the

United States, polls suggested that the vast majority supported Kennedys

action.

D In September 1962, the U.S. Senate passed a resolution sanctioning the use of

force against Cuba should it be necessary to curb Cuban aggression and

subversion in Latin America, or to prevent the creation or use of an

externally supported offensive military capability endangering the security

of the United States.

E Taking everything into consideration Kennedy instructed Theodore Sorensen, a

member of the committee, to write a speech in which Kennedy would explain

to the world why it was necessary to impose a naval blockade of Cuba.

F Had the military men around Kennedy had their way a nuclear holocaust

might have followed. Kennedy and McNamara struggled to keep the military

from over-reacting and striking against the Russians, and the greatest of all

tragedies was averted.

G On October 26, Khrushchev sent Kennedy another letter. In this he proposed

that the Soviet Union would be willing to remove the missiles in Cuba in

exchange for a promise by the United States that they would not invade Cuba.

The next day a second letter from Khrushchev arrived demanding that the

United States remove their nuclear bases in Turkey. Vocabulary Practice

3. a. Choose the best variant, a, b, c, or d, to illustrate the meaning of the

words in italics.

1. The CIA had tried to oust Castro from power.

a. remove b. expel c. leave d. retain

2. Three out of five people expected fighting to break out between the two sides.

a. escape b. burst out c. develop d. put out

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3. It should be necessary to curb Cuban aggression.

a. conquer b. incite c. prohibit d. subdue

4. Kennedy would explain to the world why it was necessary to impose a naval

blockade of Cuba.

a. foist b. inflict c. accept d. assail

5. Several of the men were having doubts about the wisdom of a bombing raid.

a. indiscretion b. feat c. sense d. enlightenment

6. Nikita Khrushchev sent an angry note to Kennedy accusing him of creating a

crisis to help the Democratic Party win the forthcoming election.

a. impending b. responsive c. preceding d. up-to-date

7. The greatest of all tragedies was averted.

a. facilitated b. distracted c. effected d. prevented

b. Match the words in columns A and B to form collocations. Then make

sentences using these collocations as in the example.

A B

to call polls

attend a meeting

vast a resolution

firm majority

pass the meeting

public opinion decision

Finance ministers from many countries will attend the meeting.

c. Explain the highlighted words and phrases from the text.

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Discussion

4. a. Discuss in groups.

What does the presidents rating depend on? How far do you agree with the following judgment about the influence of the Cuban Missile Crisis on

Kennedys reputation as a political leader? Do you think Kennedy acted as a

peacekeeper in case of Cuban Missile Crisis?

Following the Cuban Missile Crisis, Kennedy's status rose in the eyes of

his countrymen and many others around the world. Just 18 months after the

bungled invasion of Cuba, the missile crisis had become a showcase for

Kennedy's diplomatic savvy and bravado.

A: I suppose Kennedys actions in the Cuban Missile crisis were protective

as

B: I see what you mean. On the other hand, many people would say that he

acted this way just to gain votes before the elections...

Read an abstract about Kennedys meeting with Khrushchev in 1961 and explain Kennedys statement.

In May 1961 Kennedy met with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in

Vienna. Kennedy was hoping that he and Khrushchev could find a solution to

avoid confrontation. Khrushchev moved to close off the flow of refugees from

Communism in Berlin. He threatened that if Kennedy intervened, there would be

war. The summit ended without resolution. Kennedy met Khrushchev's challenge

with a force of his own, increasing the size of America's combat forces and

obtaining billions of dollars for nuclear and conventional weapons. That summer,

the Russians built the Berlin Wall. The crisis eased. A wall is better than a war,

Kennedy said.

Read an abstract about Kennedys policy towards promoting human rights. How revolutionary do you think such policy was for those times?

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In the 1960 presidential election campaign John F. Kennedy argued for a

new Civil Rights Act. During the first two years of his presidency, Kennedy

failed to put forward his promised legislation. However, Kennedy's civil rights

bill was eventually brought before Congress in 1963 and in a speech on television

on 11th June, Kennedy pointed out that: The Negro baby born in America today,

regardless of the section of the nation in which he is born, has about one-half as

much chance of completing high school as a white baby born in the same place

on the same day; one third as much chance of completing college; one third as

much chance of becoming a professional man; twice as much chance of

becoming unemployed; about one-seventh as much chance of earning $10,000 a

year; a life expectancy which is seven years shorter; and the prospects of earning

only half as much.

b. Comment on the statements.

Ask not what your country can do for you, but rather what you can do for your country (John F. Kennedy).

Kennedys role as a peacekeeper proved to transform the history of mankind (Daniel C. Stowers).

Use of English

5. For questions 15, read the following text and choose from the list (AG)

given below the best of the phrases to fit each gap. There is one phrase which

does not fit in any gap. There is an example (0).

Newly elected President John F. Kennedy issued an executive order

establishing the Peace Corps. It proved to be one of the most innovative

0) F

During the course of his campaign for the presidency in 1960, Kennedy

floated the idea that a new army should be created by the United States. This

force would be made up of civilians who would volunteer their time 1)

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Kennedy sent a message to Congress asking for its support 2) to

the United States. The people of these nations were struggling for economic and

social progress. Our own freedom, Kennedy continued, 3) ,

depend, in a very real sense, on their ability to build growing and independent

nations where men can live in dignity, liberated from the bonds of hunger,

ignorance, and poverty. Many in Congress, and the U.S. public, were skeptical

about the program's costs 4) , but Kennedy's warning about the dangers

in the underdeveloped world could not be ignored. Revolutions were breaking out

around the globe 5) were in danger of becoming Cold War

battlefields. Several months later, Congress voted to make the Corps permanent.

Overall, the program was judged a success in terms of helping to win the hearts

and minds of people in the underdeveloped world.

A and many of these conflicts such as in Laos, the Congo, and elsewhere

B and they were not always welcomed by foreign people suspicious of

American motives

C and made clear the significance of underdeveloped nations

D and the effectiveness of American aid to what were perceived to be

"backward" nations

E and the future of freedom around the world

F and highly publicized Cold War programs set up by the United States.

G and skills to travel to underdeveloped nations to assist them in any way they

could.

Speaking Activity

7. Get ready to discuss the problem of the role of a politician in resolving a

conflict at a round-table talk. Make sure you remember the scenario of a

round-table talk (See Unit 1).

Read the list of participants. Chose the part you are going to play.

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Study your role card and think of a number of arguments, examples

and illustrations to prove your stance. Get ready to defend it against

criticism. Make use of the conversational patterns given in Functional Bank.

List of participants Chairperson, politician, clergyman, diplomat, pacifist, NGO representative, warmonger, sociologist, historian, psychologist

Psychologist Warmonger Conflicts are so commonplace in the world today, most people take for granted that thats the way life is supposed to be. It seems we are content to solve political conflicts with brutal force. As a society, we are numb to the horrors of warfare. But unless we simply refuse war and violence as the status quo, we further human suffering by perpetuating violence in the name of nation or in the name of fighting terrorism, or in the name of defending a country, etc. Leaders can not change peoples mentality and psychology.

The 21st century is doing its part to keep the drums of war beating. Nothing can help diplomatic efforts more than military success. A politician should not forget about the great destiny of his nation. The role of a leader is to show how powerful and influential his nation is. In this case any conflict is resolved by persuading other nations to accept the countrys might.

Sociologist

We should not underestimate the role of public nowadays. Public opinion polls are everywhere. Politicians devote substantial time, effort and money to tracking public opinion, not for the purposes of policymaking. Polling has turned leaders into followers. Therefore, common people are the only force that can impact the solution to the conflict.

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NGO Representative Pacifist Public institutions can agree, disagree, or intervene to achieve a desirable culmination or comprehensive process result. In addition to politicians, religious groups, journalists and special interest groups may all have influence on decisions in conflicts. Thus, the role of a politician in solving conflicts nowadays is of secondary importance.

The quickest way of ending a war is to lose it. Thus, instead of shooting bullets on civilian population politicians should act as mediators to create conversations across battle lines. Without vain political ambitions and the fear of defeat, mediators would have an impact on the willingness of embittered and intransigent opponents.

Politician The role of a leader is to

bring about a social as well as political change. It is an open secret that a wise politician with a strong will can decide on a viable tool to minimize civilian casualties, prevent humanitarian catastrophe and solve a conflict. Only a proper decision of a politician shapes the political settlement of a conflict.

Clergyman Historian

Politicians can not help people in non-violent solutions to the conflicts because it isnt easy to change age-old mental habits and persuade mankind to live without war. Moreover, some leaders can fanatically support conflicts. It is the Holy Bible that is the source of meekness and wisdom which teaches us that the only way to change anything is to change it on a personal level, treat everyone the way you want to be treated.

Throughout the history the role of leaders was crucial. They implemented necessary policy, waged wars and solved conflicts. Their role in turning points in history has always been paramount. People are not mature enough to make wise political decisions. History has proved that everybody should do what they are destined to: render to Caesar the things that are Caesars. Thus, we need a leader to avoid chaos.

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Diplomat A real leader should be a

genuine diplomat to be able to establish connections between religions and cultures because we have a world in which an unprecedented number of people are running back to religion and tradition as a source of identity. Leaders need new strategies to reach those people who have lost faith with modernity. Diplomacy needs to catch up with the idea that it is not just persuasion of the enemy sitting across the table from you but persuasion of large populations so that they become involved into a constructive change.

Chairperson

Stage 1 Ladies and Gentlemen, I now declare open the round table devoted to the subject The role of a politician in resolving a conflict. On behalf of the University allow me to express our great appreciation for your presence here today and for the contributions you are ready to make to the coming discussion. The questions to be debated today are highly controversial and allow for a variety of opinions. The issues on the agenda today can be seen from various angles and the attitudes to them are ambivalent. Yet, all those who assembled here today feel that the young generation needs to know the answers. The questions are as follows:

4. Are political conflicts inevitable in the present day world?

5. What is the role of a political leader in solving conflicts?

6. Are there any other forces which can help to resolve a conflict?

I propose a time limit on statement of position of 2 minutes and one minute for all other speakers during the debate. Is that agreed? Thank you. For Stage 2 and Stage 3 use necessary phrases in the Chairpersons card (See Unit 1)

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Unit 4

General Charles de Gaulle and his Politics of Grandeur

Lead-in

1. a. In groups brainstorm the main events in French domestic and foreign

policy at the end of 1950s. Were there any problems and challenges France

had to overcome?

b. Read an abstract from famous War Memoirs by Charles de Gaulle about

his vision of France and think why foreign observers named his politics the

politics of grandeur (politique de grandeur).

All my life I had a certain idea of France. This is inspired by sentiment as

much as by reason. The emotional side of me naturally imagines France, like the

princess in the fairy stories or the Madonna in the frescoes, as dedicated to an

exalted and exceptional destiny. Instinctively I have the feeling that Providence

has created her either for complete successes or for exemplary misfortunes. If, in

spite of this, mediocrity shows in her acts and deeds, it strikes me as an absurd

anomaly, to be imputed to the faults of Frenchmen, not to the genius of the land.

But the positive side of my mind also assures me that France is not really

herself unless in the front rank; In short, to my mind, France cannot be France

without greatness.

c. French policy that de Gaulle thought would provide a path for France to

regaining her glory is called Gaullism. According to Philip H. Gordon, there

are five characteristics of it. Read the following quotations from de Gaulles

speeches and guess what these characteristics are.

1. What is independence? Certainly not isolationism or narrow nationalism. A

country can be a member of an alliance, such as the Atlantic Alliance, and

remain independentto be independent means that one is not at the mercy ( la

discrtion) of any foreign power.

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2. No nation has friends only interests.

You may be sure that the Americans will commit all the stupidities they can

think of, plus some that are beyond imagination. 3. France cannot be France without greatness.

Once upon a time there was an old country, wrapped up in habit and caution.

We have to transform our old France into a new country and marry it to its

time.

4. The state provides the legitimate representation and is the only way to make

real achievement in the world.

The state is the only unit that can act with sufficient power, authority, and

skill. 5. There is no defense except national defense.

No country without an atom bomb could properly consider itself independent.

d. Discuss in pairs what the reasons for de Gaulle to develop a strategy to

regain Frances proper place in the world were. Read the passage and

compare your ideas with the opinion of a researcher Marcus R. Young. First, de Gaulle was born in the late 1800s at the time the decline of French

power began. He also served in WWI and WWII, which saw Frances influence

further diminish. From those experiences, he learned valuable lessons; perhaps

the most prominent was the strong development of his realist approach to world

politics and the inability to trust the US.

Listening

2. a. Study the abstract below about the creation of the European

Community. Following de Gaulles idea of politics of grandeur, what do you

think the role of France in the European Community was supposed to be? The political climate after the end of World War II favoured Western

European unity, seen by many as an escape from the extreme forms of

nationalism which had devastated the continent. One of the first successful

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proposals for European cooperation came in 1951 with the European Coal and

Steel Community. This had the aim of bringing together control of the coal and

steel industries of its member states, principally France and West Germany. This

was with the aim that war between them would not then be possible, as coal and

steel were the principal resources for waging war. The other founding members

were Italy, and the three Benelux countries: Belgium, the Netherlands, and

Luxembourg. Two additional communities were created in 1957 in Rome: the

European Economic Community (EEC) establishing a customs union, and the

European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for cooperation in developing

nuclear energy.

b. The following words and phrases appear in the passage you are going to

hear. Explain their meaning in your own words. Then make up sentences

using them.

a clear vision to affirm a supranational school an architectonic political

direction essential pillars eminently abundant advantages a cohesive

political configuration ambivalence a means to approximate

c. Listen to a historian talking about de Gaulles idea of Europe, and decide

if the statements (19) are true (T) or false (F).

1. De Gaulle stood by the process of European collaboration.

2. According to De Gaulles point of view, a federation should be ruled

by all members of the organization.

3. European states should become homogeneous in their character.

4. De Gaulle believed that supra-national organizations help nations to

coordinate their activities.

5. The European Community should become independent from

American influence.

6. For de Gaulle free trade benefits were essential.

7. De Gaulle strived to avoid the process of standardization and

depoliticization of France.

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8. Britain was not permitted in the Community because of its pro-

American visions.

9. The role of France was to assist the process of European integration.

d. Discuss in groups.

What kind of political Europe should Europe aim to establish, according to Charles de Gaulle?

Can the priority of intergovernmental relations to supranational ones be justified?

Reading

3. a. You will read an article about French foreign policy towards NATO.

Before you read, comment on the history of relations between France and

the USA.

b. Read the quotation from de Gaulles speech given in 1961 and discuss the

role of NATO according to de Gaulle:

Europe can have no political existence if it does not exist at the level of

defense What is NATO?... It is not the defense of Europe by Europe, it is the

defense of Europe by the Americans. We need another NATO. Above all, we

need a Europe which has its own defense. That Europe must be allied to the

United States. I propose that our joint commission put in a train of proposals for a

European defense: command structure, action plans, means.

c. Read the text and choose the most suitable heading (AI) for each

paragraph (17). There is one extra heading which is not needed. There is an

example (0).

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De Gaulle and NATO After WWII, France was no longer a great power, not only because of her

war-weakened economy, but also as a result of her quick military defeat at the hands of the Nazis, which tarnished her image to the others in the world. As the leader of the Free French in WWII, Charles de Gaulle refused to let France go quietly into that good night of political insignificants.

0 Shift in French attitude

In 1947 Charles de Gaulle supported the Marshall Plan's contribution to the

reconstruction of a Europe sheltering under the US nuclear umbrella from the threat of the Soviet bloc. He accepted the creation of the Atlantic Pact in April

1949 to counter that threat, but the subsequent establishment of NATO with its regime of integrated forces created a situation of subordination that France could no longer accept.

1

On his return to power in 1958, General de Gaulle judged it time for France

to reclaim its independence: the country was now in a position to act alone in

Europe and worldwide, and would develop a nuclear force such that none shall

dare attack us without fear of suffering the most terrible injuries. He decided to

pull France out of the integrated structure set up by NATO under US command,

in a phased withdrawal designed to smooth relations with our allies.

2

In September 1958, he set out his views in a memorandum addressed to

President Eisenhower and Prime Minister Macmillan: in essence, NATO's

geographical coverage should be extended to the whole world, and the Alliance

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should be led by three countries, no longer exclusively by the US and UK. The

response he received was unsatisfactory, so General de Gaulle set about making

his dispositions: France's Mediterranean fleet was withdrawn from NATO

command in March 1959; the stationing of American nuclear weapons on French soil was banned, and French air defense forces were returned to national command; an annual application would have to be made for authorisation for

Allied aircraft to overfly French territory; units returning from Algeria would not

be incorporated into NATO. An offer of US nuclear weapons, which would not

be under France's exclusive control, was turned down. Finally the nuclear

programme launched under the Fourth Republic was made a national priority and

culminated in the explosion of the first French atomic bomb on 13 February

1960, at Reagane in the Sahara. His objective was essentially political: to restore

France's greatness by making her directly and fully responsible for her own

defense against any major aggression threatening her vital interests.

3

These decisions were bitterly resented by the USA and criticised by the

other allies. General de Gaulle assured them that France's solidarity was

unchanged. The Berlin crisis in 1961 and then the Cuban missile crisis in 1962

provided him with an opportunity to assure President Kennedy that, in the event

of war, France would fight alongside the USA.

4

After Kennedys assassination, relations deteriorated with the Johnson administration which was preparing to reinforce the integration of NATO and had

adopted the doctrine of graduated response, which in turn cast doubts on the guarantee provided by the US nuclear umbrella. This added to General de

Gaulle's unwillingness to accept integration, which deprived France of its own

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independent resources and risked embroiling the country in conflicts that it did

not wish to fight in. He also thoroughly disapproved of the increasing

involvement of America in Vietnam.

5

On 7 March 1966, General de Gaulle announced to President Johnson that

France was withdrawing from the integrated military organisation. On 1 July

1966, French representatives stepped down from positions in the military

organisation. NATO moved out of its headquarters in Versailles and

Fontainebleau on 1 April 1967. General de Gaulle nonetheless maintained French

participation in the Atlantic Council. France remained a member of NATO and

all its structures except the integrated military command. Instructions were given

to prepare for co-operation between French and NATO forces in the event of war,

subject to France's decision to participate. With this final move, de Gaulle had

achieved his aim of seeing France reclaim her full sovereignty.

6

Reactions abroad were strong, especially in the USA where anti-French

demonstrations were held, but also in Great Britain and the Netherlands. The

Germans were anxious. The over-riding feeling was one of incomprehension. The Soviets applauded and some voices were keen to exaggerate the importance

of the General's visit to the Soviet Union in June 1966.

7

For two years the strategic debate between France and America remained

lively, but General de Gaulle fully intended to stand by the alliance with the

USA. Tension eased at the end of 1968 with the election of President Nixon, who

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was well-disposed towards France. He and de Gaulle developed a relationship of mutual trust. The General decided to continue France's membership of the

Atlantic Pact when it came up for renewal in 1969.

General de Gaulle's strategic doctrine largely continued to be followed until

the collapse of the Soviet bloc.

A. The world responses

B. Unity of Franco-American interests

C. Gaining the right for autonomous actions

D. The growing role of France

E. Shift in French attitude

F. Necessity for independence

G. Further development of relations

H. Impaired ties

I. Steps to achieve the desired objective

Vocabulary Practice

4. a. Match the two parts of the sentences and fill in a necessary preposition.

The example is given. Then make up a story with the words in italics.

1. The minister addressed his remarks a . their research program.

2. They incorporated the ministers

suggestions

b . our most basic rights

3. A series of minor clashes culminated c the arms race policy.

4. The decision to buy this weapon adds

5,000

d . ministerial approval.

5. This law will deprive us e . the elections

6. The top brass rejected getting embroiled f a full-scale war

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7. The Congress strongly disapproved g the defence budget.

8. The politician withdrew his candidacy h the head of the committee

9. All military operations are subject i the peacekeeping mission.

The Prime Minister addressed his remarks to the head of the committee.

b. Match the words in columns A and B to form collocations. Then make

sentences using these collocations as in the example.

A B

to tarnish umbrella

nuclear relations

to launch bitterly

vital doubts

to deteriorate importance

to cast image

to exaggerate programme

to resent interests

The perjury accusation tarnished the Presidents image.

c. Replace the underlined words and expressions with the phrasal verbs

given below using the correct form. Reproduce the situations in which they

were used in the text.

to go into to pull sth out of sth to set sth up to set sth out to turn sth down

to step down to stand by to come up for

1. The Prime Minister has confirmed that he will leave his post shortly.

2. Once a president is elected, he rarely remains faithful to his promises.

3. The general caused his troops to leave the area.

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4. The President will try to push the legislation through Congress before he

nominates his candidacy for the re-election.

5. She plans to enter politics when she leaves university.

6. There are still those who would advocate establishing a separate Parliament.

7. The resolution offered by the opposition was rejected.

8. The reasons for this political decision are explained in the Prime Ministers

report.

d. Explain the highlighted words and phrases.

Discussion

5. a. Discuss in groups.

How did de Gaulles policy influence the situation in the world? Which of the following statements made by de Gaulle do you think best

describes his political outlook?

1. In politics it is necessary either to betray one's country or the electorate. I

prefer to betray the electorate.

2. In order to become the master, the politician poses as the servant.

Read an abstract about the Empty Chair Crisis in the European Community. Comment on de Gaulles Empty Chair Policy in relation to the

members of the European Community. How can you characterise the style of de

Gaulle response to the crisis? Was it a political tool to suppress the opponents?

During the establishment of the European Community, de Gaulle

precipitated one of the greatest crises in the history of the EC, the Empty Chair Crisis. The constitutional crisis began with the reason that Commission President Walter Hallstein suggested a plan to find additional sources of revenue for

Common Agricultural Policy. The other five members were ready to accept it but

de Gaulle would never agree to a majority vote decision mechanism in the

European Community. He was bitterly opposed to give such powers to the

community and to the European Parliament in particular. In 1965, the French

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government withdrew its permanent representatives from the communities and

boycotted community activities for the next seven months. The policy of the

Empty Chair began. The absence of French representatives left the organization

essentially unable to run its affairs. The crisis was only resolved in January 1966

when, at the meeting in Luxembourg, the council agreed that in the future, an

individual government could ve