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A spectrometer is an optical instrument used to measure properties of light over a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. In astronomy, spectrometers have been used in star spectral classification. 38. Spectrometer

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A spectrometer can tell us if a star is moving toward or away from the Earth by indicating a changes in spectral wavelength. Shorter wavelengths indicate a star is moving toward us. Longer wavelengths indicate a star is moving away from us. 39. Doppler Shift

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Asteroid - a diverse group of small celestial bodies that drift in the solar system in orbit around the Sun Comet - a small body in the solar system that orbits the Sun exhibits a coma and/or a tail both primarily from the effects of solar radiation upon the comet's nucleus Meteor / Meteorite - a meteor is the visible path of a meteoroid that enters the atmosphere; meteorites are meteoroids that make it to the Earths surface without burning up 40. Space Rocks

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Galaxy - a huge gravitationally bound system of stars, interstellar gas and dust, plasma, and (possibly) unseen dark matterThe Milky Way Constellation - a group of stars visibly related to each other in a particular configuration or pattern The Big Dipper Nebula - a cloud of interstellar gas and dust that, in theory, may condense to form a planetary system The Horsehead Nebula 41. More on Space

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Asteroid Belt - An asteroid is a chunk of rock and metal floating in space. It is leftover from when the Sun and planets formed. The asteroid belt is located between the planet Mars and Jupiter. There is where most of the asteroids are in the solar system. Kuiper Belt - The Kuiper belt is made up of objects that are composed largely of frozen methane, ammonia, and water. Pluto is found in the Kuiper belt along with thousands of other Kuiper belt objects. 41. Even More on Space

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42. Hypertonic v. Hypotonic A hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of solutes than that in a cell. This solution has more solute particles and, therefore, relatively less water so water flows out. A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration compared to the cell so water flows in. Cells can burst. An isotonic solution has equal concentration of solutes so water moves equally into and out of cells.

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43. Prokaryotes

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44. Cell Organelles (Page 1 of 2) Mitochondria: provide the energy a cell needs to move, divide, produce secretory products, and contract; they are the power centers of a cell Lysosomes: contain enzymes necessary for intracellular digestion; in white blood cells that destroy bacteria, lysosome contents kill and digest the bacteria Endoplasmic reticula: a structure that is responsible for protein translation, folding, and transport of proteins Nuclei: organelles that communicate with the rest of the cell via numerous nuclear pores; within the nucleus is the DNA responsible for providing each cell with its unique characteristics

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44. Cell Organelles (Page 2 of 2) Vesicle: stores, transports, or digests cellular products and wastes Centriole: organelles that aid in cell division Golgi apparatus: a structure that is mainly responsible for packaging macromolecules for transport elsewhere in the cell Ribosome: an organelle that assembles proteins Vacuole: removes unwanted debris; isolates materials that might be harmful to the cell; maintains internal turgor pressure and pH

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45. Nondisjunction Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosome pairs to separate properly. The result of this error is a cell with an imbalance of chromosomes. When a chromosome is lost, it is called a monosomy. When a chromosome is gained, it is called a trisomy. Trisomy 21 is the cause of approximately 95% of observed Down syndromes, with 88% coming from nondisjunction in the maternal gamete and 8% coming from nondisjunction in the paternal gamete.

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46. Inheritance Ratios (Page 1 of 2) Genotype: the "internally coded, inheritable information" carried by all living organisms Phenotype: the "outward, physical manifestation" of an organism Complete Dominance: - characteristics of some genes completely dominate others Ex. tall (Tt) plants with tall (T) and short (t) genes producing tall (TT, Tt) and short (tt) Incomplete Dominance: - no dominance of one gene type over another Ex. pink (wr) flowers with white (w) and red (r) genes producing white (ww), red (rr), and pink (wr) Tt TTTTt tTttt wrwwwwr rwrrr Punnett Squares Genotype Ratio: 1TT:2Tt:1tt Or 1:2:1 Phenotype Ratio: 3T:1t Or 3:1 Genotype Ratio: 1ww:2wr:1rr Or 1:2:1 Phenotype Ratio: 1ww:2wr:1rr Or 1:2:1

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46. Inheritance Ratios (Page 2 of 2) Monohybrid Cross: a cross of an organism dealing with only one characteristic Dihybrid Cross: a cross of an organism dealing with two characteristics Genotype Ratio: 1TTRR:1TTRr:2TtRr:2TtRR:4TtRr:2Ttrr:2ttRr:1ttRR:1ttrr Or 1:1:2:2:4:2:2:1:1 TRTrtRtr TRTTRRTTRrTtRRTtRr TrTTRrTTrrTtRrTtrr tRTtRRTtRrttRRttRr trTtRrTtrrttRrttrr Phenotype Ratio: 9TR:3Tr:3tR:1tr Or 9:3:3:1

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47. Sickle-Cell Disease Sickle-Cell Disease: a genetic disease in which people inherit two copies of the sickle cell gene, one from each parent Note: In the sample above, S is equivalent to a in the Test Prep Guide.

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48. Protein Synthesis Protein Synthesis: the process in which cells build proteins (a) DNA info is transcribed to RNA. (b) This RNA is then subject to post- transcription, resulting in a mature mRNA that is then transported out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm. (c) Here mRNA goes through translation into a protein by ribosomes that match the three- base codons of the mRNA to the three-base anti-codons of the appropriate transfer RNA (tRNA). (d) Newly synthesized proteins (black) often go through post-translation, such as by binding to an effector molecule (orange), to become fully active.

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49. Determining Phylum Porifera: sponges Platyhelminthes: flatworms Nematoda: roundworms Annelida: segmented worms

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50. Protozoan Classification Protozoans are unicellular organisms which are classified into five phylums according to differences in movement Five phylums of Protozoans: 1. Ciliata - the phylum in which creatures are covered with short hair-like structures called cilia 2. Mastigophora - the phylum having characteristic whiplike structures called flagella 3. Sarcodina - free-living protozoans having pseudopods 4. Cnidospora - the phylum characterized by walled spores, which have hollow polar filaments 5. Sporozoa - parasites that move passively and anchor themselves firmly inside the organism they invade

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51. Plant v. Animal Cells Plant Cell Animal Cell

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52. Root Endodermis Endodermis: In plants, it is a thin layer of cells found in roots, just outside the vascular cylinder. It regulates the flow of water and minerals. Endodermis is tightly packed together and contains a waxy substance which prevents water from flowing back into the soil. Water is forced toward the center of the root, into the xylem, where it is then transported into the rest of the plant.