Absolutism in Western and Eastern Europe

Ch. 17: Emergence of the European State System

Absolutism

Characteristics:

• Absolute monarchs not subordinate to national assemblies

• Nobility reigned in• Bureaucrats (17th C.) were

career officials and answered only to monarch

• Maintained large standing armies even during peacetime

Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)

L’etat, c’est moi• Personified sovereignty of

state resided in ruler• Quintessential absolutist and

advocate of Divine Right• “the Sun King”• France became undisputed

major power during his reign– French language became

international language– France epicenter of literature

and art

Louis XIV, 1701 by Rigaud

VersaillesBaroque Architecture: Marquis Louvois

• Grandest and most impressive palace in Europe

• Large-scale reinforced image as most powerful absolute ruler

• Gardens by LeVau• 60% royal revenues went to

maintaining Versailles• Façade 1/3 mile; 1400 fountains• Royal court grew from 600 to

10,000 people when court moved from Paris

• Louis had absolute control over nobility, who were required to live there for several months a year

Religious Policies: Edict of Fontainbleu (1685)

• Louis considered himself head of the French Catholic Church– Did not allow the pope to

exercise political power• Revoked the Edict of Nantes

(Henry IV–1598)– Huguenots lost right to

practice Calvinism– 200,000 fled to England,

Holland, and the N. American colonies

– Cracked down on Jansenists (Catholics who held some Calvinist ideas)

Protestant peasants rebelled against the officially sanctioned dragonnades (conversions enforced by dragoons, labeled "missionaries in boots") that followed the Edict of Fontainebleau.

Mercantilism: Finance Minister Jean Baptiste Colbert (1665-83)

• State control over country’s economy to achieve favorable balance of trade with other countries– Bullionism:

• Colbert’s goal: economic self-sufficiency– Oversaw construction of roads and

canals– Granted gov sponsored monopolies

to certain industries– Heavy regulation of guilds– Reduced local tolls– Organized French trading

companies– Forbade exports of foodstuffs

• By 1683, France was leading industrial country– Textiles, mirrors, lace, steel

and firearms• Developed merchant marine• Louis’ military buildup stimulated

economy• Negatives:

– Poor peasant conditions led to emigration

– Massive army at expense of strong navy

– Wars later on nullified Colbert’s gains

Wars of Louis XIV

Overview• At war for 2/3 of reign• Initially successful, but

economically disastrous• Balance of Power system

emerged in response to Louis/France threat– No one country could be

allowed to dominate continent– Dutch Stadholder William of

Orange most important in stopping expansionism

Costs• Destroyed French economy

due to trade disruption• 20% French subjects died• Huge debt fell on 3rd estate• Sowed the seeds of the

French Revolution

WarsFirst Dutch War, 1667-1668 (War of Devolution)

• Louis XIV invaded Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) without declaring war

• Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle gave Louis 12 fortified towns on the border of the Spanish Netherlands; gave up Burgundy to Spain

The Dutch War (1672-1679)• Invaded the southern

Netherlands as revenge for Dutch opposition in previous war

• Dutch flooded countryside to prevent invasion of Holland

• Peace of Nijmegan (1678-79)– Took back Burgundy, some

Flemish towns, and Alsace– Greatest extent of Louis

Nine Years’ War (War of League of Augsburg) 1688-97

• Invasion of Spanish Netherlands led to formation of League of Augsburg (HRE, Spain, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony, and the Dutch Republic) and balance of power

• William of Orange (King William III England) initiated period of Anglo-French rivalry lasting until 1815

• France kept Alsace and Strasbourg (Lorraine)

War of Spanish Succession, 1701-1713• Charles II (Spanish Hapsburg) willed

all Spanish territories to grandson Louis XIV– Fear of consolidation of crowns

and upset of balance of power• Grand Alliance formed: England,

Dutch Republic, HRE, Brandenburg, Portugal, Savoy

War of Spanish SuccessionTreaty of Utrecht (1713)

• Most important treaty between Peace of Westphalia (1683) and Treaty of Paris (1763)

• Maintained balance of power• Ended expansionism under Louis• Spanish possessions partitioned

– Britain gained most• Asiento (slave trade) from Spain and right

to send one ship to trade in New World• Gained Gibraltar and Minorca

– Austria gained Spanish Netherlands– Netherlands gained buffer zone

• Prohibited unification of Spanish and French Bourbon dynasties

• Kings formally recognized in Sardinia and Prussia – nucleus of future unified states of Germany and Italy

Grand Strategy to defeat France

War of Spanish Succession

Europe before War Europe after Treaty of Utrecht

Absolutism in Eastern Europe, 1600-1740HOP RAP

3 Aging Empires• HRE• Ottoman Empire• Polish Kingdom

HRE: religious divisions due to Reformation and religious wars in 16th/17th centuries split Germany among Lutheran, Calvinist, and Catholic princes

3 Emerging Empires• Russia• Austria• Prussia

3 Aging Empires

Ottoman Empire• Could not maintain possessions in eastern

Europe and the Balkans in the face of Austrian and Russian expansion

• Under Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566) conquered nearly ½ eastern Europe

• Highly talented Christian children incorporated into the Ottoman Empire’s bureaucracy

• Janissary Corps: Christian slaves not selected for bureaucracy but served loyally in Turkish army

• Tolerant of religion in conquered provinces• Failure to conquer Vienna in 1683 led to

decline thereafter

Polish Kingdom• Liberum veto: voting in

Parliament had to be unanimous for changes to happen, thus little reform – Inability of Polish monarchy to

consolidate its power over nobility led to its partition

– Russia and Prussia encouraged system because it weakened country

– By 1800, Poland ceased to exist as a sovereign state: carved up by Russia, Prussia, and Austria

Eastern vs. Western Absolutism

East• Based on powerful nobility, weak middle

class, and oppressed peasantry of serfs• Threat of war with European and Asian

invaders served as motivators to consolidate power

• 2 methods:– King imposed taxes without consent– Large standing armies

• Serfdom: nobles demanded kings issue laws restricting peasants’ right of movement, confiscated peasant land, and imposed labor obligations

• Hereditary serfdom revived in Poland, Russia, and Prussia 17th c. and growth of agriculture

West• In France, nobility limited,

middle-class strong, and peasants – not serfs

• Why no serfs in west?– Black Death resulted in labor

shortages– Supremacy of noble landlords

The Austrian (Hapsburg) Empire

The Rise of Austria• Ruler of Austria also HRE• But, after the War of Spanish Succession

(1701-1713) and Peace of Utrecht (1713) Bourbon dynasty included Spanish throne, thus Hapsburg power only in Austria

• Areas: – Naples, Sardinia, Milan– Austrian Netherlands (Belgium)– Hungary (largest part of empire) and

Transylvania (Romania)• Reorganization of Bohemia major step

towards absolutism• Serfdom intensified during Hapsburg rule

Government• Austria NOT a nation-state,

rather a multinational empire:– Austria proper: Germans, Italians– Bohemia: Czechs, Germans– Hungary: Hungarians, Serbs,

Croats, Romanians

• No single constitutional system or administration – each region had a different legal relationship to the emperor

Important Hapsburg Rulers:

Ferdinand II• Took control of Bohemia during

Thirty Years’ WarFerdinand III• Centralized government in

Austria properLeopold I (1658-1705)• Restricted Protestant worship• Siege of Vienna (1683): repelled

the Turks from the gates of Vienna marking last Ottoman attempt to take central Europe

Emperor Charles VI (1711-1740)

• Austria saved from French expansion during War of Spanish Succession due to its alliance with Britain and under leadership of Prince Eugene of Savoy

• Pragmatic Sanction (1713)– Hapsburg possessions divided

and passed to a single heir– Daughter, Maria Theresa,

inherited empire in 1740 ruling for 40 years

Prussia: House of HohenzollernFrederick William, the “Great Elector” (r. 1640-1688)• Strict Calvinist, but granted religious

toleration to Catholics and Jews• Admired Swedish government and

Netherlands economy• Ongoing struggle between Poland

and Sweden for control of Baltic region after 1648 and wars of Louis XIV created permanent crisis– Prussia invaded 1656-57 by

Tartars– Weakened nobles estates and

created need for larger army

• Established Prussia as a great power and laid foundation for unification

• Oversaw Prussian militarism– Used power and taxation to unify

Rhineland, Prussia and Brandenburg– Nobles not exempt– Soldiers tax collectors and policemen– “Junkers” backbone of Prussian military

officer corps• Nobles and landed dominated

Estates• 1653: hereditary subjugation of

peasants used to compensate nobles

• Economy:• Built industry and trade

– Woolens, cotton, linen, velvet, lace, silk, soap, paper and iron

– Trade failed due to lack of ports and naval experience

• Imported skilled craftsmen and Dutch farmers

Frederick I “The Ostentatious” (r. 1688-1713)

The first “King of Prussia”• Most popular• Tried to imitate Louis XIV• Encouraged higher education

– Founded university and academy of science

– Welcomed immigrant scholars• Fought two wars against Louis XIV and

allied with Hapsburgs– Nine Years’ War (1688-1697)– War of Spanish Succession (1701-

1713)• Peace of Utrecht recognized

the title “King of Prussia”

Frederick William I (r. 1713-1740)

The Soldiers’ King• Most important Hohenzollern king in terms

of absolutism– Calvinist– Obsessed with finding tall soldiers

• Militarism into society “Sparta of the North”– Society rigid and disciplined– Unquestioning obedience highest virtue

• Double size of army (4th largest, but best)• 80% gov spending – very high taxed • Designed to deter from war• Most efficient bureaucracy – merit based• Compulsory elementary school in 1717

Frederick II (r. 1740-1786)

Frederick the Great• Enlightened despot• most powerful and famous

of Prussian kings• Increased Prussian territory

at expense of Hapsburgs

Russia: The Romanov Dynasty• Lasted from ascent of Michael Romanov in 1613 to the Russian Revolution in 1917• Michael Romanov (r. 1613-1645)

– Came to power in Muscovy after the “Time of Troubles” civil war– Romanov favored the boyars (Russian nobles) in return for their support– Russian Empire expanded to the Pacific Ocean in the Far East– Fought several unsuccessful wars against Sweden, Poland, and the Ottoman Empire

• Russian society transformed in 17th century– Nobles gained more exemptions from military service– Rights of peasants declined

• Bloody Cossack revolts led to more restrictions on serfs– “Old Believers” of the Orthodox Church resisted influx of new religious sects from the west (Lutherans

and Calvinists)• Persecuted by government• Many burned themselves in protest over 2 decades

– Western ideas gained ground• Via literature, clothing, customs

– By 1689 Russia world’s largest country (3x size of Europe)

Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725)• Revolt of the Strelski put down by Peter in 1698

securing his reign• Military power greatest concern

– 75% budget on military– Royal, military, and artillery academies– Royal army over 200K men + 100K special

forces (Cossacks and foreigners)– All young male nobles required to serve 5

years of compulsory service, but non-nobles could rise in rank

– Large navy built on Baltic

Peter the Great

Great Northern War (1700-1721)

• Russia (with Poland, Denmark and Saxony allies) vs. Sweden (under Charles XII)

• Treaty of Nystad (1721):– Russia gained Latvia, Estonia

and its “Window on the West” in the Baltic Sea

Modernization and westernization

• Imported western technicians and craftsmen to build large factories

• Russia out-produced England in iron ore– Industrial serfdom – workers

bought and sold

• State regulated monopolies created– Stifled economic growth– Inferior production

Peter the Great

Government• Ruled by decree (absolutist)

– No representative political body– All landowners owed lifetime service to state

(either military, civil service, or court); got control over serfs in exchange

• Table of Ranks– Set education standards for civil servants

(nobles)– Sought to replace Boyar nobility with

service-based nobility loyal to tsar• Secret police crushed opposition• Heavy taxes on trade sales and rent; head tax on

every male• Orthodox Church became government

department

St. Petersburg• Sought to create eastern Amsterdam;

conscripted labor (peasants) began construction in 1703

• Peterhof palace to rival Versailles• Largest city in Europe by his death

(75,000)• Capital of Russia• Ordered nobles to move to city as

were merchants and artisans• Reforms modernized Russia

– Modern military and bureaucracy– Interest in state over tsar began– Gained popular support

Peterhof Palace

Constitutionalism in Europe 1600-1725

Government: confederation of seven provinces, each with representative gov. dominated by bourgeoisie and limited power of state

• Holland and Zeeland two richest and most influential

• Each province autonomous with elected stadholder and military leader

• In crisis, provinces elected same stadholder, usually from House of Orange

Beginning 17th c: Dutch Golden AgeOligarchy of urban gentry and rural landholders to promote trade and protect rights

The Dutch Republic

The Dutch Republic

Religious toleration• Calvinism dominant religion

but split between Dutch Reformed (majority) and Arminian (no belief in predestination) factions

• Catholics and Jews fewer rights but tolerated

• Allowed for cosmopolitan society and trade promotion

Mercantilism 17th century• Innovations in banking and

finance promoted urban financial centers and a money economy

• Amsterdam banking and commercial center of Europe (replaced Antwerp)Bank of Amsterdam (1609): first

central bank in European history; offered lowest interest rates

Dutch East India Co. (1602-1799)• Few natural resources, relied on commerce• Largest fleet in the world with several ports• Lacked government controls and monopolies• Fishing industry, but also textiles, furniture,

woolens, sugar, tobacco, brewing, pottery, glass, printing, paper, weapons, and ship building

• DEIC and DWIC cooperative ventures of private enterprise and state– Challenged Portugese in Indonesia, India,

Sri Lanka, South Africa– By 1700 dominated spice trade– DWIC trade in Latin America and Africa

Decline of the Dutch Republic

Foreign Policy• England’s Navigation Acts

and removal of Dutch from New York reduced its influence in N. America

• War with England and France in 1670s led to weakening

• By end of the War of Spanish Succession in 1713, Britain and France two dominant trading powers

The Dutch Style• Human-centered naturalism

that considered individuals and everyday life appropriate objects of artistic representation

• Encouraged via patronage of princes and commercial elites

• Reflected outlook and values of commercial and bourgeois society

Dutch Style vs. Baroque

Characteristics:• Did not try to overwhelm

viewer• Reflected wealth and

religious toleration of secular subjects

• Reflected urban and rural settings of Dutch life

• Commissioned by merchants or government organizations

• Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669)– Greatest of all Baroque-era artists,

though not of one style– Used tenebrism characteristic of

Baroque• Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675)

– Simple, domestic interior scenes of ordinary people

– Master of use of light• Frans Hals (1580-1666)

– Portraits of middle-class people and militia companies

• Jan Steen (1626-1679)– Genre painter– Known for humor, use of light and

color

Rembrandt

The Syndics 1663 Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp 1632

Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675)

Girl with a Pearl Earring 1665 The Allegory of Painting 1666-68

Frans Hals

Buffoon Playing Lute 1623 Banquet of the Officers at St. George Civic Guard Company, 1627

Jan Steen

Wine is a Mocker 1663-64 The Drawing Lesson 1665

England, 17th Century (Constitutionalism W. Europe)

Society• Capitalism played a major

role in the high degree of social mobility– Commercial Revolution

increased size of middle class – proportionally larger than any other European nation (except Netherlands)

– Improved agricultural techniques improved farming and husbandry

• Gentry: wealthy non-noble landowners in the countryside

• Dominated politics in the House of Commons

• Moved from middle to upper class due to commercial activity

• Relied on legal precedent limiting king’s power

• Willing to pay taxes as long as they had a say in national expenditures

The Glorious Revolution, 1688-1689

Causes:• James’ reissue of the

Declaration of Indulgence• Birth of Catholic heir in 1688• Parliament unwilling to

sacrifice constitutional gains of Civil War – James II forced to abdicate

and fled to France– William III (of Orange) and

Mary II declared joint sovereigns

English Bill of Rights 1689• England becomes constitutional

monarchy• Petition of Right (1628), Habeas

Corpus Act (1679) and Bill of Rights all part of English Constitution

• Not a democratic revolution– Power in hands of nobility and

gentry– Parliament represented upper

class

Provisions:• Monarch could not be Catholic• Laws only made with consent of

Parliament• Parliament right of free speech• No standing army in peace time• No taxation without Parliament approval• No excessive bail nor cruel and unusual

punishment• Right to trial by jury, due process of law,

and reasonable bail• Right to bear arms (only for Protestants)• Free elections• People had right of petition

Hobbes vs. Locke

Hobbes’ Social Contract (1651) Humans are born self-

interested, wicked… Life in state of nature is “nasty,

brutish, and short” w/o gov. to keep order = chaos Social Contract: People agree to

give up absolute freedom to a strong (absolute) ruler, in exchange they get law & order

Hobbes: Leviathan (1660), absolute monarchy necessary to protect us from ourselves

Locke’s Social Contract (1690) People are born w/ a clean slate

“tabula rasa” & are shaped by experiences

We have God-given natural rights (life, liberty, property)

Purpose of gov. is to protect our rights, if they fail to do this, people have the right to rebel

Gov. power comes from the people (democracy)

Influenced American, Dutch, & French Revolutions

Toleration Act, 1689• Right to worship for Protestant

non-conformers, but could not hold office

Act of Settlement, 1701• If William or sister-in-law Anne died

without heirs, throne passes to Protestant heirs

• No more Stuarts in line of succession• Anne died in 1714, Hanoverian heir

assumed throne as George I (1714-1727)

• George II (1727-1760) more concerned with territory in Hanover, did not speak fluent English, reduced decision making by crown

Act of Union, 1707•United Scotland and England into Great Britain•Scots wanted access to English trade empire•Scottish Presbyterians feared Stuart return to throne

Robert Walpole, PM 1721-1742•Viewed as first Prime Minister, member of majority party in Parliament and leader of government•Created precedent that cabinet is responsible to House of Commons

Essay Questions1. Analyze the extent to which absolutism developed in France under Henry

IV and Louis XIII.2. Analyze the ways in which the absolutism of Louis XIV impacted the

bureaucracy, the nobility, the peasantry, economics and religious issues in France.

3. To what extent did the balance of power remain intact in Europe between 1600 and 1715?

4. Analyze the role of mercantilism in France in the 17th century.5. Analyze how the Baroque reflected the “Age of Absolutism.”6. Analyze the military, political, and social factors for the rise of absolutism

in Austria, Prussia, and Russia in the 17th and 18th centuries.7. Compare and contrast absolutism in eastern Europe with that of France

in western Europe.