Advanced Fire Fighting at Sea HALON 1211. Halon 1301 is stored as a liquid under pressure. When released in the protected area it vaporises to an odourless, colourless gas and is propelled

Advanced Fire Fighting at Sea

ADVANCED FIRE FIGHTING AT SEAContents

Rules of behaviour

Preface

Extinguishing agents

Fire spread

Breathing apparatus

Preventie

Functional leadership

Tactics

Dangerous goods

Liason with shore services

Fire investigation

Offshore supplement

Bibliography

First edition © 2002 Maritime Trainingcentre B.V.No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical,photographic, or electronic process, nor may it bestored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise copied for public use, without the written permission of thepublisher.This text book war prepared with the greatest care. However, the Maritime Trainingcentre B.V. shall not be heldliable for any inaccuracies in the text, pictures, graphics or instruction, or for damages resulting thereof. The (former)student accepts full responsibility for any actions brought into practise.

ISBN 90-804788-2-2Geproduceerd door / produced by: Computer Aided Presentations, Heenvliet, The Netherlands.



FIRE FIGHTING AGENTS

The fire fighting principle is based on disturbingthe fire process.This is possible by breaking down one of theelements of the fire triangle:

By stopping the flow of air (oxygen) to thefire. The fire will suffocate.Without fuel supply the fire process cannot besustained.When the fire cools down the fire processwill eventually stop.

Due to the lack of energy there will be nocombustible gasses escaping to burn.Instead of physically separating fuel and oxygen,the fire process can also be stopped by disturbingthe chemical reaction between thesecomponents.

Certain chemical products have the ability to mixwith the fire reaction in such a way that flames arebroken down.This reaction is called a catalytic process

During fire fighting there is often a combination ofseveral extinguishing principles working.Due to these principles, the mixture of the fireprocess is disturbed in several ways thusextinguishing the fire.

The following fire fighting agents are common:WaterHigh pressure water system (i.e. Hi-fog)FoamPowderCarbon dioxide (CO2)HalonFM200

Use of water

Water is usually present in large quantities.Water is relatively easy to use.Due to its high capacity as a thermal conductor,water has a high cooling effect.

Another positive side effect is the formation ofsteam during extinguishing that has a suffocatingeffect on the fire.

Water is a very good extinguishing agent on socalled solid fires. (Class A)The cooling down limits or stops the discharge ofgasses from the fuel so the fire process willeventually stop all together.


The amount of water necessary to put out a fire isapprox. 4 l/min/m2.To extinguish a Class A fire usually a spray typenozzle will have a large enough effect to get thehighest cooling effect.On liquids with a flashpoint > 29° C. water can beused as extinguishing agent because the coolingeffect stops the discharge of gasses from theproduct.On liquids with a flashpoint < 23° C. water cannotput out the fire.The radiation of the flames can be limited howeverby using a spray nozzle.

When extinguishing a fire one has take into accountthe difference between soluble and non-solubleliquids. With soluble liquids the water will mix withthe liquid and therefore cooling down is possible.In the case of non-soluble liquids the product willfloat on the water possibly creating a larger fire withan unwanted spread of the liquid and as a result anuncontrolled spreading of the fire.

In case of products with a storage temperature of> 100° C. we should be careful with the use ofwater because it will directly turn into steam.

Cooling

When fighting fires in process installations themain priority will be cooling the adjacentstructures around the fire.

By cooling down the adjacent structures we canprevent that heat radiation will not weaken theintegrity of the installation. It also prevents otherobjects from catching fire and/or exploding.

High pressure water system

The high pressure water system is used as afixed fire fighting system or portable fire fightingsystem on board ships. This fixed system isrecommended for HSC (high speed craft).

The system can be seen as a replacement forother fixed systems, such as CO2 and Halon.

The system works with pressures of 40 - 200 bars.Advantages of the high pressure water system are:

Large cooling effectLimited amount of water needed (stability)Lesser water damageNo harm to electrical equipment(non conductible)Not a health hazard


Disadvantages of the system are:Limited reachRelatively expensiveNozzle of portable system is extremelydangerous

Foam

Foam consists of three elements:WaterFoam producing agent (fpa)Air

The fpa percentage of foam indicates the amountof foam producing agent needs to be added towater to get a foam solution.The percentage varies from 1% to 6%.Another word for fpa percentage is mixture.

With specially designed nozzles air is blown intothe foam solution to create foam.The foam producing # is a measure for theamount of air added to one litre of foam solution.

There are 3 different classes:

Type of foam Foam producing # Distance

Light foam > 200 1,5 mtr.

Medium foam 20 – 200 7,5 - 15 mtr.

Heavy foam < 20 15 – 60 mtr.

Light foam is usually used in confined areas.Medium and heavy foam is used in case of pool orliquid fires.The biggest difference between the various typesof foam is the distance it can be administeredfrom to the fire. (see table)In case of pool or liquid fires the best extinguishingagent is foam.

There are several characteristics why foam hasextinguishing abilities:

Foam prevents radiation because the flamesare separated from the fuel.Foam suppresses the formation of vapourbecause of the weight of the foam.The viscosity of the foam mass on the liquidprevents the formation of vapours rightabove the liquid.Foam has a cooling effect.


Foam consists of 94 to 99% water.This cools the upper layer of the liquid.

When foam is applied properly the chance of re-ignition is very small.

There are different types of foam available.A high quality foam has the followingcharacteristics:

Attaches easily to get a firm blanketFlame suppressingStabilityHeat resistantGood flow (maximum of 30 metres)Fuel intolerance

Protein foam (e.g. oxblood) is produced due tohydrolysis of proteins.This was the original type of foam which is cheapand has a good foam quality.

It is also stable and heat resistant, but the biggestdisadvantage is it works slowly.

Fluor protein foam (FFFP, Film Forming FoamProtein) contains a fluor chemical substancewhich makes the foam flow more easily andtherefore creates a faster extinguishing reaction.

Synthetic foam is primarily used on small fires.This type of foam has low fire resistance and fuelintolerance characteristics. This type of foam isoften used in fixed installations to fill up confinedspaces.

AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming Foam) is aspecially produced synthetic foam, it reduces thesurface tension. Adding air is not necessary withthis type of foam forming agent.AFFF can be used in existing sprinkler systems .The addition of AFFF forms a tight film type layeron the liquid.AFFF can be administered easily thus creating afast response to fighting a fire. The foam can beused in combination with powder. The foam itselfis not very heat resistant.

ARC/ATC (Alcohol Resistant Concentrate, AlcoholType Concentrate) is alcohol resistant foamdeveloped for water soluble products.


Water soluble products will break down othertypes of foam because the water from the foam isabsorbed by the product.Alcohol resistant foam has a number of chemicalstabilizers which create, when the foam isapplied, a thick layer of polymers between theproduct and the foam.This foam is easy to recognise because theviscosity is higher than with other types of foam.

In order to use foam, specially designed nozzlesare necessary.A mixer is used to add the proper amount of foamforming product to the water.The mixer can be adjusted to give different fpapercentages.

Specially developed nozzles for medium andheavy foam are available.Light foam is created by using a foam generator.After use the nozzles should be cleaned andflushed with water because foam products cancorrode the nozzles.


Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide extinguishes fire mainly bysmothering.It dilutes the air surrounding the fire until theoxygen content is too low to support combustion.

Carbon dioxide has a very limited cooling effect.Carbon dioxide does not conduct electricity.Carbon dioxide does not support combustion inordinary material, however, carbon dioxide reactswith magnesium and other metals.

Dry Chemical Powders

At present several types of dry chemicalextinguishing agents are in use.Dry chemical may be used in fixed systems or inportable extinguishers.Dry chemicals extinguish fire by shielding ofradiant heat and to a great extent by breaking thecombustion chain.

Class D dry powder is the only extinguishingmedia which will successfully extinguish metaltype fires.


Halon

Halon is made up of carbon and one or more ofthe halogen elements:

Fluorine.Chlorine.Bromine.Iodine.

Two halons are used in fire fighting:BTM (Bromo Trifluoro Methane) known asHALON 1301.BCF (Bromo Chlorodifluormethane) knownas HALON 1211.

Halon 1301 is stored as a liquid under pressure.When released in the protected area it vaporisesto an odourless, colourless gas and is propelledto the fire by the storage pressure.Halon 1301 does not conduct electricity.Halon 1211 is also colourless but has a faintsweet smell.Halon 1211 is stored as a liquid and pressurisedby a nitrogen gas. Pressurisation is necessarysince the vapour pressure of Halon 1211 is toolow to convey it properly to the fire area.Halon 1211 does not conduct electricity.

FM200

FM200 is a gaseous type of extinguishing agentwhich is stored in low pressure cylinders.

FM200 can be the replacement for Halon (bannedin 2004).

Working principle:Negative catalystConcentration used is 7 – 9 %Storage capacity is low

Advantages of FM200:Low concentration needed to extinguishNot harmful to humans (as gas)Can be used on Class A, B and electricalequipment

Disadvantages of FM200:Not environmentally friendlyGasses are harmful after contact with hightemperatures

There are more extinguishing agents available.The most common and widely used arementioned.

Fire spread

Fire spread

FIRE SPREAD

Fire spread is possible when there is sufficientfuel and oxygen available.Outdoors a fire mainly moves with the wind.With flames and smoke heat and flammablegasses will also be transported.A fire can spread when nearby flammable sub-stances in the direct vicinity are being heated up.

Heat transport

Heat transport takes place by:l Radiationl Conductionl Convection

Radiation is heat transport by energy waves.The radiation heat of a fire can be felt from adistance. 80% of the heat transport is by radiation.

Conduction is heat transport via the material. Inconducting materials like metals, heat is trans-ported relatively quickly.Convection is heat transport due to the movementof air or fluid. The central heating in a house isbased on this principle.

Combustible products

During a fire heat and smoke are produced.Smoke is one of the most important characteris-tics of a fire.

Smoke mainly consists of small un-burnt carbonparticles. Because of the heat these particles willrise upwards.

The production of smoke depends on the com-bustible reaction.The better this combustible process, the lesserthe amount of smoke.Hardly any fires are smokeless.

When extinguishing a fire with water, the fireprocess is not complete, creating more smokebecause the temperature drops.

Fire spread

Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide(CO and CO2)

During a fire CO en CO2 are released.Carbon dioxide is not flammable and in smallconcentrations not harmful. CO is very flammableand very harmful to humans (and mammals).CO is produced when a fire process is incom-plete. Breathing in CO prevents the intake ofoxygen because the blood takes in CO 300xfaster than oxygen.So even in small concentrations CO has damag-ing effects to humans.The intake of oxygen is rapidly disturbed,first causing nausea rapidly followed by fatigueand eventually unconsciousness.

Hazardous gasses

Depending on the type of fuel and extinguishingmethod several combustible products can beproduced.By using synthetic products the chance of havingtoxic gasses may increase.Gasses such as hydrochloric acid and ammonia,which cause irritation of the airway or even lungoedema, are extremely dangerous.Poisoning gasses like phosgene and chloride canalso be produced.They can penetrate the skin and permanentlydamage nerve tissue.

Flashover

A flashover is the ignition of flammable gasses inan optical closed space.Flammable gas means ‘gas produced by a fire.’Flammable gasses consist of:

Combustible productsDissection products

During a fire not only combustible products arereleased, also other gasses and particles arereleased because of the breakdown of material.The smoke in an area where there is a fire is amixture of air and combustible gasses.The non-combustible gasses and particles in thesmoke can, under certain circumstances, igniteand create a flashover.The character of a flashover depends on severalfactors:

The concentration of combustible gas in the airThe mixture amount of energy of the combus-tible gasThe air supply into the area

Ook LEL en UEL

Fire spread

Ignition of gas is only possible when the concen-tration of this gas, in air, is within certain levels andthus has a certain mixture.A flashover can only occur, within the limitationsof the explosive level.The amount of combustible gas depends on theintensity and type of fire process of the fire. Theamount of air depends on the ‘ventilation’ in anarea.

The explosive levels can vary, depending on thetemperature.With high temperatures, the explosive level ismuch higher; the lower explosion level (LEL)drops and the upper explosion level (UEL) rises.

On the edges of the explosive level the flashoverwill develop gradually.The better the mixture, the more explosive theflashover.The composition and energy value of the combus-tible gas depends on the type of materials avail-able in the area. A high energy value increasesthe intensity of the flashover, especially with anideal mixture.If the combustible gas contains a lot of highenergy particles e.g. carbon particles, the intensityof the flashover can be equal to a very powerfulso called ‘dust explosion.’

The air supply to the area determines:

The duration of the flashoverThe moment the flashover startsThe number of times the flashover occurs

Without oxygen supply the duration of the flash-over will be short (or does not occur at all).The concentration of combustible gas will rapidlyexceed the UEL, preventing the gasses to ignite.When air is supplied, a combustible mixture isbeing formed, so the flashover can occur againand again.This will create a pulsating fire.With large amounts of air supply, the flashovercan be unremitting (only if sufficient combustiblegasses are present) thus creating a completelydeveloped area fire.Typical circumstances for such a fire is thecontinuous supply of air on the bottom of windowsand doors, while gasses produced during theflashover are escaping from the top.

Fire spread

Flashover indicators

A rapid increase in compartment temperatureand in heat from hot gasses at ceiling levelTongues of flame visible in the smoke layerOther surfaces giving off fumes

Safety

Make sure you are properly protectedEnsure the entrance is covered by a chargedfire hoseCheck escape routes are protectedCheck the outside of the door for signs of heatStay lowUse short spray pulses on hot gasses at ceilinglevel.Ventilate only when safe to do soBe aware of the potential for flashover andbackdraft

Reducing the Oxygen Supply to a Fire

In general, hot gasses generated in the plume willrise extremely rapidly and will draw air in towardsthe fire.If there is an adequate air supply, the fire willcontinue to burn and grow as long as there is fuelavailable.If the air supply to the compartment is restricted,the oxygen in the air inside may be used up morequickly than it can be replaced.The net effect will be a progressive lowering of theconcentration of oxygen in the gasses in thecompartment possibly combined with an increasein the temperature in the compartment.

As the oxygen concentration in the compartmentreduces, the flames will start to die down, but thiswill not immediately result in a reduction in theproduction of flammable gasses.

Although the radiated heat from the plume re-duces, the compartment is still very hot, andnothing has happened to cool the fuel.

There may still be flames present, or they may dieout alltogether. Depending on the relative sizes ofthe fire and the compartment at this stage, suffi-cient flammable gasses may be generated tospread throughout the compartment.

This requires only a new supply of oxygen causedfor example by opening a door, for it to form anexplosive mixture with potentially lethal conse-quences – a backdraft.

Fire spread

Backdraft

Limited ventilation can lead to a fire in a compart-ment producing fire gasses containing significantproportions of partial combustion products andun-burnt pyrolysis products. If these accumulatethen the admission of air when an opening ismade to the compartment can lead to a suddenignition.This ignition moving through the compartment andout of the opening is a backdraft.

Possible Backdraft Scenarios

There are different backdraft scenarios, any oneof which could be awaiting the fire fighter.

If the fire is still burning in the compartmentwhen the fire fighter opens the door, andespecially if the combustion gasses are notescaping, the air, which enters through thedoor, may mix with the flammable gasses,forming an explosive mixture.If the gasses in the compartment are hotenough, they will then ignite on their own (auto-ignite) at the doorway, and the flame willspread back into the compartment along withthe fresh air supply. This would result in rapidfire growth, but not necessarily in a backdraft.If the compartment gasses are not that hot,they will be ignited when sufficient oxygen hasreached the gasses surrounding the fire.Flames will then travel across the compartmenttowards the door, resulting in flame shootingout of the door driven by the expanding gassesbehind it. It is not easy to predict whether thiswill actually happen, or how long it will take,once the door has been opened. This willdepend on where the fire is in the compartment, the rate at which air flows in through thedoor, and whether the hot gasses can escapewithout mixing with the incoming air.

A more dangerous situation can occur when thefire in the compartment has almost died out.When the door is opened, the air flows in and anexplosive mixture may be generated, but nothinghappens because there is no immediate source ofignition.

If the fire-fighters now enter the compartment,their activities may a source of ignition, initiating adelayed backdraft but now with them inside andsurrounded flame.

Fire spread

This can still occur even when the fire is appar-ently out and the compartment has cooled down.Foam rubber, in particular, can smoulder for a longtime, producing flammable gasses. Wheneverflammable gasses remain in the compartment,they can be ignited. Cold smoke explosions occurin this way.

The situation can be further complicated if signifi-cant amounts of the flammable gasses in thecompartment have managed to escape intosurrounding areas.Areas other than the closed compartment couldthen contain explosive atmospheres, waiting for asource of ignition.The highest risk area is the area directly outsidethe compartment, exactly where the fire fightersare waiting when they open the door.When the door is opened, flammable gassesoutside the compartment may be ignited by abackdraft within the compartment.

Signs and Symptoms of a Backdraft

The first clue to the possibility of a backdraft is thehistory of the fire: if the fire has been burning forsome time, has generated lots of smoke which isnow leaking out from the building, and has appar-ently died down without major areas of flamebeing visible from outside, the possibility is that ithas died down from oxygen starvation.When the building is viewed from outside, it islikely that the windows of the compartment con-cerned will be blackened with no obvious flameswithin. If part of a window is broken, it is possiblethat this will not provide sufficient oxygen to feedthe fire. In this case it is likely that smoke will bepulsing out of the hole.This cycle repeats itself at a frequency, whichdepends on the size of the hole and the locationof the fire relative to it. If there is a gap under thecompartment door, there may be smoke pulsingthere due to the mini-backdraft effect alreadydescribed. There may be a whistling noise. If air isbeing drawn into the compartment through verysmall gaps around the door, but this could bedifficult to hear. The door may be hot on theoutside. In particular, the door handle may be hotif there is a metal rod linking it to the door handleon the other side.

If the compartment has been left long enough forit to cool down, air will no longer be drawn in, andthe smoke pulsing effect will not be evident.However, if the compartment has not been venti-lated and there are still flammable gassespresent, a backdraft is still possible.

Fire spread

Actions by Fire fighters

Once the door has been opened on to a compart-ment with an oxygen starved fire and fresh air hasbeen allowed in, there is little which can be doneto prevent a backdraft happening.It is far better to make appropriate decisionsbefore the door is ever opened.If fire fighters believe that opening a compartmentdoor may lead to a backdraft, opening that doormust be as a result of a deliberate decision. Aslong as the compartment door is closed, firefighters have time to think about their actions.Once the door is open, they will only have time toreact to events as they occur.Whilst the decision about the timing of openingthe door can only rest with the fire fighters whoform the fire fighting crew at the scene, the conse-quences of that decision ultimately lie with theOfficer in charge of the incident.

However, the compartment will still have to beinspected at some stage. The priority is then tomake it safe for the fire fighters to enter. Asalready described, a backdraft can only occurwhen fresh air is permitted to enter the compart-ment. It is possible for fire fighters to operate in aflammable atmosphere provided there is noopportunity for things to change and for fresh airto enter whilst the fire fighters are inside.The far safer solution is to remove the flammablegasses from the compartment with ventilation.It is important to recognise that ventilation re-quires that fresh air should be let into the com-partment. Thus, there is the possibility that abackdraft may occur during ventilation, so appro-priate precautions should be taken.

If it is decided that a compartment needs to beventilated and once the method of ventilation hasbeen selected by the Officer in charge of theincident:

Fire hoses must be charged and in positionprior to any ventilation being carried out.Fire fighters must get down low, and stay wellclear of the likely flame path back through thevent opening, should a backdraft occur; and Itmust be remembered that a backdraft could bedelayed several minutes and that it might havesufficient energy to break other windows in thecompartment.

No compartment can be considered safe from abackdraft until it has been opened to fresh air forsome time. However, once the compartment hasbeen properly ventilated, fire fighters can tacklethe fire knowing that there is no longer any possi-bility of backdraft.

Fire spread

BLEVE

Fires in which tanks or vessels are involved canwhen pressure valves are damaged be exremelydangerous.

Pipelines which are sealed also belong to thiscategory.In case of fire the pressure in a tank can rise sohigh that the tank ruptures.This is called a physical explosion and calledBLEVE.

BLEVE means:Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion.

It means that the wall of the tank will collapseunder the increasing pressure because of theheating of the gas inside the tank.

In the list of works consulted BLEVE is onlymentioned with refference to flammable liquidsand gas but all closed tanks can explode due tothe buildup of the pressure inside.

It is difficult to predict when a BLEVE will occur.If the tank wall is heated up above the level of theliquid weakening can be expected rapidly.

Cooling is essential in order to prevent a possibleBLEVE.In case a safety valve is installed on the tankpressure can be released but this does not meanthat a BLEVE cannot occur.A safety valve releasing product can be anindication.

The higher the whistling sound of the safety valve,the higher the pressure inside the tank.When the escaping product is on fire the sayinggoes:The higher the flames, the higher the pressure.

The rising of the pressure can also be heard, aclosed tank will turn rounded when the pressurerises, the sound of the metal can be easilyidentified.

It is difficult to predict how and where a tank willrupture.It will probably be on the weakest spot of themetal (bulging of the metal, blisters on the metal).

Fire spread

cooling of the cylinder for 1 hour

stop cooling cool for half an hour

yesis steam coming from the cylinder?

nocool for half an hour

nodoes the surface stay wet?

yes cool for half an hourno

does the cylinder stay wet for ½ hour?

yes

wait for ½ hour

nois the cylinder cold?

gently transport the cylinder (overboard)

The escape of product from a cylinder filled with acompressed gas can be of great risk during a fire.

The escaping gas can, when it is not yet burning,be mixed with waterspray.

The product can be mixed in such a way that it islikely that the product will not ignite (1 litre ofwater brings in 3000 litres of air).With this method we try to keep the product underthe LEL.

Acetylene is a diffirent story for several reasons.When heated up and therefore increasing thepressure, a hit or other physical impact on thecylinder (falling over) can anatomize the productin the cylinder creating energy (exothermic pro-cess).Under this influence a BLEVE can occur.

Lengthy cooling of cylinders is essential (2 x 24hours). Placing the cylinders under water is notgood enough. The cylinders will just heat up thewater.

Transporting the cylinders is extremely dangerous.Only after the cylinder is cooled down and is coldenough, physical handling becomes safe.

Breathing apparatus & working ina hot and humid environment

Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment

SAFETY WHEN USING BREATHINGAPPARATUS

A breathing apparatus wearer brings him orherself in potentially dangerous situations.Smoke and heat can make tasks difficult andthey may also have to deal with stressfulsituations such as searching for casualties, whichincrease the problems.

A BA-wearer must act decisivily but be able torecognise dangerous situations and actaccordingly.Your own safety and the safety of your buddy is ofthe utmost importance.

In order to increase the safety it is important,when working with BA, to act and work accordingto predefined and well trained procedures.Procedure are developed for:

Donning of the face maskThe use and control of the face maskReplacing the cylinder

We assume that these procedures are known.

In this chapter one can find the most importantguidelines to increase the safety of personswearing breathing apparatus.

Preparing BA-sets for storage

By preparing the BA-sets in the fire station thefirst step for a swift intervention is made.By preparing in advance we can prevent loss oftime for a BA-team to be ready.

The BA-team can assume that all the equipmentis prepared and checked the cylinders are full.

When preparing the BA-sets it is important that anumber of actions are made.

First the cylinder, backpack and mask must bechecked for visual flaws.After this visual inspection the cylinder is mountedon the backpack.By opening the valve on the cylinder the pressurein the cylinder can be checked (pressure gauge)and the system can be checked for leakages.When there are no problems the valve can beclosed.The system is still under pressure and the nexttest that can be executed is the testing of thealarm signal (whistle). To do this the air in thesystem should be released very slowly.


As soon as the pressure in the system is lowerthan 55 bars the alarm signal will be activated.The next procedure is adjusting the carryingstraps on the backpack to the maximum.The facemask must be packed in a plastic bagand when dealing with a strap mask the strapsmust be loosened to the maximum.The BA-sets are now ready to use and can bestored in the fire station.

Preparing BA-sets for use

In case of an incident the fire team must wear BAas soon as possible in order to be ready for duty.Preparing always takes place in a safeenvironment.Before and after the use of BA the wearer shouldalways perform the following number of actions.

When the BA-set is taken from the fire station,firstly the red button on the regulator must beactivated (pressed) to prevent air escapingunnecessarily.After this the valve on the cylinder is opened andthe pressure in the cylinder is checked by readingthe pressure gauge. The cylinder is also checked for leakage.When there are no problems the valve can beclosed.The system is still under pressure and the nexttest is the testing of the alarm signal.To do this the air in the system should be releasedvery slowly.

After this final test the red button on the regulatormust be pressed.After these checks the valve on the cylinder isopened fully and than closed one quarter turn toprevent the cylinder opening from freezing.The BA-set is ready to wear.

Upon donning the BA-set it is possible that thefireman’s outfit becomes dissaranged.The collar on the helmet may cause problems soin order to protect the fire team members it isimportant that clothing is checked and wherenecessary adjusted.Now the plastic protection bag can be removedfrom the mask and the straps of the mask shouldbe adjusted to the maximum.The mask is hanging around the neck with thecarrying strap until the wearer goes into action.

Previous to an action the mask is placed on theface and the regulator is clicked onto the mask.


The connection of the regulator onto the maskneeds to be checked. Finally the helmet is placedon the head, the collar is closed and the glovesare put on. When necessary supplementaryclothing can be donned.

Due to the fact that it is essential that the fire teamis fast but properly dressed operationally, it is wiseto use a so-called dress man (with enoughpersonnel available).A dress man is a person who can help membersof a fire team when dressing up and preparing foran action.


Control of the fire team by the On SceneCommander (OSC)

After the OSC has briefed the fire team and giventhem their task the OSC finally checks the teammembers.The OSC checks the fire team to ascert theiroutfit is ok and if mask and regulator are properlyin place.The OSC also checks the availability and workingof the flashlight, radio and fire hose.The OSC finally checks and writes down thepressure in the cylinder of each team memberbefore they go into action.


Safety rules for thr fire team during an action

The following safety rules apply for members of afire team:

When working indoors a team always consistsof at least 2 members and they always staytogether.With the use of the pressure gauge thepressure in the cylinder is regularly checked, inprincipal the BA-wearer must be in a safe areabefore the alarm whistle is activated.If leakage is discovered the team membersmust immediately return.If one of the fire team members must return,the other team member always accompanieshim.

Calculation on use of air

StrainThe use of air from the BA-set depends on anumber of factors: the intensity of the work, thelevel of training, the level of fitness of the personand the amount of stress that is apparent.In order to calculate the amount of air that isbeing used we use an average air consumption of40 litres per minute. As a safety precaution 55 barof air is considered spare and is not being used.The remaining amount is considered ‘workpressure’. The amount for usage is calculatedwith the following formula:Start pressure cylinder – spare pressure = workpressureStart pressure 300 bar – spare pressure 55 bar =work pressure 245 bar

Pressure on return

During the way in the amount of air that is beingused is about the same as on the way back. Thereason is that the BA wearer needs more time onthe way in during searching and checking of thesurrounding. The way back might seem fasterbecause he has familiarized himself with theenvironment and because the fire hose acts as aguide but, because of the possible tiredness, theintensity of the action and the possible contactwith high temperatures has made him tired andwill slow him down. From experience we knowthat the consumption of air during the way in isalmost equal to the consumption on the way out.In order to calculate how much air one needs forthe way back the following formula can be used:Work pressure : 2 + spare pressure = retreatpressureExample.245 bar : 2 = 122,5 bar + 55 bar = 178 bar


EQUIPMENT

Torch

The torch must be of the explosion proof type andeasy to handle. It is favourable if the torch can beconnected to either the jacket or to the BA-set.

Hose

It is recommended that the fire team is equippedwith a fire hose.This has two advantages with respect to thesafety of the fire team.

The hose can be used as a guideline whenvisibility is poor andwhen the fire team comes into contact withpossible fires the team can protect itself and/orstart extinguishing immediately.

Safety line

The safety line is a good tool when fire team membersmust stay in contact with each other when, forexample, they are searching in a large area.One of the team members can stay in contact withone of the walls while the other team member sweepsthe area.

Radio

The radio is carried in such a way that the teamcan hear all the messages that are broadcasted.

Axe/master key

In order to gain access to closed compartmentsaxes were being used. Nowadays the materialsused and/or the construction of doors is in such away that an axe is off little help. On top of thatthere can be a lot of collateral damage.Most of the times a master key is present avoidingunnecessary work and damage.

COMMUNICATION

Between team members

Because of the face mask, the helmet andsurrounding sounds team members might not beable to receive radio messages.The person transmitting the messages musttherefore speak slowly and with a clear voice.The message should be brief and to the point.The receiving party can hold his breath to avoiddisturbing noises from his BA-set.


Radio contact between the fire team and theOSC or bridge

Because of the above mentioned factors and thestress during the action messages from the OSCor bridge must be short, to the point andsometimes in sections.If possible the message should be repeated bythe fire team to make sure that the teamunderstands the message.

CASUALTIES

Alerting a casualty

From previous situations we have learned thatcalling the missing persons name gives the bestresponse during a search.

Transporting a casualty who is still mobile

If a casualty can still walk he can be accompaniedin between the team members to a safe area.This is to avoid losing the casualty.

The casualty should stay as low as possible inorder to avoid breathing in hot and/or toxicvapours.

The fire team members must be aware that thecasualty can panic.These reactions can be dangerous to the fireteam members

Transporting a casualty who’s not mobile

If the casualty must be carried it is recommendedthat one team member carries the legs and theother team member carries the upper body.

Due to the fact that the team is performing adifficult job (heat, carrying a person, the use of aBA-set and the possible use of staircases) it isrecommended to ask for assistance or see to itthat assistance is organised.

Triage

When multiple casualties are detected a selectionmust be made of who must be helped first.This can be a very difficult situation. It isemphasized that persons with the best chancesof recovery must be rescued first to limit theamount of casualties.


WORKING IN HOT AND HUMIDATMOSPHERES

In general, fire fighters often fail to consider thephysiological effects of heat when it is associatedwith humidity.

Nevertheless, these effects can have seriousconsequences, such as mental confusion, leadingto incorrect decisions, performance levelsdeteriorate, manipulative skills, visual skills andinspection tasks become increasingly moredifficult beyond the effective temperature of 29°C.

Mental skills are found to be less efficientlyperformed beyond an effective temperature of39°C.This does not however, necessarily indicate thatany given degree of heat will produce all thesesymptoms.

There are many qualifying factors to consider. Inorder to understand the combined effects of heatand humidity, it is necessary to have some basicknowledge of how the human body maintains itstemperature within about half a degree of 37°C.

The main thermo-regulatory system is complex,serving the need to maintain normal bodytemperature to thermal equilibrium of the deep-laying tissues of the body within a narrow rangeof temperature.

There are some temperature differences in thelimbs and outer body tissues; however the deepbody temperature must be maintained to avoidheat stress.

If the normal body temperature is to bemaintained in equilibrium, then the amount ofheat gained by the body must be equalled by theamount lost from it.

Ultimately, the amount of heat exchangedbetween the body and the environment dependson the differences of temperature and of vapourpressure that exists between the skin and it’ssurrounding.

There are five ways in which the body loosesheat:

Convection (passage of air)Radiation (surface temperature)Vaporisation (breathing)Evaporation (sweating)Conduction


Convection

Convection currents around the body accountsfor about 25% of the heat loss. It is well knownthat hot air is lighter than cold, therefore hot airrises as it expands.

This means that the air around the body becomeswarm, it then rises and is replaced by cool air.Tight restricted clothing and certainly clothingworn by fire fighters can reduce the amount ofheat that would be dissipated by this process.

Radiation

Radiation from the body can account for up to50% of heat loss from a person at rest. Loss ofheat by radiation is dependant upon thesurrounding temperature being lower than that ofthe body.

If the surrounding temperature is higher than thatof the body, then the body will absorb heat.Working in hot atmospheres requires the body tobe protected against radiated heat from the fire,but at the same time, the fire kit worn by firefighters prevents body heat being lost byradiation.

Vaporisation

Working hard in a hot and humid atmosphere,cause the body temperature to rise; therefore thetemperature of the blood rises. The blood iscooled in the lungs by inhalation of cool air, andthe body gives off heat through exhaled breath.The use of compressed air in breathing apparatusassists in this vaporisation process.

Evaporation

The rise in temperature of the deep tissues of thebody, or of the skin, must provide some indicationof how heat stress is causing strain on thethermal-regulatory system.

Heart rate increases are followed by theproduction of sweat.Since the evaporation of sweat constitutes thebody’s main defence against over-heating, thepresence of a humid atmosphere can slow downand even stop the evaporation process.

Working in very hot and humid environmentscauses heat production in the body to increase.


Only 25% of the energy liberated by the chemicalchanges involved in muscular activity is convertedinto work energy, the remaining is converted intoheat energy.

When the human body is subjected to heat, thereis a general reddening of the skin due to anincreased blood flow in the vessels of the skin.

By bringing more heat to the surface, the bodyincreases heat loss due to radiation, but if thetemperature of the environment is higher thanthat of the body then the body may absorb heatfrom outside through the increased blood flow.

Another effect of heat is the increase of thermalsweating, so that the whole trunk, forehead,backs of hands and legs become moist.Pulse rate increases to approximately 20 beatsper minute for each one-degree rise in bodytemperature, accompanied by an increasedbreathing rate.

These effects increase the oxygen consumed bythe body. If the body temperature is allowed torise unchecked, a breakdown occurs in the body’sthermo-regulatory system, symptoms of distressand illness appear.

These symptoms may be classed under threeseparate headings:

Heat exhaustion.Heat syncope (low blood pressure)Heat stroke

Heat exhaustion

Heat exhaustion is the most common reactionamongst fire fighters. In hot moist environments,heat exhaustion develops even more quickly thanin dry conditions.Induced by excessive sweating, the bodytemperature remains more or less normal,because the excess heat is given off inevaporation of sweat from the body. Sweatconsists of salt and water, and the body canloose an appreciable amount of both. Saltdeficiency can cause muscle cramps, headaches,weakness, fainting and collapse.Treatment is to administer water containing asmall amount of salt. The symptoms will beaggravated if pure water is taken after sweating,since the remaining salts in the body will bediluted.


Heat syncope

The body’s thermal regulatory system pushesmore blood to the surface in an attempt to cool it.If this condition becomes extreme, the bloodpressure will drop due to the amount of bloodbeing pushed to the dilated surface vessels. Withnow a drop in pressure, insufficient blood reachesthe brain. Less blood means less oxygen thusfainting occurs. Treatment is to remove from theheat and attempt to get the blood back to thebrain.

Heat stroke

Heat stroke is the term for the most seriousdisorder. The fundamental feature of heat strokeis an extreme and uncontrolled elevation of bodytemperature.

High temperatures (41°C. or even higher) exertits harmful effect chiefly on the central nervoussystem.

The changes that occur include a drop, or nearcessation of sweating, collapse, coma and evendeath if prompt treatment by cooling is notstarted.

Treatment is to remove clothing and cool bycovering with wet towels or spraying with coldwater.

Precautions

Do not allow fire teams in hot and humidatmospheres any longer than absolutelynecessary.

If the situation permits change the wearer to limitexposure and allow recovery.

The teams can also minimize stresses on theirbodies by adopting good working procedures andgood teamwork i.e. staying low out of the heatand sharing the work load by working together.

Prevention, organization and drills


PREVENTION, ORGANIZATION ANDDRILLS

Accident prevention, particularly fire is especiallyimportant than on a ship, as the consequencescould be disastrous. Prevention measures arerequired for certification, by insurance companiesand in certain countries the port will conductinspections concerning the preventativemeasures on that ship.Prevention is not just detection systems and firefighting systems, but more importantly the meansto prevent a fire from starting in the first place.Good prevention begins with ship design,secondly at the top of the organization with acarefully formulated policy, which can be carriedout effectively by the ship’s crew. The main areasof concern are education of the crew, riskassessment and inspection of systems.

Construction

To prevent fire spread ships are designed in sucha way that fires can be contained as far aspossible.According to SOLAS regulations ships have tocomply with the following:

Division of the ship into main vertical zonesby thermal and structural boundariesSeparation of accommodation from the restof the ship by thermal and structuralboundariesRestricted use of combustible materialsDetection of the fire in the zone if originContainment and extinguishing of any fire in thespace of originProtection of means of escape or access forfire fightingReady availability of fire extinguishingappliancesMinimise the possible ignition of flammablecargo

A-class division

Constructed of steel or other equivalentmaterial and suitably stiffenedCapable of preventing the passage of smokeand flames for one hourBe insulated such that the unexposed sidewill not rise in temperature more than 139°Celsius nor at any one point more than 180°Celsius above original temperature within thetime (see following page)


Class A-60 60 minutes

Class A-30 60 minutes (after 30 minutes T > 139° C.)



B-class division

Division formed by bulkheads, decks, ceilings orlinings.

Capable of preventing the passage of smokeand flames for the first half hourBe insulated such that the unexposed sidewill not rise in temperature more than 139°Celsius nor at any one point more than 225°Celsius above original temperature within thetime listed

Class B-30 30 minutes (after 30 minutes T > 139° C.)



C-class division

Constructed of approved non combustiblematerials preventing the passage of smoke, flamesor rise in temperature on exposed surfaces.

F-class division

Class F is equivalent to Class B.

The human element

The human element is very often the cause ofaccidents; therefore a great deal of attention mustbe placed on the crew. Educating the crew in thecauses of fires and working procedures will helpreduce the risk and frequency of fires. Built infeatures such as fire resisting construction;ventilation, fuel and electrical controls; and firefighting systems are key areas of knowledgerequired by the crew to control an out break of fire.

Inspection and maintenance is another key area totarget in the fire safety policy. Inspectingequipment and appropriate service scheduling willreduce the chance of failure and subsequent fire.Risk assessment should also be regularly carriedout, to identify possible combustible materials andpotential ignition sources and then setting up acontrol measure to prevent the two combining tostart a fire.


Inspection of fire detection and fire fighting equip-ment is the third area of concern of the safetypolicy. Regular tests of detection equipment asrecommended by the manufacture or other advi-sory bodies will maintain the systems in the mostreliable and effective state.

Fire fighting equipment can be tested during firedrills to maintain their effectiveness. Fixed firefighting systems are maintained again by followingthe recommended inspection schedules. In theevent of a fire then all the crew must work as acohesive unit, following a prepared plan. TheStation Bill forms the basis of this emergencyorganisation.

The emergency organisation

The basis of this organisation is set out in theStation Bill, which identifies the key roles within anemergency team, giving duties which speed up theresponse and forms the command structure foreffective decision making i.e. closing team, attackteam, team leader etc.Organisations are designed around the ship de-sign and manning levels, where automatic systemswill be used to cover manned functions on shipswith small crews.

The command structure in fire situations will alsovary according to the ships size and complexity.The organisation will help control the incident,particularly in the early staging where chaos andpanic will increase the demands on the crew andofficers; however the organisation must be flexibleenough to cope with sudden changes i.e. a miss-ing person who holds a key function in the team.

Preparation

Preparation prior to a fire or incident is vital. Theofficer and crew must learn the basic proceduresindicated on the Station Bill and any special proce-dures to cover special loads or hazards. Intimateknowledge of the ships facilities shown on theship’s fire safety plan is essential to control the firein the early stages.

The crew must be fully aware of their tasks anduse of their equipment and it must be testedduring a fire drill.All the equipment used in controlling a fire must bein a perpetual state of readiness, from theventilation controls through to the batteries fullycharged in the lamps, everything is important.


The fire attack teams are required to have basicskills and competence as laid down inthe STCW95 training standards.

These requirements are as follows:Use of various portable fire extinguishersUse of BA (breathing apparatus)Extinguishing smaller fires, electrical, oil etcExtinguishing fires using jet and spray nozzleswith waterExtinguish fires using foam, powder andchemical agentsEntering and passing through a compartmentwith high expansion foam using no BAFighting fires in enclosed spaces using BAUse fog or steam for fire suppression

The above standards can be tested during thecompulsory fire drill.

Fire drill

The purpose of the fire drill is to test the efficiencyof the organization. The crew must be challengedin order to make it interesting and moreimportantly to learn from mistakes.The danger is to make the drill a routine that doesnot test the organization.One focused drill is more beneficial than repeatinga routine drill many times.Change the drill each time to stimulate andchallenge thought.The drill can also be used to check and testequipment in the drill environment, required underSOLAS i.e. fire pumps, breathing apparatus, firesuits and communications.

A successful meaningful drill requires thoughtbefore the drill begins, firstly defining the learningobjectives, setting the timing and allocating time todebrief afterwards.The objectives must reflex key tasks to beperformed and must be measurable against astandard i.e. one objective could be to dresseffectively in fire outfits and breathing apparatuswithin a fixed time frame, effectively means skin isfully protected and the start up tests areperformed on the breathing apparatus.

Once the objectives are set, a scenario can bewritten, which incorporates specific events andconsequences of certain actions, the scriptshould test all of thecrew.


The drill begins with a report of fire and subse-quent sounding of the alarm, indicating that it is adrill, but trying to bring an element of surprise andrealism. Occasionally begin the drill by a report offire from sources other than the bridge. The speedof reaction, mustering, and specific duties per-formed, setting up of the command and communi-cations should be analysed.

The attack on the fire will depend upon the sce-nario, however the leadership, assessment of thesituation and subsequent decisions should beevaluated. Create chaos to see if the team cancontrol and react to the ever changing situations afire can create.

Evaluate the drill; by assessing if the objectiveswere reached, being critical about actions so thatthe lessons learned can be incorporated in theprocedures. The crew should be encouraged toparticipate uninhibited, without fear of makingmistakes. The drill will go wrong, but then lessonsare learned. A drill that is perfectly conducted isnot challenging the crew.The standards of competence can be improvedthrough drilling. Specific skills can be identified,taught, demonstrated and practised. Slow downthe task and repeat until the person or team dem-onstrates a set level of competence. Endeavour toshare information and experience gained by allmembers of the crew.Document the fire drill for future reference, toassess improvements in the organisation.



LEADERSHIP

This section deals with leadership, how tomanage an incident effectively involving fire orspillage of a dangerous product.

The approach to leadership in emergencysituations is based on a system used by fire andemergency services; it is called functionalleadership which analyses the functions involvedin dealing with an emergency.

Previous approaches made assumptions thatleaders were born with the qualities to lead.Certain qualities, courage, integrity, commonsense etc, may help to lead but a good leadermay not have to display these characteristics.

Another approach suggests that the leader havingskill or knowledge to deal with a situation makesthe best leader. There is a little truth in thisapproach; however this is not the whole picture indealing with an emergency.

A better approach is to analyse the functionsinvolved.Leadership can only be applied to groups who areconfronted with a need to take action or makedecisions

Within a group 3 areas of need exist:task needsteam maintenance needsindividual needs

Task needs

Groups formed to undertake a task too complexor too impractical for one person to accomplish.

Team maintenance needs

The group to achieve the task must be heldtogether as a cohesive team.

Individual needs

The group has individuals, who have their owndemands, which contribute to the functioning ofthe group.

The functions of a good leader are to recognisethe 3 areas of need, thus be aware of the needsof the group and perform the thought processes,communications and actions to satisfy the needsof the group.


Task functions

Defining the task.Making a plan.Allocating work ind resources.Con|rolling quality and resources.Checking performance against plan.Aljusting plan.

Team maintenance functions

Setting standards.Maintaining discipline.Building team spirit.Praising, motivating and giving a sense of

purpose.Ensuring communications within the group.Training the group.

Individual functions

Attending to personal problems.Praising individuals.Giving status.Recognising and using individual abilities.Training the individual.

In an emergency the task needs are going to takepriority and less attention is given to the other two,unless the team or an individual is not performing,in which case attention must be given to these inorder to control the situation. In the trainingperiods the team and individual needs can be builtup in preparation for the high task priorities.

To simplify the thought processes the following 6functions must be addressed by the leader tomeet the needs of the group.

PlanningBriefingControlSupportInformingEvaluating

Failure to perform anyone of these functions willresult in partial or total failure of the group toachieve its aim.


Planning

This process concerns obtaining all availableinformation, determining the extent of the task,deciding on a plan of action and an order ofpriorities. The initial alarm will initiate the fireorganisation which has already allocated key rolesand duties to help contain the fire, however followup works on fire location, size and possibilities ofescalation and will dictate further actions.The control of compartments, fuel cut andventilation are important initials actions, whichshould be performed as early as possible.

Limitations on manpower and equipment can giveserious restrictions, thus a quick response tocontrol the incident is essential or to preventescalation then use of passive protection (fireresisting bulkheads) and active measures (fixedfire fighting systems, fire teams) must be placedeffectively.The main priority in formulating an attack plancomes with safety of the crew. Assessment of therisk involved must be performed beforecommitting teams, particularly in the engine roomwhere temperatures can increase rapidly in ashort time.Next priority considered is rescue, if a missingperson has a chance of survival then a quickresponse has to be made, but again assess therisk to the rescuers.

The incident may be dealt with in one of two ways,direct attack on the fire or indirect attack, meaningcontrolling the growth of(the incident i.e. surroundthe fire with boundary cooling until the firesuffocates itself. The choice depends on theextent of the fire, the time required to begin theattack and possible casualties.Before an attack first consider dangers such asBLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding VapourExplosion) if closed containers are involved.

The following list will help establish the priorities:Safety of the crew and fire teams.Rescue of endangered personnel.Exposure of containers to fire, which couldresult in additional fires, the worst case is aBLEVE.Confinement of the fire, preventing firespread to surrounding area i.e. fire canspread in 6 directions, thus the fire needs tobe blocked and confined.Extinguish the fire when it is safe to do so andwhen the correct means are available.Over haul, returning the scene back to safecondition.


When controling an operation special attentionmust be given to the toxic atmosphere generatedas a result of the incident as this is a risk tounprotected personnel.The restarting of systems such as ventilation maycause further problems i.e. re-ignition thereforeprecautions must be taken.Following the fire plans checks need to be madefor regularly checking the scene for re-ignition.

Briefing

The purpose of the briefing is to allocate tasks,explain the aim, if necessary the reasons why andto set standards i.e. team to extinguish a liquid firewith foam, build up the foam system in a safearea and when foam is being produced, apply toliquid without disturbing liquid surface.

There are many considerations to the briefing;however it can be simplified providing thestandards are set prior to the emergency in thetraining sessions, team maintenance andindividual needs.The briefing should be clear, accurate and concise.

Control

Once the team is set to work, the role of theleader or a delegated officer is to control theeffectiveness of the crew and the workingenvironment continuously.

Ensure that all actions are contributing to the aim,maintain crew standards and if necessaryinfluence the tempo of the actions which will affectthe outcome.

The working environment will need to bemonitored, particularly the stability of the vesseland growth of the fire which effect the safety ofthe working teams. (see Evaluating)

Supporting

In order to maintain the team and individual needs,it will be necessary to help the group emotionallywith encouragement or physically with backupand support.

Less time can be spent on this function, if it isaddressed in the training sessions with teambuilding. However long protracted incidents maystill require emotional supporting actions to betaken.


Informing

The communications links should be set up toassist in the flow of information two ways.

The command must inform crews of all mattersaffecting their activities, particularly mattersconcerning their own safety and the commandmust have reports back from the crews, in orderto carry out evaluation of the progress.

Evaluating

The achievements need to be compared with theoriginal plan.The performance needs to be checked with theplan.In each situation the plan needs to be modified orremedial action taken.The situation on the ship may change rapidly;therefore the command must monitor conditionsregularly.

Debriefing after an incident can also be veryeffective at highlighting good work, problems andweaknesses in the performance.

Decision making

The style of leadership in an emergency will beautocratic, due to the urgency of the situation.

However leaders will vary their style to bedemocratic if the situation and time pressuresallow.

Decision sharing will produce sounder decisionswhen skills and knowledge is coming from withinthe group.

The styles of leadership varies from autocratic todemocratic as follows:

A leader makes a decision and announces it.TELLS

A leader makes a decision and sells it.SELLS

A leader presents a plan and invites questionsbefore deciding.

CONSULTSA leader presents a problem and invitessuggestions before deciding.

CONSULTSA leader defines limitations and asks group tomake decision.

JOINS


Delegate

To delegate is the practice of granting authority orthe right of decision taking in certain definedareas, and charging the subordinate with theresponsibylity for carrying out an assigned task.The delegating officer should retain accountability.

It is an efficient use of time, skills, abilities andresources.

Much can be gained from delegating including:Speeds up action by people makingdecis ions closest to the action.Reduction in workload and concentration onother more important issues.Development of personnel and full use oftheir skills Improves mutual trust, morale andconfidence.

Only delegate if the individual understands andcan do the task.Set limits within which that individual may operateand give full support and control withoutundermining.

Never delegate matters essential to your overallcontrol and matters concerning discipline.

Summary

The functional leadership approach can providethe inexperienced with a quick understanding tolead effectively in an emergency and the moreexperienced to evaluate for further development.

Tactics

Tactics

COMMON TYPES OF FIRES ANDASSOCIATED TACTICS

Small fires discovered in the early stages arerelatively easy to deal with by a member of thecrew using a small extinguisher. Speed, calmapproach and skill are all required by that personto prevent the situation from deteriorating.

The crewmember must in any event raise thealarm to begin the mustering of the fire parties andto start essential procedures to prevent firespreading further. The crewmember must bemindful of his /her own safety, whilst making anattempt to extinguish the fire.

With larger fires, the fire parties must gathertogether all the necessary information, equipmentand support to bring the fire under control.

It may not be so easy to extinguish the fire directly,thus an order of priorities as discussed in theleadership chapter need to be adopted such asrescue, preventing fire spread and extinguishing.

Rescue

Rescue is a very important priority in the overalltactic. If a person trapped in a smoky environmenthas any chance of survival, particularly with theformation of highly toxic gases from modernmaterials, then rescue is number one priority.Emotions can run very high in the case of amissing colleague, therefore care must be takenthat further problems do not arise from a vainrescue attempt.

Life is more important than the ship, howeverthere are situations where the controlling of thefire is demanded i.e. to safely reach the missingperson or the safety of the entire crew is at riskfrom the spreading fire.

Speedy extrication of the victim from theintolerable atmosphere to a place of safety isessential, however great difficulties can be facedin carrying an unconscious victim, particularlyvertically. Initial actions may be to move the victimhorizontally to a place of relative safety i.e. astaircase enclosure until more assistance can beattained.

Tactics

Fire fighting inside the ship

Smoke detection is an important factor in dealingwith accommodation fires. Early detection meanssmall fires and early warning for evacuation of(eg. sleeping crew members).A small fire can be extinguished by an unprotectedperson using portable water or light water foamextinguishers providing the smoke is notuntenable.

Always raise the alarm first so the fire teams canprepare.The suspected room should be first investigatedby carefully opening the door (see doorprocedures).Make the extinguisher ready and use if possible ahose reel for backup, before opening the door. Staylow and do not enter if smoke is present.Remember the smoke is highly toxic. If the situationis escalating, shut the door immediately and givefollow up information to the preparing fire team.

Larger fires confined in smaller areas, combinedwith heat and formation of smoke make a veryhostile environment for fire fighting. The alarmmust be preceded by limiting the spread of thefire, stopping the mechanical ventilation and/oractivating the fire dampers to confine the fire to acompartment (cubic theory).

Attention must also be given to stopping of fuelsupplies (engine, pump rooms) and isolating theelectrics in the affected area.

Teams must be constantly looking out for firespread and other dangers (see flashover andback draft).

Knowledge of the construction of the shipsurrounding the fire is essential to guard againpossible hidden fire spread.

Teams entering for fire fighting must check theentry route for other outbreaks of fire; signs suchas smoke, blistering of paintwork and hotsurfaces.

This is particularly important in accommodationwhere “C” class construction is used, whichoffers no defence against the passage of hotgases.

Tactics

Attack is best made from the same level or frombelow the fire, otherwise if forced to enter abovethe fire, then the team will have to move throughthe hot gases being produced.In such a case the team needs to move quickly tobreak through the heat barrier, and take care thattheir escape route is not going to be cut off, if thefire continues to grow.An assessment should be made beforeattempting to enter in such a fashion and firstbegin with cooling the fire gases.Remember that steam and hot gases may bedriven out onto the fire team; therefore the teammust stay low and to the side of the passage ofhot products until a difference in temperature isnoticed.A back up hose line must be in place at the entrypoint to safeguard the escape route of the teamworking below.

A hose set on spray can be very effective indriving the smoke and heat away from the team,but a means to exhaust the smoke must beprovided, otherwise the whole area becomespressurised with steam and hot gas, humidityincreases (see heat stress chapter) and visibilityis hampered.Using water continuously can give stabilityproblems, particularly if water is allowed toaccumulate high up in the ship. One normal hosecan add around 15 ton of water in one hour.

Ventilation can be used tactically to improve theconditions for fire fighting, but must be carefullythought through before attempting. The ventilationtactic can be divided into two basic approaches,namely vertical and horizontal means, usingnatural means and if available portablemechanical fans.

No attempt should be made of ventilating usingthe ships ventilation system, as the fire canspread unpredictably.In each case plan a route for the hot gases to flowand protect against further out breaks of fire usingwater spray.

Vertical ventilation is the easiest and safestsolution, although not always available to achievedue to the layout, but the hottest and mostdangerous gases are best removed from thehighest point, whilst the team enters to attack thefire at the lower level. Not only is the compartmentcooler, but the visibility is also improveddramatically.

Tactics

Horizontal ventilation is the means using naturalflow of the air across the ship. It can be moredifficult to control, however the basic procedure isto provide an exhaust outlet for the hot gases onthe leeward side, a fraction in time before theupwind inlet vent is opened.

Portable mechanical fans can be used to create aflow of air through the area to assist in heat andsmoke removal, or water sprays directedoutwards from the affected area could provide anegative pressure, thus drawing out the heat andsmoke.

If enough teams are available, a combination ofvertical and horizontal, natural and mechanicalcan be employed to tackle a more severe fire.

Accommodation fires

The attacking of a cabin fire must be done withcare, especially when the room shows signs ofhigh temperatures.Do not underestimate the risk of flashover andback draft. Always check the door before decidingto open to attack the fire.

The water spray will give the team someprotection in the event of an explosion (seeflashover and back draft), however due to theheavy inflexible hose line it is very important that itis in position covering the door before opening,there is little time to react!

The water spray must first be directed to theceiling to cool the fire gases, shutting the doorafter each application, the forming of steam in aclosed space will help to inert the atmosphere.Once the temperature has decreased then amore direct attack is possible. A beam of waterwill provide a great striking force, but can alsocause more water damage and destroy evidencerequired for establishing the cause.

Water spray will minimize water damage andkeep the fire scene intact.Class A type fires are notorious for re-igniting,unless the seat of fire is carefully turned over touncover smouldering hot spots. (bulls eyes)

Tactics

Engine room fires

There are a number of scenarios involving theengine room, namely small fuel spill fires,pressure spray fires, overheating of bearings,large spill and pressurized liquid fires and firesinvolving switch gear. Engine room incidents arenormally attributed to carelessness, whether badworking procedures or bad maintenance.

Small oil spill fires can normally be extinguishedwith a portable powder or CO² extinguisher, if aperson is present at the time of ignition. Quickreaction in isolating the source of the leak togetherwith stopping the ventilation, closing doors etc. areessential tasks for effective control.

The longer the fire is left unattended the bigger theproblem can be and because powder and CO²have very little cooling capabilities, the fire couldre-ignite due to the presence of hot metal.In this event no hesitation must be made in usingwater sprays, for a combined powder and waterspray attack and after cooling of the affected area.

Water spray, particularly in a fog pattern is verygood at cooling equipment, even high temperatureequipment, without causing thermal stress.

Portable foam equipment may also be a goodalternative, providing the foam blanket caneffectively cover the spill.Bilge design may make a direct foam attackdifficult and time consuming.

Small oil spray fires ignited on hot surfaces caneasily be extinguished; firstly by closing the fuelvalves and then using a combination of water andpowder to give good results. Powder on its ownmay not be sufficient as the fire may flash back onthe hot metal.Safe approach by the fire team due to the quicklyrising temperatures must be considered i.e. entryvia the propeller shaft tunnel door or if a similarlyprotected low-level approach is available.Consider options of vertical ventilation aspreviously described.

A fire team cannot safely extinguish larger fires inthe engine room. The use of the fixed installationis essential to control the fire. A rapid assessmentneeds to be carried out as a delay in the use couldseriously affect the outcome. Remember there isnormally only enough gas to make one attempt;hence the use must be strictly controlled toprevent a wasted effort.

Tactics

For CO2 total flooding systems the mainconsiderations are as follows:

Stop ventilation.Close all doors, shutters and dampers.

The system is designed to flood 85% of the gaswithin 2 minutes.

Leave the area closed for at least two hours toallow it to cool naturally. Use the emergency firepump to set up cooling around the engine casingto assist in cooling and prevent the fire spreadingby conduction into the superstructure. Monitor thetemperatures around the engine casing.Re-entry should be cautiously done preferably atthe highest level so as not to disturb the CO2concentration. The team must wear breathingapparatus, as the atmosphere will contain toxic byproducts and inadequate oxygen for human life forany substantial time.The concentration may be suitable to extinguishflaming materials however the oxygen levels arestill high enough to support smouldering of class Amaterials, especially high in the engine casing,where the oxygen the levels will be higher.

Therefore keep water ready to tackle smallpockets of smouldering materials and be preparedfor a sudden outbreak of fire.

Halon total flooding systems are very different to aCO2 system. Halon is a very powerful inhibitor,which stops the chain reaction of combustionwithout dramatically changing the oxygen levels.The discharge is approximately 10 seconds,which will extinguish the fire with minimumdecomposition of the Halon gas, which becomesacidic.

Early decision to activate the system minimizesfailure of the system to extinguish the fire andreduce the decomposition of the gas making theengine room safer to enter later. The system isdesigned to close the ventilation to the affectedarea automatically. The rules of re-entry are thesame as CO2, to allow the area to cool withoutdisturbing the Halon concentrations.

A Hi fog fixed installation is another alternative forthe engine room.The system is more flexible, allowing more thanone attempt and also continuously cooling afterthe fire.The water fog is not directly hazardous to life;therefore it is not essential to evacuate the areabefore activation.

Tactics

Boiler uptake fires

The burning through of boiler water pipes or theoverheating of the boiler steel caused by a burningbuild up of soot deposits in the boiler uptakesystem will cause the leaking water to separate toform free hydrogen and oxygen.This hot oxygen rich atmosphere will start theboiler steel burning.

The application of water will intensify the reaction.The boiler water pipe fire can be controlled bystopping the water flow through the pipe, and letthe fire burn out.Fires in the boiler uptake can be extinguished bysailing at full power, thus generating largequantities of exhaust gases, which cool theburning steel.Whilst the fire burns itself out, there is a necessityto cool all adjacent areas to the uptake.

Crank case explosions

This explosion is caused when air builds up andmixes with oil vapour in the sump of a dieselengine, resulting in an explosion, possibly with orwithout fire.Good maintenance, together with oil mistdetectors and explosion limiters with reduce therisk of a serious explosion.Any fire resulting from the explosion can be dealtwith as described previously.

Cargo fires

If a fire starts during a voyage, the possibilities forattack are severely limited. Safe access to fight afire is the main problem.However the effects of the fire can be mitigated byclosing all ventilation and injecting the fixed gasfire fighting system. (CO2)The entire rack of gas must not be used, onlyenough to fill one hold to the recommendedconcentration, the remaining cylinders are held inreserve for topping up the concentration.The concentration of oxygen will be reducedenough to slow down combustion and evencompletely extinguish in certain situations.

Closely packed goods will prevent the CO2 fromreaching the seat of the fire; therefore the fire islikely to continue to smoulder.Close monitoring of the hold and carefullymaintaining a constant layer of CO2 bydischarging more cylinders will control the fireuntil port is reached.

Tactics

The other holds should also be monitored forpossible spreading through conduction. If safeentry is possible to adjacent holds, removal ofgoods away from the connecting bulkhead, or ifthis is not possible cooling water should beconsidered to prevent heat transfer.

Once in port decisions will be made together withthe port authority and the fire service as to thebest method of attack. Maybe bringing in extrasupplies of CO² and continue to smother the fire,however that process could take days anddepending on the damage to the hold, and henceexcessive leakage many tanker loads of CO²maybe required. After monitoring for heat thedecision may be taken to unload the hold carefullyin order to reach the deep-seated fires, firststarting with the tween deck and then the mainhold. Always have charged hose lines on handwhilst opening the hold.A last resort could be to flood the hold; howeverbefore that decision is made the implications onthe stability and stresses on the hull have to beexamined.An alternative to flooding with water is to applyhigh expansion foam, but the effectivenessdepends on the load and the ability to seal off thefire.

Refrigerated spaces give special problems as theinsulation may once on fire produce largeamounts of toxic smoke reducing visibility anddifficulties in locating the seat of the fire.

Container fires

The problem with this type of fire is again access.Below deck the same procedure as with a cargohold can be used. If access can be gained safelyattempt to isolate the affected container byapplying cooling water on all sides. Attention mustbe given to the bottoms of the container becausethey are made from wood. The contents of thecontainer must be checked on the cargo manifestbefore attempting to extinguish the container itself.Access permitting the suitable extinguishing agentcan be injected by boring a hole in the high side ofthe container.An alternative is to discharge the containeroverboard, again depending on accessibility andship facilities.

Refrigerated units, which require power, eitherdiesel generators or electrical compressors, mayresult in small fires outside the unit. Earlydetection and rapid response is essential toprevent the load from becoming involved.

Tactics

Oil tankers and gas carrier fires

The regulations governing this type of vessel arevery strict, because fire can be devastating. Themost likely scenario is a leakage during transfer atport or at anchor. Major fires at sea are usually aresult of grounding or a collision incident.

Each port will have set procedures for fire whilstin the port area which clearly state the action totake with the help of a civil fire service who will bein command.The notification and follow up procedures must bestrictly followed. For serious fires the portauthority may tow the ship away from berth to asafer location using the pre-laid fire wires(emergency towing off wires).

The procedures will involve activating the fixed firefighting installations covering the high-risk areassuch as pump rooms for discharging or bunkeringthe cargo.

These systems range from CO², foam and inertgas to water spray and high-pressure watersprinklers.The transfer of product must be immediatelystopped and the main engine and steering put onstandby.

Oil fires on deck can be extinguished with thefixed foam monitors whilst the surroundings areprotected with water spray. The superstructureoften has water curtains to protect against radiantheat; if not manual cooling must be set up.

Serious fires at sea following collision, all attemptsto control the fire must be made, howeverpreparations to abandon ship should beginimmediately, so the crew can leave the ship if thesituation deteriorates.The turning of the ship can reduce the heat toother tanks and the superstructure, reducing thechance of escalation and improving the approachcondition to the fixed foam monitors.

Turning the ship is also necessary to secure theescape routes to the lifeboat stations.

On a gas carrier small simple fires may beextinguished with powder. Larger fires as a resultof a major leak such as a flange seal failureshould not be extinguished, without stopping thesource of the leak.The resulting gas cloud formed will, if ignited,cause far more damage.

Tactics

Isolation of the gas line is the only sensiblesolution. The use of fixed water spray systemswill cool the area surrounding the fire preventing apossible BLEVE.Check if the cooling system is effective andsupplement with extra cooling as necessary,special attention must be given to flamesimpinging on other vessels and surfaces.The first reaction is to stop the leak manually.

If the valve is located near the fire, then the teamsequipped with hose lines using the water to form aprotective screen to shield from the radiating heatcan move in to close the valve.An un-ignited leakage of gas can cause seriousdamage if it finds an ignition source. Quickreactions in discovering the source of the leak andthe means to stop the discharge could avertdisaster.However attempts to disperse the gas cloud usingwater spray, together with turning the ship to morefavourable wind conditions will minimize theexplosion risk.About 1 litre of water in a spray pattern can injectas much as 3000 litres of air, thus lowering theconcentration of gas to below its lower explosionlimit.The spray should be directed in the gas cloud asclose to the leak as possible in such a way todirect the gas up and away from the ship.

Fire on RoRo Ferries

A fire on the vehicle deck can spread very quicklybecause of the closely packed vehicles.The enclosed vehicle decks are equipped withsprinkler/drencher systems to control the spreadof the fire from vehicle to vehicle.Particular problems are associated with high-sided vehicles, which may hinder the drenchereffect.

The system is not designed to extinguish the fireonly to contain the spread. Attention must begiven to exposure of fuel tanks and any running ofburning liquids over the deck.RoRo ships may carry dangerous goods,information of such must first be gained beforeextinguishing begins (see dangerous goods atsea chapter).

Cars can present special risks such as LPGtanks or suspension units that could explodewhen involved in fire. After the fire has beenextinguished check for any fuel leaks anddisconnect the battery to eliminate further ignition.

Dangerous goods at sea


DANGEROUS GOODS AT SEA

This chapter deals with the safe handling ofincidents involving hazardous materials, whetheras part of goods in transit, or hazardous materialsused in the normal operation of the ship.

Goods for transport

The International Maritime Organization haspublished a guide to be used for the safe transportof dangerous goods. The present guide, the IMDG(International maritime Dangerous Goods Guide)is in the form of 3 books, Volume 1, Volume 2 andthe Supplement.

Volume 1 forms the basis of how the consignmentis put together, which includes design criteria forpackages and containers, consignmentprocedures, restrictions and segregation rules forsafe transport.

Volume 2 gives specific details about thematerials in an easy to read table, the importantinformation in the event of a spillage or fire isgiven in the column named ‘Ems’. (Emergencyschedule)The supplement defines all the variousEmergency Schedules and a section detailingMedical First Aid Guide (MFAG).

In order to fully understand the hazardsassociated with these materials the materialshave been classified into 9 classes.The IMDG defines in volume 1 the hazards ineach of the classes. The classification ofdangerous goods together with the appropriatehazard warning diamond is as follows:

Class 1 Explosives

Sub divisions:1.1 Has a mass explosion hazard.1.2 Has a projection hazard but not mass

explosion hazard

1.3 Has a fire hazard and either a minor blast orminor projection hazard but not a massexplosion hazard

1.4 Has no significant hazard

1.5 Very insensitive substances with a massexplosion hazard

1.6 Extremely insensitive substances not havinga mass explosion hazard


Compatibility classes A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, L,N, S enable sub divisions to be transported withother sub divisions with the same compatibilityletter i.e.:Class 1.3A with Class 1.6A.

Class 2Gasses (general)

Class 2.1Flammable gases

Class 2.2Non-flammable, non-toxic gases

Class 2.3Toxic gases

Class 3Liquids (flammable liquids having a flash point ofess than 61°C)

Class 4Solids

Class 4.Flammable solids(self-reacting substances and desensitizedexplosives)

Class 4.2Substances liable to spontaneous combustion incontact with air

Class 4.3Substances, which, in contact with water, emitflammable gases

Class 5Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides

Class 5.1Oxidizing substances(oxidizing substances not necessarilycombustible but cause or contribute tocombustion of other material by giving oxygen)

Class 5.2Organic peroxidesOrganic peroxides are liable to exothermicdecomposition initiated by heat, contact withimpurities, friction or impact may have one ormore of the following characteristics:

Explosive decompositionBurn rapidlyReact dangerously with other substancesSensitive to impactCause damage to eyes


Class 6Toxic and infectious substances

Class 6.1Toxic substances

LD50 (oral, dermal) mg/kg

LC50 (inhalation) mg/l

Packing group I (high toxic)Packing group II (medium toxic)Packing group III (low toxic)

group oral toxicity dermal toxicity inhalationtoxicity

mg/kg mg/kg mg/lI < 5 < 40 < 0.5II > 5- 50 > 40 – 200 > 0.5 - 2

IIISolids > 50 - 200 > 200 - 1000 > 2 - 10

Liquids > 50 - 500 > 200 - 1000 > 2 - 10

Class 6.2Infectious substances

Class 7Radioactive material

Class 8Corrosive substancesBy chemical action these substances will causesevere damage to living tissue, damage ordestroy other goods or the means of transport.

Packing groups:I Very dangerous.(full thickness tissue damage with less than 3min. exposure)

II Present medium danger.(Full thickness tissue damage with more than 3min. exposure but less than 60 min.)

III Present low danger.(full thickness tissue damage with more than 60min. but less than 4 hours exposure OR do notcause full thickness tissue damage)

Class 9MiscellaneousIn order to deal with an incident involving ahazardous material, first the product has to beclassified, the appropriate product informationretrieved and the correct emergency schedulefrom the IMDG identified.


Identification of the affected load may be done in avariety of ways, cargo manifests, and containerbay plans will be the first means in establishingthe correct information.Hazard warning placards, UN numbers andmaterial safety data sheets used on regulartransported loads are useful points of reference.UN (United Nation number) is a 4-digit numberunique to that product.

To use the IMDG a reference point is required,either the UN number or product name.

In volume 2, the main index is in UN number order,considered the most reliable and easiest methodof identifying the product.If the UN number is not available, then analphabetical index can be used to cross referencethe data.The table will give information regarding packagingand transport limitations used by the shipper,however in column 15 the Ems is given and incolumn 17a description and physical propertiesare given.

The Ems listed in the supplement gives therequired actions to deal with a spillage or fire, andthe necessary precautions i.e. personal protectiveequipment.The Ems is based on grouping products whichhave similar characteristics together to form astandard method of action e.g. 3-06 indicates the6th schedule in the class 3 dangerous goods(flammable liquids).N.B. Any product that has special arrangements,which deviate from the schedule, will be listed atthe bottom of the schedule together with theappropriate action.

The medical first aid guide provides a referencepoint for key medical treatment.

The primary source of information is in the form ofa flow chart, which if followed covers in order ofpriorities the key points when examining thevictim’s condition, in relation to contact with adangerous product e.g. is there skin contact, ifyes the chart refers to table 8 to give the correcttreatment.

However there are products, which have specialarrangements for treatment. Those products arelisted at the end of the MFAG chapter.


Hazardous materials used in normaloperational use

Products that are used for operational use e.g.cleaning chemicals, water treatments; pose ahazard to health if there is a threat of spillage offire.Law requires that all products that possess a riskto health must have a material safety data sheetavailable for easy reference in safe handling innormal use and or fire/spillage situations.Identification of these products may involve othermeans, such as supply labels.

Key actions to control a spillage or fire

The fact that incidents are successfully controlledmay be a question of safe and easy access.Container and closely packed goods may not beeasy to deal with whilst underway at sea.However steps can be taken to mitigate theeffects, until port is reached where the load canbe discharged safely or if the risk to the port isconsidered too great, then help will be needed byspecialist salvage operators.

If access is easier than a disciplined andcontrolled response is required. The implicationsof accidental contact with a hazardous materialcan be grave and very costly, therefore a tightcontrol over the affected risk area is necessary.

Only personnel who have the appropriate level ofpersonal protection are allowed in the “dirty” area.Strict segregation, clear demarcation of the dirtyarea, with a physical barrier if necessary toenforce the controls, to prevent crosscontamination of unaffected personnel.

Setting up of the control zone should be the firstaction, obviously in a suitable upwind location.Without a monitoring device then try attaining20m. Incidentally the IMDG does NOT providedata on MAC (Maximum Allowable Concentration)or PEL (Permissible Exposure Limit) requiring theuse of monitors.

Once the safe area is indicated, then selection ofthe correct personal protection is required,remembering that most chemical suits are not fireresistant. The correct selection can be madeusing advise from the EMS in the IMDG or aMSDS. Before any action is taken, it is importantthat several items are addressed.


Ensure that all precautionary measures are takeni.e. control of ignition sources, use of water,correct fire extinguishing media if risk of fire etc..Briefing of the crew of the nature of the hazard, inorder the team has a good awareness of thedangers.

Chemical suits only offer limited protection;therefore teams should strive to limit theirexposure. Decontamination of teams must be setup prior to entry, in case the team must exit thearea quickly.

The response team must move with caution,limiting their exposure, and protecting their suitsfrom accidental damage. In a confined situation agood means of escape must be maintained at alltimes.Confirm the situation with an initial report to thecommand, before any work is started, in order toverify the products involved. The initial report mayhave been made from a distance, whereas oncloser inspection the leaking product maybe froma different source than previously thought.

The containing of the incident depends on thefindings of the team and the information given inthe Ems. All actions should not cause the productfrom contaminating a larger area i.e. sensible useof water if called for by the Ems. Methods ofdealing with leakagemay involve water to washoverboard or the use of a dry absorbent.

The Ems may give conflicting information. Thedescription of the product may indicate a reactionwith water, however to deal with the product it mayrequire copious (large volume) quantities of waterapplied to dilute and wash overboard from as faraway as possible. Read all the information beforedeciding on an action plan.

Once the incident is under control, thedecontamination of the response team is the nextconsideration for the command. The team’s suitsmust be cleaned sufficiently to enable safeundressing, avoiding further exposure fromresidue still remaining on the suit.

Careful control and strict discipline by all involvedis required to clean the affected area, the team’ssuits, and any equipment used in the operation.

Injured persons may also have to undergo adecontamination process before an unprotectedmedical team gives treatment.

Liaison with shore based services


LIAISON WITH SHORE BASEDSERVICES

In the event of a fire, it may be possible tosummon the help from shore based fire fightingteams, which in well developed parts of the worldcould involve vast resources and manpower.However, dealing with other agencies will give theships crew additional communication challenges.

Fire at Sea

Some countries have the funding and resourcesto assist a ship in trouble.A professional response demands a great deal ofpreplanning by the Fire Department, thus poorercountries may not have the funding to set up aEmergency response team for offshore work.

It is not straight forward to set up a team for shipfirefighting, the selection of suitable personnel,training of those personnel not just for ship firefighting, but also helicopter operations and seasurvival will need to be funded, in most casesseparately to local funding arrangements.

The funding is very often a grey area and theretrieval of costs involved in fighting fires can bedifficult due to the complexities of salvage claims.

Shore based fire fighters offer some obviousadvantages over a ship’s crew, namely a greaterunderstanding and experience in fire and dealingwith hazardous materials.A professional fire team trains very regularly, insome cases every day and regularly performsexcercises, which demand the mobilization of alarge amount of resources.

Early notification is essential in order that theshore-based service can assess the situation andplan a safe approach.The reluctance to call earlyfor help whatever thereason, be it company policy, salvage claims orjust lack of understanding of what is available,may incur serious delays which will affect thesuccess of the operation.

Before boarding, the senior fire officer will carryout a dynamic risk assessment, to ensure thesafety of the team.

Safe access and escape routes, together with therisks on board are their main concerns.


Once on board the officer will need to be given afull briefing by the ship’s command, using theship’s fire safety plan.A situation report will be sent to the firedepartments control centre giving the land-basedcommand indications to the size of the task andthe resources that need to be organized.Although the shore-based team has a greaterknowledge about fire fighting, the sea conditions,knowledge of stability, layout of the ship, and theequipment on board will disadvantage them.

Liaison between both parties will help toovercome the difficulties.A ship fire to a land based fire fighter is a hostileenvironment, not just the because of thedifficulties in attacking, but also the team’sinvolvement at sea means a fire in the advancedstages.

Fire in port

Reporting of fires on board whilst in port iscompulsory; the arrangements will depend on theport authority.Equally the attendance of the shore based fireservice or port fire department will also beobligatory, because the functioning of the port,shipping lanes and the surrounding communityare threatened by the incident.

Depending on the scale of the incident, the shipscommand may face dealing with many moreinterested agencies, port authorities, coast guard,police, ambulance, environmental agencies,insurers to name but a few.

Each port will have its own guidelines regardingthe procedures during a fire situation, especiallyfor high-risk cargo, such as chemical or crude oiltankers, where protection off the terminal has ahigh priority.In such a case alternative arrangements such asa fire-fighting berth may be available.

In a fire situation the senior fire officer will takecommand of fire fighting operations; however thedecisions regarding fire fighting may be changedas a result of consultation with the ship’scommand and any other interested agencies.In order to speed up the response, it is advisableto greet and guide a fire officer to the bridge, to bebriefed by the master. The fire safety plan shouldbe taken along and used as the basis of thebriefing.


The senior fire officer is usually identifiable by ahigh visibility coat with the appropriate markings“incident commander” on the back. In the eventthat the incident increases in scale the ship’scommand will probably have to deal with morethan one officer.

The fire officer may set up the command post onthe quayside, in close proximity to other agenciescontrol points.

Ensure there is a clear and effectivecommunications link with the shore sidecommand post. Most fire departments will operatewithin a pre-planned incident command system,designed to break the responsibilities in to keyfunctions.

The fire departments overall command will besub-divided in logistical support, operationalduties, liaison, financial etc.

In order to monitor the condition of the ship, awater officer and a stability officer may beappointed. They may require information on loads,weight distribution and effects of firewaterintroduced into ship.

Remember that if a fire monitor is used, as muchas 3.5 ton of water can be taken on board everyminute, a tug boat monitor around 40 ton perminute and even a hand held hose line could add0.5 ton per minute. The implications are furtherdiscussed in another chapter about stability.

The success of fire fighting rests with the shorebased team; however a good communicationliaison between the ship’s crew and the shore-based team could make all the difference.

Ships, which have regular port of call, areencouraged to seek contact with the port’s firedepartment. Subject to work commitments onboth sides, a combined exercise on board wouldgive invaluable insight in how each party works.

Fire investigation

Fire Investigation

FIRE INVESTIGATION

Accident investigation is a necessity, in order toprevent a repeat of the incident. It can also berequired to settle an insurance claim, part of legalproceedings, improve operational procedures andimprove fire-fighting techniques. Examples of thisprocess are well documented.The maritime disasters of the past i.e. ‘Titanic’and ‘Scandinavian Star’ where large losses of lifeprovoked changes to SOLAS, and the cruise ship‘Ecstasy’ where huge damage was sustainedcaused a change in the operating procedures.Investigation of even small incidents can be ofbenefit.

The true recording of all accidents and accurateassessments of the causes of fires/incidents willcontribute to greater safety in the shippingindustry. The Shipping Inspectorate demands thatall incidents that cause damage or severe injuryare reported. Certain accident investigationagencies also encourage the reporting of nearmisses.This information should be circulated to all,without it the level of safety within the industry willnot improve. Investigating agencies are now usingmodern technology by publishing their findings onthe Internet. The information first needs to bereported.

The ships command should be able to investigateminor fire incidents, with a basic understanding ofcombustion. The process of finding the seat offire, i.e. the initial fuel, the ignition source, shouldbe reasonably easy to detect providing there is nottoo much damage. The more damage the moredifficult it is to establish a cause, especially in aship compartment because of the oven effect.(uniform heat damage)

Serious damage or major injury will initialise aformal investigation, perhaps from more than oneagency (police, Shipping Inspectorate, insurersetc.) In this case the preservation of the evidence,the scene and any relevant records should begiven priority. Nothing should be removed from thescene unless it interferes with the safe operatingof the ship or because the evidence may be lost,in which case photography or video should beused to record the scene.

Fire Investigation

The investigation begins at the initial reports of afire. The incident log details chronologically theevents and the actions, which will assist in thecompiling of the report or assist an investigatorfrom an external agency to build up a picture ofthe course of events.Every effort should be made to interviewwitnesses as soon as possible after the incident;this together with comparing different versions ofevents will give the most accurate account.

Endeavour to attain information regarding,possible seats of fire, fire development, timescales, fire fighting actions and unusual activity,reactions, smells or colours given off in the fire.

The fire fighting actions can also play an importantrole in establishing a cause.

The scene can give clear indicators to the cause,providing the use of water is controlled duringdamping down operations.The use of lower pressure spray water at closerrange rather than a beam of water can preservemore of the scene.

The fire scene

Shortly after the fire has been extinguished comesthe task of examining the scene for the originalseat of fire, a source of ignition, and the causewhich brought the two together i.e. fuel oil underpressure contacts unprotected hot exhaustmanifold, because the bolts holding the pipeconnection are excessively worn and shearedwhen under load.

The area should be well ventilated and a riskassessment be carried out before entry, so theinvestigation can be conducted in a safe way.

An extensive fire will probably begin with onesource of fuel and then spread to involve amaterial that causes the most damage, thus anaccurate assessment needs to be conducted toestablish the true facts. If in doubt secure thescene and wait for the expert!

Fire Investigation

The expert investigator

In the event of a serious fire or injury where aninvestigator is expected, securing the scene isvital to preserve the evidence.A trained investigator can from heat and smokepatterns determine the seat of fire and from thelayers of debris he can determine the developmentof the fire through the various stages.The following are examples of the indicators froman undisturbed scene that can help theinvestigator.

The effects of heat on objects.

Knowledge of materials and, particular meltingpoints can again give the investigator clues to theway the fire developed. Solid materials are notcompletely destroyed in fire but very often fall tothe floor.

The layers are examined to establish those whichburned and fell to the floor first.

The main causes of fire are well known, not just inthe shipping industry. Common examples arewelding, smoking in cabins, static electricity, faultyelectrical equipment, overheating of bearings,spontaneous combustion of organic materials,etc..

False assumptions are often made concerningelectrical causes of fire, just because there is anelectrical appliance in the area, so with carefulanalysis in most cases the indicators can befound.

For electricity to be the cause two conditionsmust apply:

The electrical wiring and equipment must beenergized, thus check on circuit protection

devices.Sufficient heat and temperature must begenerated to ignite the combustible material.

Short circuit, over current and a poor seatedconnection are probably the causes.

Success in fire investigation comes with athorough examination of only the facts.Assumptions can be dangerous.

Fire Investigation

The report

The report needs to contain particular information,set usually be the ship operators.

The following criteria is desirable:

Occurrence and time scaleActions taken and time notedFacts concerning fire scene materials etc.Fire fighting equipment usedNumbers involved in fighting the fireDamage caused by fire and fire fightingmediaExtent to which ship was immobilizedAnalyses of the facts and points discussedConclusions reachedRecommendations to avoid repeat of fireRecommendations to improve fire preventionand fire fighting procedures

Offshore supplement

Offshore supplement

INTRODUCTION

The production platform has many similarities toan oil refinery, but the potential dangers are com-pounded due to the limited space and the hostileenvironment the sea presents.

The risk of fire, explosion and leakages are high,therefore the design of the platform, detectionequipment, efficient fire fighting facilities, togetherwith a well-trained organisation are an absolutenecessity to prevent a disaster.

The threat of fire must be detected as early aspossible, from which well rehearsed actions areimplemented, including shut down of production,initiating manually or automatically fixed fireprotection and intervention by fire team to preventthe situation from worsening.

DETECTION SYSTEMS

Gas detection equipment

Gas alarms detect gas concentrations set to apercentage of the LEL (Lower Explosive Limit).

There are normally two stages to gas alarms, alow level and high level alarm condition.The low level will initiate a alarm conditionnormally set at 20% of the lower explosion limit(LEL) and the high level alarm (60% of the LEL).

The general alarm

Two high level alarms will result in automatic shutdown of production.Living quarters are also protected by gasdetection set to lower levels (10% lower 40% highlevel alarm conditions).

Flame detectors

For detection of fires in the open the flamedetector gives the fastest response.

The detectors are sensitive to ultra violetemissions from the flame and to prevent falsealarms they are programmed to detect specificfrequencies of light or a fixed time period.

Detection normally initiates the general platformalarm and activates fixed fire fighting systemsafter a predetermined delay (approx 15 secs.)

Offshore supplement

Smoke detection

Used in enclosed areas for the fastest response.Ionisation type detectors usually initiate generalalarm, more than one head activating in the samezone will initiate a platform shut down and theautomatic fixed fire systems will also be activated.

Heat detectors

These detectors are used in areas where moresensitive detectors would give too many falsealarms.There are a number of designs, fuse links, quartzbulb, bimetal strips, pneumatic loops andthermistors, all of which are normally set at apredetermined temperature or a specific increaseof temperature, will activate both the generalalarm and automatic fixed fire systems.

Offshore supplement

FIXED FIRE PROTECTIONSYSTEMS

Water protection systems

Fixed water spray deluge and sprinklers systemswill deliver the appropriate amount of water in apre-designed spray pattern to prevent escalationof the incident.Water can be used for fire prevention, exposureprotection, fire control and fire extinguishments.

Prevention can be achieved by cooling,dissolving, diluting or dispersing the flammableproduct leak, which presents a fire hazard.

Exposures from radiant heat are cooled byproviding water spray against sensitive equipment,structures etc.The uniform wetting of surfaces prevents localisedthermal shock and subsequently fail of theequipment.

Cooling will reduce the amount of vapour releasedthrough radiant heat, although low flash pointmaterials can never be extinguished by coolingalone, fire control can be achieved.Fire extinguishing can be achieved by coolinghigh flash point materials to below the ‘fire point’.

Additionally the smothering action of steam canalso contribute in extinguishments.High-pressure projectors are used to extinguishfires by mixing with water vapour.

Sprinklers are provided in accommodation areasactivating when the quartz bulb reaches a specifictemperature (red bulb is 68 ºC).The system will also give an alarm locally and inthe control room.

Offshore supplement

Foam Systems

Where there is a risk of a liquid spill, a foam hosebox may be provided to cover the spill quickly toprevent ignition or to extinguish the fire.

Foam stocks may be provided at each foam boxor alternatively injected into the main fire system ata central location.

Foam concentrates in commonly in use arefluorprotein, AFFF and for special circumstancesalcohol resistant foams.

The concentrates are introduced into the water ata percentage ranging from 3% to 6% dependingon the manufacturers instructions.

The system is generating low expansion foamhaving an expansion rate of around 12:1.

Dry chemical systems

Fire involving liquid releases on a threedimensional scale are best extinguished withpowder.

Large powder containers are sometimes providedwith the appropriate hose and applicators giving ahigh discharge of powder in to the fire by anoperator. (2 kg per sec)

Halon systems

When avoidance of static electricity is required,fixed fire fighting systems with Halon can beinstalled (CO2 can generate high voltage staticelectricity on discharge).

These systems are often found in turbine rooms,generator rooms and electrical switch rooms.

Offshore supplement

STRUCTURAL FIRE PROTECTION

Firewalls and load bearing members are passivefire protection and give protection for a definedtime.They protect against heat, smoke and flame forthe defined time indicated in the constructiondesign practices and SOLAS.

The firewall enables the safe escape forpersonnel, a safe haven for personnel, protectequipment vital for emergency operations and cancontain the fire within the compartment.

Blast walls are used to protect against a possibleexplosion.The wall can withstand overpressure from theforce of the explosion.The pressure is then released safely into the openair.

TACTICAL APPROACH INOFFSHORE FIRE FIGHTING.

Emphasis must be placed on the pre-determinedContingency plan designed for the installation.These plans are designed to quickly and safelydetect, control and extinguish the fire withoutundue risk to the personnel.

Contingency plan

The fire teams must quickly assess theeffectiveness of the Contingency plan and makenecessary adjustments.

This will include establishing the effectiveness ofautomatic fixed fire protection systems and tosupplement additional supplies as necessary.

For example, flame impingement on a tank canpenetrate through a water protection screen,causing failure and/or increase in temperatureresulting in a BLEVE.

The Fire team may have to deflect the flamesaway using monitors or hand lines. (Flamebending)Any fire team involvement close to the fire is arisk; therefore great care must be taken to controltheir movements, ensuring that they affordthemselves the maximum protection.

Full protective clothing must be worn, whilst takingadvantage of blast and firewalls.

Offshore supplement

Fire fighting operations are coordinated with thecontrol room, which are systematically controllingfuel flow to the fire or release using remoteoperated shut down valves and/or emergency de-pressurisation systems.

The control room may warn of impendingescalation due to subsequent alarms. The line ofcommunications is a very important element ofthe fire emergency plan.

Gas releases

An un-ignited gas release must be isolatedimmediately. Any build up of gas and subsequentignition could be disastrous.

Personnel must never knowingly walk into the gascloud and personnel working in the vicinity mustwear full protective clothing including breathingapparatus.

Water spray can be employed to reduce the lowerexplosion limit of the gas, or to disperse the gascloud to a safer location.

Every 1 litre of water delivered in a spray patterncan displace 2000 – 3000 litres of air effectivelydiluting the concentration of gas.

Effective use of water

Water can be used by the fire team to supplementthe fixed systems water coverage.

The fire team can also use screens of water toprotect against radiant heat, for example whenclosing down a small leak in close proximity to thefire.

This is a hazardous method of attack and everyprecaution must be taken including extra teamsstanding by to provide a safe route back to safety.

Flame bending is a used practise in the openwhere the volume and velocity of water and airfrom a branch pipe can turn the flames away fromexposed surfaces..

Documents

Advanced Fire Fighting at Sea HALON 1211. Halon 1301 is stored as a liquid under pressure. When released in the protected area it vaporises to an odourless, colourless gas and is propelled