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By use of posters, radio, movie, and song, the United States utilized the power of words to evoke feelings of duty, patriotism, and fear in American citizens and urge them support causes on the home-front and overseas
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The Language of American Propaganda During World War II
Propaganda became a vital tool during World War II for the Axis and Allied Powers.
From the United States to Nazi Germany, governments used the power of words and images to
sway the public to support their cause. Adolf Hitler pulled the wool over the eyes of many
German citizens through use of propaganda and legislation. Martin Niemőller said it best:
First they came for the Socialists, and I did not speak out --
Because I was not a Socialist.
Then they came for the Trade Unionists, and I did not speak out --
Because I was not a Trade Unionist.
Then they came for the Jews, and I did not speak out --
Because I was not a Jew.
Then they came for me -- and there was no one left to speak for me. (“Martin Niemoller”)
Despite the atrocities occurring overseas, the United States did not enter WWII until Japan
bombed Pearl Harbor and the Axis Powers declared war on the previously inactive country. After
entering the war, the country too used propaganda to gain support for the war efforts and show
opponents in a negative light. By use of posters, radio, movie, and song, the United States
utilized the power of words to evoke feelings of duty, patriotism, and fear in American citizens
and urge them support causes on the home-front and overseas.
Merriam-Webster defines propaganda as “the spreading of ideas, information, or rumor
for the purpose of helping or injuring an institution, a cause, or a person” (“Propaganda”).
Although the term in its current form was first used in the 17th century, the idea and use of
propaganda dates back to ancient civilizations (Merriam-Webster, “Propaganda”). The ancient
Egyptians used the Great Pyramids of Giza as propaganda during their rise to glory. In the fourth
dynasty, Khufu built the first and largest pyramid because he needed the bluff of clout created by
such a monumental task to impress his people and his enemies; in contrast, the power of his
successors enabled them to focus on conquest and expansion instead of building more
magnificent structures (Diamond 891). The ancient Romans also used art and architecture as
propaganda. The Arch of Constantine was erected around 315 CE to honor Constantine's
triumph at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (Smith). The decoration on the arch places the
Emperor in the lineage of the great Roman emperors and even uses elements from earlier
monuments to liken him to his predecessors (Smith). Generally speaking, monuments and statues
such as these were common in the Roman Empire to glorify and raise support for the empire and
its leaders (Smith). Although thousands of years separate modern times from the ancient world,
propaganda still serves the same purpose and motivates the masses.
The effects of ancient techniques appear tame compared to the atrocities propelled by the
power of propaganda during World War II. After World War I, countries around the world eyed
propaganda with a suspicious eye. Germans criticized their country's own efforts during the war
because they were angry that their enemies used the tool effectively (USHMM, “Propaganda”).
In his own response to the country's failure, Adolf Hitler wrote “Propaganda is a truly terrible
weapon in the hands of an expert,” and he used that idea to his advantage (USHMM,
“Propaganda”). Nazi propagandists studied the techniques successfully used in other countries
and put them to use as Hitler's own “truly terrible weapons” (USHMM, “Propaganda”). First,
they demonized the opposition and pushed the public to believe that only the National Socialists
could save Germany (Yourman 148-163). Then, they began a campaign to create a sense of
community by making sweeping emotional generalities that gave confidence to the German
people and creating the appealing image that the leaders of the government were just like the
common German (Yourman 148-163). The Nazis also evaded facts and pushed the idea that
Hitler's divine sanction and secular authority was all the citizens needed to follow because he
was leading their community to a higher status (Yourman 148-163). These techniques combined
with terrorization of the opposition played on the distress, fear, and hatred felt by the German
people for their country's predicament; in fact, Nazi propaganda was successful because the
German people were desperate for a saving grace (Yourman 148-163). Luckily, once Americans
accepted war propaganda it became a force powerful enough to unite citizens for a common
goal: defeating the German and Japanese enemy.
Despite efforts by the Allies to change their stance, Americans stayed weary of
propaganda to join WWII. Less than a year before the bombing of Pearl Harbor, President
Franklin D. Roosevelt delivered his historic “Four Freedoms” speech to urge Congress and the
American public to support the war overseas (“Powers of Persuasion”). Roosevelt appealed to
the American belief in freedom by presenting the war's ultimate aims as bringing freedoms to the
entire world:
The first is the freedom of speech and expression everywhere in the world. The second is
the freedom of every person to worship God in his own way everywhere in the world.
The third is the freedom from want which, translated into world terms, means economic
understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy peacetime life for its
inhabitants everywhere in the world. The fourth is freedom from fear, which, translated
into world terms, means a world-wide reduction of armaments to such a point and in such
a thorough fashion that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of physical
aggression against any neighbor anywhere in the world. (Roosevelt, “Four Freedoms”)
Even a gifted speaker like Roosevelt could not convince the public to join the war. Americans
were only willing to provide support at a distance until the threat touched their soil and woke the
sleeping giant. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declaration of war by the
Axis Powers, the United States utilized writers, artists, and filmmakers to fuel an aggressive
propaganda campaign to mobilize American citizens, and they responded quickly to the words
and images that drove the Allies to victory (“Powers of Persuasion”).
One of the biggest elements of the propaganda campaign in America was the war posters
that dotted “post office walls, grocery store windows, bus stops, and bulletin boards” (Olson 16-
19). The government tapped into a variety of inspiring words and images. After Roosevelt's
“Four Freedoms” speech, Norman Rockwell used his words about freedom to create a series of
posters to urge the public to buy war bonds (Olson 16-19). The words on each poster were direct
and compelling. The poster “Save Freedom of Speech: Buy War Bonds” appealed to the
American need to help the war effort and spread freedom (Rockwell). “This world cannot exist
half slave and half free / Fight for freedom” was another poster that appealed to freedom, but it
also used emotional words such as “slave” to draw a strong reaction from the viewer (Falter).
Such posters did not need complex words or sentences because the audience was already
supportive of the war effort, so they instead focused on pathos. The appeal to emotion worked
brilliantly.
Many artists focused on the brutality facing people under Nazi control by using strong
language that provoked terrible mental imagery. One graphic from 1942 depicts working men
being arrested or executed with the accompanying words “We French workers warn you: defeat
means slavery, starvation, death” (Shahn, “We French Workers”). The words strike a cord with
the American citizen because with the focus on factory production for the war, it could be any
one of them in the same situation if the war comes home; furthermore, the words “slavery”,
“starvation”, and “death” imply the worst for the viewer if the Nazis defeat the United States.
“This is Nazi Brutality” takes the mental imagery even further: “Radio Berlin.--It is officially
announced:- All men of Lidice – Czechoslovakia – have been shot: The women deported to a
concentration camp: The children sent to appropriate centers-- The name of the village was
immediately abolished. 6/11/42/115P” (Shahn). In this instance, the image of a handcuffed man
standing with a bag over his head for execution is not as compelling as the words that make the
situation real. The verbs are the most striking; “shot”, “deported”, “sent”, and “abolished” all
indicate terrible consequences of Nazi reign. “This is Nazi Brutality” could perhaps be the most
compelling poster of the war because it puts to words what all of the images assaulting
Americans at the time were warning and fighting against. While these posters have a common
theme of slavery and death overseas, others focus on how to home-front can keep Americans
safe.
During the war the United States' focus on national security did not solely rest on the
happenings overseas. The government was concerned with spies within the United States, so
officials used campaigns against “careless talk” to convince citizens it was their duty to stay
silent to save lives. The main focus of these pieces of propaganda was to associate careless talk
with murder. One technique was to use scesis onamaton to focus on powerful adjectives and
nouns. “A careless word –a needless sinking”, “A careless word –another cross”, and “A careless
word –a needless loss” are simple and effective ways the government related death to careless
talk (“World War II Poster Collection”). Through the repetition of key words and phrases such as
“careless talk”, posters stuck in the minds of Americans to remind that their silence was
important for the security of ship sailings, war production, and troop movements (“War War II
Poster Collection”). On the other hand, conservation and rationing were important talk that the
government needed discussed on a daily basis to help at home and abroad.
Supplies were limited at home and at war, urging the government to bombard Americans
with messages to scrape and save. Many posters effectively used rhyme to stick in the minds of
viewers: “Of course I can: I'm patriotic as can be and ration points won't worry me!” (Williams).
Children gradually obtain phonological awareness that connects similar sounds. Rhyming the
words “be” and “me” connects the sounds and makes them more memorable. Such phonological
awareness is lifelong once learned, making rhyme useful in propaganda. In fact, American
musicians and composers employed this mnemonic device to create some of the most popular
songs of World War II.
The voices of Bing Crosby, Sammy Kaye, the Andrews Sisters, and other popular artists
fueled the American drive to win the war through song. World War II themed songs were simple,
catchy, and memorable because they preyed on the worries and thoughts of all Americans and
stuck in their minds by use of rhyme and other literary devices. Music functioned as propaganda
by being a constant reminder of the war effort and its importance. “Remember Pearl Harbor”
uses rhyme and repetition to make the words roll easily off the tongue and mind:
History in every century
Records an act that lives for ever more.
We'll recall,
As in to line we fall,
The thing that happened on Hawaii's shore.
Let's remember Pearl Harbor
As we go to fight the foe
Let's remember Pearl Harbor
As we did the Alamo. (Reid and Kaye)
By listening to the song, listeners hear the singers draw out the rhymed and repeated words to
emphasize them at the end of each line, which is an effective and common device to plant certain
words and phrases in people's memories.
The 1943 hit “Comin' in on a Wing and a Prayer” used the same technique. The tune also
utilized personification and foreshadowing to bring the scene to life. In the song, a plane was two
hours overdue from being back from its mission and the “radio sets were humming” as “we
waited for a word”, but then the crew broke through the humming to say they were “comin' in on
a wing and a prayer” as they “limp through the air” back to base (Adamson and McHugh). The
humming radio sets are personified and foreshadowing that soon they will hear something from
the missing crew. The plane limping through the air is personified as though the plane is humanly
limping back from its successful mission. Furthermore, the song contains an idiom. In the song
“on a wing and a prayer” means a person is doing something risky and counting luck or God to
bring him or her through. The crew is not actually flying on a wing or on a prayer; they are flying
on one engine and hoping they can land safely (Adamson and McHugh). It was a reality in war
and songs such as this provided inspiration for people to work harder to support the war effort.
After all, soldiers were dying and they had to do their part at home to help. Composers
constantly tackled serious topics such as these, but Americans were already assaulted with dark
and serious messages at home and at work. They needed something to temporarily relieve them
of harsh realities, and Disney delivered.
The song “Der Fuehrer's Face” originally appeared in a Disney cartoon of Donald Duck
and became a huge success, selling many records because of its amusing portrayal of the
Germans (“Disney Song”). Written by Oliver Wallace, the song mocks the Nazi's “Heil” and uses
an exaggerated German accent to insult them:
Ven der Fuhrer says, “Ve iss der Master Race,”
Ve Heil! Heil! Right in der Fuehrer's face.
Not to luff der Fuehrer iss a great disgrace,
So ve Heil! Heil! Right in der Fuehrer's face.
Ven Herr Goebbels says, “V own der vorld und space,”
Ve Heil! Heil! Right in Herr Goebbels' face. (“Disney Song”)
The song begins with the chorus in the AAAA rhyme scheme, making everything rhyme with
“race”. The verse contains the rhyme scheme AAAA BBCDCD EEFFE. Repetition of words
such as “face”, “race”, “good”, and “order” also helps the words stick in the listener's mind. On
the other hand, the accent is the most contagious part of the song because it distinguishes the
Nazis from Americans by more than just words. The whole concept of the song is brilliant anti-
Nazi propaganda because it combines literary devices and Nazi culture to create a laughable,
memorable tune that provides comic relief for the audience. People, however, needed more than
a few laughs to keep up morale; they needed to keep up the hope that their loved ones would
return home safely.
Men and women looked forward to their reunions after the war. The idea of having
someone waiting at home would certainly serve as motivation for the troops, but it is also no
surprise that people could be fearful of rejection after such a long separation. One song that
spoke of these fears was “Don't Sit Under The Apple Tree (With Anyone Else But Me)”. Relying
only lightly on rhyme, the composers repeated lines that highlighted this fear in a soldier:
Don't sit under the apple tree,
With anyone else but me,
Anyone else but me,
Anyone else but me, No! No! No!
Don't sit under the apple tree
With anyone else but me
'Till I come marching home (Brown, Tobias, and Stept)
Furthermore, the beginning of the song shows how a faithful woman kept a soldier going: “I
wrote my mother, I wrote my father / And now I'm writing you too; / I'm sure of mother, I'm sure
of father, / Now I wanna be sure of you” (Brown, Tobias, and Stept). Pieces like these were
motivation for citizens and soldiers to push harder to bring victory to the Allies. “'Till I come
marching home” and other similar lines served as reminders that the job was far from done.
Many women were sitting at home waiting for their men to return home, but many more were
supporting the troops by “working for victory” to bring their men home sooner (Evans and
Loeb).
Since the male workforce was needed for military service overseas, the government
found itself relying on women to fill the gap, leading the United States to start a propaganda
campaign geared toward women. The American icon “Rosie the Riveter” was born from the
women who slaved away in factories during World War II. Redd Evans and John Jacob Loeb
praised the “Rosies” of the war in the song “Rosie The Riveter”:
All the day long whether rain or shine
She's a part of the assembly line
She's making history
Working for victory,
Rosie the Riveter.
Keeps a sharp lookout for sabotage
Sitting up there on the fuselage
That little frail can do more than a male can do,
Rosie the Riveter. (Evans and Loeb)
The song gave a proper name to support the working women, lending importance to the endless
work they did. The women “smeared full of oil and grease” while “working overtime on the
riveting machine” to protect “Charlie” needed a battle cry to show how “Moscow will cheer
about” their hard work and dedication (Evans and Loeb). Evans and Loeb used positive nouns,
verbs, and adjectives to build women up such as “protecting”, “proud”, “true”, “red, white, and
blue”, “admire”, and “cheer”. Women needed to feel proud of their new roles, so the government
took to many similar tactics to change the ideal image of a woman with which people were
familiar.
Campaigns began to bring women who had never held jobs into the workforce (“It’s a
Woman’s War Too!”). Housewives lost their glamour and working women became the ideal; in
fact, propaganda suggested that women could be attractive, confident, and feminine even when
covered in grease after a day of hard labor (“It’s a Woman’s War Too!”). Women became proud
of their hard work because, as each poster told them, victory was in their hands (“It's aWoman's
War Too!”). “Milkman, Keep Those Bottles Quiet” illustrated the exhaustion women endured
after a long shift working with the “victory crew” at the factory (Raye and De Paul). In the song,
the woman tells the milk man: “I wanna give my all if I'm gonna give it / But I gotta get my
shuteye if I'm gonna rivet / So bail out, but, with that milk barrage / Cause it's unpatriotic, it's
sabotage” (Raye and De Paul). The song lists different jobs women had and blasted the milkman
for interrupting her sleep and harming her production. The composers used different nouns to
negatively name the milkman's “riot”, “clinks”, and “barrage” of noise and glass (Raye and De
Paul). Through music that told of the hardships of working for the war, women received
confirmation that they were not alone and that the world understood their sacrifices; more
importantly, knowing their value would give stressed and exhausted women the energy and the
confidence to push forward whether riveter or soldier (Raye and De Paul).
The Women's Army Corps, or WAC, was created as support since all the men were
needed at the war front. They had their own military songs to show pride for their work and
show confidence in their value while in an army full of men. After all, “The WAC is a Soldier
Too” (WAC Song Book 1). Songs such as the “WAC Song” were full of inspiring patriotic words
and messages that express the WAC's sense of duty, discipline, ability, and sacrifice:
O'er our land from sea to sea
Goes the cry for Liberty.
We must fight to keep our country free,
Will the women of America rise?
Leave their homes and friends and firesides?
The country all around
From each village, city, town,
Hear the women of America respond. (WAC Song Book 2)
Each piece appealed to pathos by bestowing pride upon the women assisting in the military
because even though men were on the front lines daily, women provided essential support for
the military's functioning. The government placed importance on women in the work force and
army; however, they also acknowledged that women had other ways of being ”the first line of
defense” (Women in Defense).
According to the United States Office of Emergency Management, “women have always
been the guardians of the homes and the children, the future of our country” and in 1941, skilled
and unskilled women held “an important place in the national defense program” (Women in
Defense). The propaganda film Women in Defense targeted women who were unsure of how they
could help the war movement. It begins with a call to “arms”: “Yesterday the pioneer woman
helped to win a continent. Today with the same spirit of determination, American women are
working to save this way of life” (Women in Defense). The film depicts women as scientists,
mechanics, and volunteers. Narrator Katharine Hepburn spoke of women bringing natural skills
to important jobs; for instance, women were sewing parachutes and seat covers with their
“nimble fingers” that were “capable of turning out perfect workmanship” (Women in Defense).
Women were also making precision instruments and weapons, excelling “through constant care
and alertness” (Women in Defense). The film consistently uses positive key words to show the
importance of women in the war effort by stating women are “pioneers”, “guardians”, “skilled”,
“natural” and “determined” (Women in Defense). In every possible scenario, the government
paints women as home front warriors that are just as good or even better than men in certain
jobs; furthermore, they drive home the importance of women's jobs by stating that women's work
allows bombers to fly, parachutes to open, weapons to wound, and dressings to save lives
(Women in Defense). Victory depended on war production, and the United States ensured all
citizens knew that the downfall of labor meant the downfall of the country.
Although industry required an increase in the women's workforce with so many men
fighting overseas, the country needed all available citizens to contribute to “the greatest
production effort in history” (The Arm Behind the Army). In 1942 U.S. Army Signal Corps
produced a propaganda film to highlight the consequences of a failure in war industry. Most
important was the idea that the military may have been “Uncle Sam's Fist”, but American
industry was “Uncle Sam's Muscle” and the “sweat of workers tips the beam” in favor of the
Allies (The Arm Behind the Army). Images and narration in the film tell of the terror under the
Nazis: labor permits, labor gangs, benefits suspension, slavery, starvation, and degradation (The
Arm Behind the Army). The narrator states that Americans knew Pearl Harbor “was a blow aimed
at their lives, their liberties, their pursuit of happiness” and that their job was to out produce the
Axis (The Arm Behind the Army). Furthermore, the U.S. Army Signal Corps used language to
demonstrate the danger of the Axis threat and the power of American industry by equating the
solder's fight with the worker's fight through all or nothing logic:
This war is industry's war. It is labor's war. They realize that defeat means the
unconditional and permanent surrender of all they are or hope to be. No sacrifice now
will be too great for them for their sacrifice now will ensure final victory, ours and theirs.
When we win, they win. (The Arm Behind the Army)
The idea is best summarized in a single line at the end of the film: “Wherever American soldiers
fight, the Arm Behind the Army fights with them” (The Arm Behind the Army). By making
workers feel that they are a direct part of the fight on the front lines, the United States placed
high importance on their daily jobs and made them feel like they were just as important as the
soldiers on the battle field, thereby providing a morale boost to Americans working in the
factories. All United States citizens were important for the war effort no matter their toil, but
some had to contribute to the safety of the nation in a different way.
After Pearl Harbor Japanese Americans and Japanese aliens came under scrutiny from the
government because of potential loyalties to Japan if the country managed to invade the United
States (Japanese Relocation). Many Japanese communities were located close to air bases, oil
wells, and ship yards, and there was concern that spies could watch movements within the
military (Japanese Relocation). The government created the propaganda film Japanese
Relocation to explain to American citizens the creation, need, and operation of Japanese
internment camps. The United States wanted to make sure to set their use of camps apart from
the Nazi concentration camps; therefore, the Office of War Information tackled issues of
housing, food, employment, religious services, education, and media in the film to ease the
minds of citizens (Japanese Relocation). In fact, the narrator made sure to make the point that
the internment camps were communities full of opportunity and support (Japanese Relocation).
To show that the Japanese harbored no ill will because of their predicament, the film told of
Japanese citizens making nets for the army (Japanese Relocation). After all, the Japanese were
“loyal American citizens” who were sacrificing for the war effort (Japanese Relocation). To end
the film, the narrator states that through the internment camps the United States is seeking to set
the standard for protecting against those with foreign loyalties by treating them with respect in
hopes that an Americans in the same situation will be treated likewise (Japanese Relocation).
Although the information served an important purpose, the American people already understood
their caution after living through the shock of Pearl Harbor, and the government's propaganda
guaranteed they would never forget.
The widespread availability of radio allowed the United States to provide direct
propaganda from President Franklin D. Roosevelt. During World War II, Roosevelt utilized
fireside chats to reach the American public on important issues. Only two days after the attack
on Pearl Harbor, the President took to the airwaves to prepare the nation for war against the
“powerful and resourceful gangsters [that] have banded together to make war upon the whole
human race” (Roosevelt, “On the War with Japan”). He described the “treachery” of Japan and
its collaboration with the Axis powers to make all the world's continents and oceans “one
gigantic battlefield” (Roosevelt, “On the War with Japan”). His words successfully linked each
one as an enemy of the American people with two words about each attack and invasion:
”without warning” (Roosevelt, “On the War with Japan”). Just as Pearl Harbor was attacked
without warning, so were other countries attacked by the Axis Powers. Roosevelt used labeling
to drive home the danger of their enemies by calling them “crafty”, “treacherous”, “bandits”,
“criminal”, “dishonorable”, and “aggressors” (Roosevelt, “On the War with Japan”). He also
built America up through positive labels by showing confidence in its ability to win the war,
sacrifice for the greater good, and save the world for future generations, yet through those same
words Roosevelt was putting pressure on the American people to follow any government petition
during the war and to be the “builders” of good in a battlefield of evil (Roosevelt, “On the War
with Japan”). The appeal to the people was emotional, but it was also realistic; the President
spoke honestly about the problems ahead, making his words more powerful and his pleas well
heard.
The common theme of Americans as a united fighting force proved important in
Roosevelt's fireside chats. On October 12, 1942, the chat titled “On the Home Front” directly
spoke to the hard working, united people who were “playing an honorable part in the great
struggle to save our democratic civilization” (Roosevelt). The whole address focused on positive
labeling on the American people and the fact that their President witnessed their effort
personally. Roosevelt used loose facts based on his authority to provide generalized positive
statements about the progress of the home front's effort:
So having seen the quality of the work and of the workers on our production lines-- and
coupling these firsthand observations with the reports of actual performance of our
weapons on the fighting fronts-- I can say to you that we are getting ahead of our enemies
in the battle of production. (Roosevelt, “On the Home Front”)
The President also addressed the concerns of the loved ones of military members by sharing their
concerns and again using his authority to provide positive support for the training, equipment,
and medical care for American soldiers (Roosevelt, “On the Home Front”). Whether these
statements about war production and military support out doing the enemy were actually true is
unimportant. The fact that they came from the authority of the President of the United States
provided all of the credit needed to influence the American people. With his status, Roosevelt
perhaps could have been the most effective propaganda tool in the government's arsenal.
Throughout World War II, the United States utilized propaganda posters, music, film and
radio to sway its citizens to join the war effort and support the defeat of the Axis Powers.
Through literary devices and other various techniques, the American government used every tool
possible to bombard the public with words and images to keep the need for war in the fore front
of their minds; more importantly, they were extremely successful. After all, Hitler’s own words
proved correct. Propaganda was “a truly terrible weapon in the hands of an expert”
(“Propaganda”). Luckily for the world, the United States' expertise in the sway of public opinion
was an unstoppable force for the common good. The power of language is undeniable after the
events of World War II, and hopefully it won't lead to such a large scale disaster again.
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