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DEAKIN UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND LAW
‘Game, set, match’
AN EXPLORATORY CASE STUDY ON CONGRUENCE IN DISABILITY
SPORT SPONSORSHIP RELATIONSHIPS
HANNAH MACDOUGALL
Bachelor of Commerce
i
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP AND
INDEPENDENT RESEARCH
Except where reference is made in text, this report contains no material published
elsewhere of extracted in whole or in part from a thesis or report presented by me for
another degree or diploma.
No other person’s work has been used without the due acknowledgement in the main
text of the report.
This report has not been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma to
any other tertiary institution.
(Signed)…………………………………… Date: 14th October, 2011
Hannah Macdougall
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The honours journey has been similar to that of a roller coaster as certain people have
not only shared the experience with me but provided the support needed to complete
the challenging, yet exciting, year.
Firstly, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude and utmost thanks to my two
supervisors, Dr. Sheila Nguyen and Dr Adam Karg. Their guidance, support, and
unwavering commitment has been greatly valued and appreciated.
Secondly, my thanks also go to all the teaching staff in Deakin’s School of
Management and Marketing who assisted in the development of my thesis throughout
the year. A specific thank-you to our honours coordinator, Dr Paul Turner, as well as
Dr Melissa Paris, Associate Professor David Bednall, Dr Jamie Mustard, and
Professor David Shilbury for all their contributions.
I would also like to recognise all my participants who not only willingly contributed
their time but also added enormous value to the project through the insight they
provided.
Also, thank-you to my fellow honours cohort and Deakin students who have
experienced with me all the dramas, tears and laughter associated with the honours
year. Sophie, Sarah, Shehani, Wei, Emma, and Geoff – your friendship has been
invaluable and is something that I will cherish now and into the future.
Lastly, thank-you to my friends and family who have held me firmly in place during
this roller coaster ride. Your support, assistance, encouragement and understanding
have been priceless and ensured that I can walk away from this experience as a
stronger individual.
iii
ABSTRACT
Congruence, fit, or match, (hereafter referred to as ‘congruence’) has been
heavily examined within disciplines such as management and marketing when
compared with the recent focus in a sponsorship setting. This is despite research
suggesting congruence considerably influences the effectiveness of sponsorship
communications and thereby the success of related corporate strategies and
objectives. A literature review highlighted an opportunity to explore and extend
current congruence research into management of disability sport sponsorships
relationships by examining the construct across existing sponsorship management
frameworks. The development of a conceptual framework was devised to aid
understanding of concepts presented in the literature review as well as provided a link
between two overarching research questions.
The exploratory nature of the research has resulted in the adoption of a case
study methodology bound by sponsor perceptions of congruence in disability sport
sponsorships. Semi-structured interviews were conducted across different types of
disability sport sponsorship relationships and triangulated with document analysis and
short ranking tools. Findings indicated sponsors placed a significant emphasis on
congruence in sponsorship relationships. Confirmation of congruence as an overall,
macro, and micro-dimensional concept was provided. Specific relevance of certain
congruence dimensions across relationship types was combined with dimensions
linking selection, strategy, objectives and implementation of sponsorships. The
absence of formal measurement activities of both congruence and sponsorship
relationships indicated unfulfilled potential of the marketing vehicle.
Research outcomes will aid disability sport sponsees in understanding the
rationale for, as well as attracting and maintaining corporate support. Thereby,
findings will contribute to the delivery of sporting opportunities for the growing
number of people with a disability in Australia. Further, outcomes provide sponsors
with tools to select efficiently and manage disability sport sponsees to obtain specific
objectives. As such, this research has enabled an appreciation of sponsors’
management approaches to disability sport sponsorships and how congruence can be
utilised to help engage, and leverage, both current and potential benefit exchange
sources.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Statement of Authorship and Independent Research ............................................... i Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... ii Abstract ....................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................ iv List of Appendices ..................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ............................................................................................................ vii List of Tables ............................................................................................................. vii Table of Abbreviations ............................................................................................ viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 1
1.1. Background to the Study .................................................................................. 1 1.2. Research Questions ........................................................................................... 4 1.3. Research Justifications ..................................................................................... 5 1.4. Research Contributions .................................................................................... 5 1.5. Structure of Study ............................................................................................. 6 1.6. Chapter Summary ............................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................... 7 2.1. Corporate Community Involvement ............................................................... 7 2.2. Sponsorship ........................................................................................................ 9
2.2.1. Defining Sponsorship ................................................................................... 9 2.2.2. Current Issues within the Sponsorship Literature....................................... 11 2.2.3. Frameworks for Sponsorship ...................................................................... 11
2.2.3.1. Sponsorship Selection, Implementation and Measurement ................. 13 2.2.3.2. Sponsorship Strategy and Objectives................................................... 14
2.2.4. Motivations for Sport Sponsorship ............................................................. 15 2.2.5. Disability Sport Sponsorship ...................................................................... 16
2.3. Congruence ...................................................................................................... 17 2.3.1. Defining Congruence Within and Beyond the Sponsorship Domain ......... 18 2.3.2. Benefits of Congruence .............................................................................. 20 2.3.3. How Congruence Works: Theories Underpinning the Concept ................. 21
2.3.3.1. Schema Theory ..................................................................................... 22 2.3.3.2. Associative Networks Principle ........................................................... 22 2.3.3.3. Attribution Theory and the Discounting Principle .............................. 23
2.3.4. Measuring Congruence ............................................................................... 24 2.3.5. Different Levels of Congruence ................................................................. 26
2.3.5.1. Benefits of High Congruence ............................................................... 27 2.3.5.2. Benefits of Creating ‘Artificial’ Congruence ....................................... 28 2.3.5.3. A Role for Incongruence? .................................................................... 28
2.3.6. Specific Inhibitors of Congruence within Sport Sponsorship .................... 29 2.4. Conceptual Framework and Research Questions ........................................ 31 2.5. Chapter Summary .......................................................................................... 32
v
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................ 33 3.1. Research Design............................................................................................... 33
3.1.1. Nature of the Study ..................................................................................... 33 3.1.2. A Case Study Approach ............................................................................. 34
3.2. Sampling ........................................................................................................... 35 3.2.1. Sampling Method ....................................................................................... 35 3.2.2. Sample Frame ............................................................................................. 36
3.3. Data Collection Methods ................................................................................ 37 3.3.1. Semi-Structured Interviews ........................................................................ 37 3.3.2. Interview Protocol and the Interview Guide ............................................... 39 3.3.3. Pilot Study .................................................................................................. 40 3.3.4. Recruitment ................................................................................................ 40 3.3.5. Interviews ................................................................................................... 41 3.3.6. Documentation and Ranking Tool .............................................................. 42
3.4. Data Analysis ................................................................................................... 43 3.4.1. Data Analysis for the Case Study ............................................................... 44 3.4.2. Data Analysis Validity................................................................................ 45
3.5. Delimitations of the Proposed Research Methodology ................................ 46 3.6. Ethical Considerations .................................................................................... 47 3.7. Chapter Summary ........................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ............................................. 49 4.1. Disability Sport Sponsorship Relationships .................................................. 49
4.1.1. Exchange Nature of Sponsorship Relationships ......................................... 49 4.1.2. Classification of Disability Sport Sponsorship Relationships .................... 50
4.1.2.1. Philanthropic Disability Sport Sponsorship Relationships ................. 50 4.1.2.2. Socio Disability Sport Sponsorship Relationships ............................... 51 4.1.2.3. Commercial Elements of Disability Sport Sponsorships ..................... 52
4.1.3. Impingement Factors in Disability Sport Sponsorship Relationships ........ 52 4.2. Research Question One: Exploration of Congruence .................................. 53
4.2.1. Existence of Congruence ............................................................................ 53 4.2.1.1. Case Study Findings: Existence of Congruence .................................. 54 4.2.2.2. Case Study Discussion: Existence of Congruence ............................... 55
4.2.3. Congruence: Overall, Macro and Micro-Dimensions ................................ 55 4.2.3.1.Case Study Findings: Congruence........................................................ 56 4.2.3.2. Case Study Findings: Standing for Similar Things.............................. 58 4.2.3.3. Case Study Findings: Marketing Strategy ........................................... 60 4.2.3.4. Case Study Findings: Logical Connection / Makes Sense ................... 62 4.2.3.5 Case Study Discussion: Congruence .................................................... 63
4.2.4. Comparison with Able-Bodied Sponsorship Relationships ....................... 67 4.2.4.1. Case Study Findings: Able-Bodied Sponsorship Relationships........... 67 4.2.4.2. Case Study Discussion: Able-Bodied Sponsorship Relationships ....... 68
4.2.5. Summary for Research Question One ........................................................ 69 4.3. Research Question Two: Congruence in Sponsorship Management ......... 69
4.3.1. Congruence in Sponsorship Selection ........................................................ 70 4.3.1.1. Case Study Findings: Congruence in Sponsorship Selection .............. 70 4.3.1.2. Case Study Discussion: Congruence in Sponsorship Selection ........... 73
4.3.2. Congruence in Sponsorship Strategy .......................................................... 74 4.3.2.1. Case Study Findings: Congruence in Sponsorship Strategy ............... 74 4.3.2.2. Case Study Discussion: Congruence in Sponsorship Strategy ............ 76
4.3.3. Congruence in Sponsorship Objectives ...................................................... 77
vi
4.3.3.1. Case Study Findings: Congruence in Sponsorship Objectives ............ 78 4.3.3.2. Case Study Discussion: Congruence in Sponsorship Objectives ........ 81
4.3.4. Congruence in Sponsorship Implementation .............................................. 82 4.3.4.1. Case Study Findings: Congruence in Sponsorship Implementation.... 82 4.3.4.2. Case Study Discussion: Congruence in Sponsorship Implementation 84
4.3.5. Congruence in Sponsorship Measurement ................................................. 86 4.3.5.1. Case Study Findings: Congruence in Sponsorship Measurement ....... 86 4.3.5.2. Case Study Discussions: Congruence in Sponsorship Measurement .. 87
4.3.6. Summary for Research Question Two........................................................ 88 4.4. Summary of Findings and Discussions .......................................................... 88
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION .......................................................................... 90 5.1. Findings ............................................................................................................ 90
5.1.1. Findings for Research Question One .......................................................... 90 5.1.2. Findings for Research Question Two ......................................................... 92
5.2. Research Contributions .................................................................................. 94 5.2.1. Theoretical Implications ............................................................................. 94 5.2.2. Practical Implications and Recommendations ............................................ 95
5.3. Limitations ....................................................................................................... 97 5.4. Directions for Future Research ...................................................................... 98 5.5. Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 100
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 101 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................... 119
vii
LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A: Macro and Micro Dimensions of Congruence ..................................... 119 Appendix B: Interview Guide .................................................................................... 123 Appendix C: Sample Letter of Introduction .............................................................. 124 Appendix D: Sponsorship Profiles............................................................................. 125 Appendix E: Plain Language Statement .................................................................... 126 Appendix F: Part A - Consent form ........................................................................... 128 Appendix F: Part B - Revocation of Consent form.................................................... 129 Appendix G: Copy of Blank Promo Forma Template ............................................... 130 Appendix H: Short Ranking Tool One – Motivators of Sponsorship Relationship .. 131 Appendix I: Short Ranking Tool Two – Objectives of Sponsorship Relationship .... 132 Appendix J: Short Ranking Tool Three – Elements of Sponsorship Relationship .... 133 Appendix K: NVivo Codes Used in Data Analysis ................................................... 134 Appendix L: Sponsorship Selection - Beginnings and Associated Reasons ............. 135
LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Austin's Corporate Community Involvement Continuum ........................... 8 Figure 2.2: Framework for Congruence in Disability Sponsorship Relationships ...... 31 Figure 4.1: Placement of Sponsorship Relationships Along CCI Continuum ............. 50
LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Abbreviations for Sponsorship Relationships ............................................ 49 Table 4.2: Terminology Used to Infer Congruence In Sponsorship Relationships ..... 54 Table 4.3: Comments on Overall Congruence ............................................................. 56 Table 4.4: Classification of Overall, Macro and Micro-Dimensional Congruence ..... 56 Table 4.5: Comments Regarding Sponsor and Sponsee Standing for Similar Things 58 Table 4.6: Comments on Congruence Across Organisational Elements ..................... 59 Table 4.7: Findings from the Word Association Tool ................................................. 60 Table 4.8: Short Ranking Tool Three – Dimensions of Congruence .......................... 63 Table 4.9: Comparison of Micro-Dimensions of Congruence ..................................... 68 Table 4.10: Short Ranking Tool One – Motivators of Sponsorship Relationships ..... 76 Table 4.11: Short Ranking Tool Two – Objectives of Sponsorship Relationships ..... 80 Table 4.12: Leveraging Activities in Disability Sport Sponsorship Relationships ..... 83 Table 5.1: Summary of Congruence Findings for Research Question One ................. 90 Table 5.2: Summary of Main Congruence Findings for Research Question Two ....... 93 Table 5.3: Major Objectives and Leveraging Activities for Disability Sponsors ........ 94
viii
TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS
Term Abbreviation
Australian Bureau of Statistics ABS
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare AIHW
Australian Paralympic Committee APC
Australian Rules Football AFL
Corporate Community Involvement CCI
Corporate Social Responsibility CSR
National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing NASCAR
National Rugby League NRL
People with a Disability PWD
Plain Language Statement PLS
Research Question One RQ1
Research Question Two RQ2
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION As the introductory chapter of the current thesis, an initial focus is placed
upon establishing the context and background for the study. Opportunities existing in
the literature are then identified in order to justify two overarching research questions.
The chapter concludes by noting research contributions and outlining an overall
structure thereby providing direction and guidance to the thesis.
1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
After conceding the first set 6-7, Hall is now facing match point after winning
the previous set 6-4. The stadium is filled to capacity and the crowd ready to erupt.
Establishing a rhythm through multiple forehands and backhands, Hall appears to be
handling the immense pressure placed on his shoulders given his number one ranking
and home soil advantage. A dramatic final volley sees Hall claim victory over his
American opponent, thus becoming “one of the greatest moments of [Hall’s] sporting
life” (Hall, as cited in Wake, 2010, p. 1).
With a career that included 16 grand slam titles, six years as world number
one, and an induction into the prestigious Sport Australia Hall of Fame (Wake, 2010),
Hall saw tennis as having provided numerous opportunities. Tennis allowed Hall to
travel the world and learn about himself, how to adapt to different situations, solve
problems and overcome challenges. As such, the importance of sport in Hall’s life is
evident. However, tennis provided Hall with an outlet where he could turn pent up
negative energy into something positive. These negative emotions were a result of
having both legs amputated at 16 and facing life confined to a wheelchair. However,
wheelchair tennis has given Hall the chance to turn his life around and taken him on
journeys he never thought possible (Heggarty, 2010).
Sport as a rehabilitation tool for people with a disability (PWD) is not unique
to Hall’s case. Indeed, the Paralympics was founded to provide returned World War II
veterans with motivation and coping strategies (Bailey, 2008; Pensgaard, Roberts, &
Ursin, 1999). Moreover, sport can help PWD achieve independence (Bailey, 2008)
while at the same time help to provide positive social, physical, and mental benefits
(Woods, 2007). This is of critical importance given that PWD have lower
participation rates in sport (Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), 2011), generally
have poorer health and are more likely to suffer ill health (Australian Institute of
Health and Welfare (AIHW), 2010a). For example, the risk of chronic diseases, such
2
as diabetes, is four times higher for PWD (AIHW, 2010b). Also, PWD experience
higher rates of obesity (69% vs. 58%) and have a staggering 48% rate of mental
illness compared with only 6% of the general population (AIHW, 2010a). It is also
important to note that the number of people with a disability or long-term health
problem was 4.02 million in 2009 and that the Australian population is expected to
rise from 22.61 to 30.9 - 42.5 million people by 2051 (ABS, 2008). As a result, the
role of sport for people with a disability is one of critical importance given the
benefits of physical activity but also as PWD are at a greater disadvantage than the
general population (AIHW, 2010b)
Helping Australian PWD participate in sport are numerous nonprofit disability
sporting organisations. These organisations come in a variety of forms and can be
state or nationally based, represent athletes from a grassroots to elite level, and
incorporate a whole range of disabilities across a variety of sports. The Australian
Paralympic Committee (APC) represents the peak sporting body for athletes with a
disability and is responsible for enabling athletes to participate in sport and compete
at the Paralympic Games (APC, 2011).
These disability sporting organisations, associated sports, and athletes
themselves, are gradually facing greater pressures of professionalisation and
commercialisation (APC, 2010; Gómez, Martí, & Opazo, 2008). For example,
wheelchair tennis is now conducted on a professional basis with its own tournament
circuit, ranking system and prize money (Kewley, 2001). Given the internal focus of
professionalisation, there has been an increased degree of organisational formalisation
and employment of specialised staff (APC, 2011; Gómez et al., 2008). Conversely,
the operation of commercialisation in an environmental context has seen greater
reliance on income from various stakeholders such as sponsors (APC, 2010). Adding
to the complexity of professionalisation and commercialisation is the nonprofit
environment these organisations are operating in. Becker-Olsen and Hill (2006)
stated that the nonprofit environment is fast becoming increasingly competitive while
also witnessing a global stagnation in government funding. Consequently,
relationships with governments, national sporting organisations and corporate entities
are crucial to the delivery sporting programs for PWD (Foster, 2011) as it is these
relationships that provide vital support (e.g. income, services, or product).
Given that disability sporting organisations are currently involved in a host of
relationships, each of which are pivotal in their own right, determining a focus on one
3
type of relationship was achieved in light of the following information. Sponsorship
plays a significant role, both within a disability sport context and sport in general, as it
is a billion dollar industry with 60-70% directed towards sport sponsorship (IEG,
2011). Herein lies the importance of sponsorship for disability sporting organisations
and athletes, as well as highlighting the appropriateness of considering sponsorship
relationships from a disability sport sponsorship relationship perspective. It is
acknowledged that sport sponsorship myopia should not be the aim of a sporting
organisation (Shilbury, Westerbeek, Quick, & Funk, 2009). However, there is a need
to build, maintain, and understand the nature of these relationships (Apostolopoulou
& Papadimitriou, 2004; Farrelly, Quester, & Burton, 2006). Understanding variant
motivations and expectations of sponsorships can be achieved through the ‘corporate
community involvement’ continuum (CCI; Austin, 2000). While the CCI continuum
is discussed in-depth within chapter two, it is important to note how it created a lens
to further investigate disability sport sponsorship relationships. Also pertinent to note
is the interchangeable terminology found in previous literature when investigating
sponsorships from a dyadic perspective. When referring to a ‘sponsor’, terminology
has also included ‘profit’, or ‘commercial’, whereas the term ‘sponsee’ has also been
expressed as ‘nonprofit’ or ‘property’ (Gwinner, 1997; Meenaghan, 1983; Olson &
Thjømøe, 2011; Seitanidi & Ryan, 2007; Zdravkovic, Magnusson, & Stanley, 2010).
As such, this thesis has adopted a similar approach when discussing disability sport
sponsorship relationships.
Literature has suggested that sponsorship is a key area of concern to
management scholars as it plays a significant role in corporate strategies but is in need
of further academic research (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998; Dolphin, 2003; Speed &
Thompson, 2000). The importance of sponsorship can be found in that sponsorship
can help achieve multiple marketing objectives at the same time (Thwaites, 1995),
such as increasing sales (Easton & Mackie, 1998), enhancing corporate image
(Javalgi, Traylor, Gross, & Lampman, 1994), and is considered one of the most
prominent forms of marketing promotion (McDaniel, 1999; Roy & Cornwell, 2004).
Given the important role of the consumer in multiple sponsorship objectives, a vast
majority of sponsorship research has been dedicated to understanding consumer
attitudes towards sponsorship relationships (e.g., Dees, Bennett, & Ferreira, 2010).
The literature has proposed an array of factors that generate a favourable response to
sponsorship, such as perceived sincerity and ubiquity (Speed & Thompson, 2000).
4
However, significantly dictating the effectiveness of sponsorship is the theoretical
concept of congruence (Fleck & Quester, 2007; Olson & Thjømøe, 2011).
The congruence concept relates to the processing of sponsorship stimuli
(Cornwell, Weeks, & Roy, 2005; Johar & Pham, 1999; Speed & Thompson, 2000)
and suggests that sponsors will be more willing to sponsor an organisation when
congruence characteristics are present between both the sponsor and sponsee
(Meenaghan, 1983). This is due to the nature in which congruence can help achieve
sponsorship objectives (e.g., reinforce an organisations’ positioning; Gwinner &
Bennett, 2008) as well as influence both sponsorship motives (Cornwell, Humphreys,
Maguire, Weeks, & Tellegen, 2006) and liking for a sponsor in the minds of
consumers (Gwinner & Bennett, 2008). Despite the continual progress of congruence
research within the sport sponsorship domain, there remain opportunities to explore
the role of congruence outside traditional sport sponsorship contexts and provide
external validation for proposed dimensions that have mainly been developed through
homogenous groups to ensure internal validity (e.g., Zdravkovic et al., 2010).
Consequently, logic would suggest that an important step forward would be to explore
the role of congruence within disability sport sponsorship relationships.
Complementing an investigation into the role of congruence would be an
examination of the construct within disability sport sponsorship management
practices. Admittedly, sponsors have suggested a long and proud history with
disability sporting organisations (Telstra, 2011; Toyota, 2011). Yet, a need remains
to investigate these relationships given a lack of theoretical and practical implications
relating to disability sport sponsorship (Burton, 2010). As such, extending previous
research into a disability sport sponsorship management utilising the congruence
construct is highly relevant given congruence has been shown to improve sponsorship
effectiveness (Fleck & Quester, 2007). These are just some of the many justifications
for the current study. Preceding further rationalisations is a presentation of the
overarching research questions for this thesis.
1.2. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research questions guiding this thesis were firmly grounded in opportunities
identified in the literature review and included two overarching research questions;
Research Question One (RQ1) - What is the role of congruence in disability sport
sponsorship relationships?
5
Research Question Two (RQ2) – What is the role of congruence in disability sport
sponsorship management?
1.3. RESEARCH JUSTIFICATIONS
The literature provided many opportunities to contribute to existing
knowledge in both disability sport and congruence within sport sponsorship.
Research within disability sport is severely limited with publication saturation a far
off point on the horizon (Burton, 2010). There have been academic calls to rectify
this situation, particularly in “meaningful aspects of disability sports such
as…awareness… and specifically how they relate to sponsorship” (Burton, 2010, p.
214). This aligns with justification for studying the sport sponsorship domain as not
only do sport sponsees receive a majority of sponsorship (Repucom International,
2010), but empirical studies have also demonstrated that sport is the most popular
sponsorship medium (Thwaites, Aguilar-Manjarrez, & Kidd, 1999). Moreover, as
nonprofit sporting organisations increase their dependence on corporate sponsorships
(Gray & Kendzia, 2009) there is a greater need to understand these relationships
(Farrelly et al., 2006). As congruence helps to facilitate sponsorship objectives
(Cornwell et al., 2006), this construct enables exploration into different contexts in
society where schemas revolve around disability and wheelchair (Woolcott Research,
2010). This is in comparison to current literature that has focused on congruence
within mainstream sport settings (e.g., Olson & Thjømøe, 2011; Turner, Fuller, &
Karg, 2010) where associations include ‘exclusivity’ and ‘prestige’ (Papadimitriou &
Apostolopoulou, 2009). When considering that the literature is surprisingly scarce in
providing an understanding of disability sponsorship relationships and the role of
congruence, the need to advance this area is paramount given the importance of sport
for people with a disability (Bailey, 2008).
1.4. RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS
The aims of this thesis were to explore the role played by congruence both
within disability sport sponsorship relationships and in relation to sponsorship
management. The current thesis has striven to provide both theoretical and practical
contributions. The extension of congruence into a new context not only adds to the
body of knowledge regarding congruence but also provides external validation of
existing congruence dimensions. Practical contributions look to assist disability sport
6
sponsees gain an appreciation of the motivations and objectives of corporate
organisations that engage in, and leverage, sponsorship partnerships. More
specifically, an objective of this study has been to identify if dimensions of
congruence differ across able-bodied sport sponsees and disability sport sponsees in
the eyes of corporate organisations. Consequently, the creation of insight for
disability sport sponsees, such as the wheelchair tennis athlete David Hall from the
opening part of this chapter, to better understand current and sponsors as ongoing
revenue sources is achieved. As a result, the current thesis provides research that is
“benefiting…our socialised sporting community” (Burton, 2010, p. 214).
1.5. STRUCTURE OF STUDY
The nature of the research questions framing this thesis saw the adoption of an
exploratory qualitative approach to investigate the role of congruence both within
disability sport sponsorship relationships and related sponsorship management
activities. Given the presentation of the research questions and research justification
in this initial chapter, four chapters will follow. Chapter two provides a detailed
literature review on sponsorship and congruence as well as conceptualisation of the
sponsorship management framework. This leads to a conceptual framework that
illustrates the key constructs underpinning the research questions (see Figure 2.2).
Chapter three provides a discussion on the research methodology, incorporating
information pertaining to data collection, data analysis, delimitations and ethical
considerations. Found within chapter four are the research findings and related
discussions. Chapter five concludes by noting theoretical and practical research
contributions, before indicating limitations associated with the study and making
suggestions for future research directions.
1.6. CHAPTER SUMMARY
The purpose of chapter one has been to provide an introduction to the current
thesis by establishing the context and background for the study. As such, the
opportunities found within literature were highlighted to allow for presentation of the
research questions. Consequently, research contributions were stated and followed by
an outline of the structure for the thesis. A detailed literature review will now occur
to discuss key constructs that shape the foundation for this thesis.
7
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW Chapter two presents relevant literature in order to better understand concepts
guiding the research questions and incorporates four sections. Firstly, an examination
of Austin’s (2000) CCI continuum highlights two broad overreaching types of
sponsorship - commercial and socio-sponsorship. A focus is then placed on defining
sponsorship with consideration given to existing frameworks for sponsorship
management. As a result, section three establishes the construct of congruence, both
within and beyond the sponsorship context, and leads into the presentation of a
conceptual framework developed through the literature. The chapter concludes by
expanding upon RQ1 and RQ2, and stating key research aims.
2.1. CORPORATE COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
Over the past two centuries, a progressive increase in the interactions between
profit and nonprofit divisions has been witnessed (Austin, 2000) with trends
highlighting a growing interest in co-alliances or partnerships (Dickinson & Barker,
2007). The notion of corporate philanthropy and director’s choice (Meenaghan, 1983;
Thjømøe, Olson, & Bronn, 2002) has evolved into what can now be referred to as
CCI (Brammer & Millington, 2004; Seitanidi & Ryan, 2007). The CCI continuum is
an ‘umbrella term’ (Seitanidi & Ryan, 2007) and enables classification of different
relationship types found between the profit and non-profit sector (Austin, 2000;
Seitanidi & Ryan, 2007). The various categories displayed in the CCI continuum
include corporate ‘philanthropy’ (Cutlip, Center, & Broom, 1994; Koten, 1997;
Varadarajan & Menon, 1988), ‘benefaction’ (Coutoupis, 1996), ‘patronage’ (Parker,
1991), ‘sponsorship’ (Dolphin, 2003; Javalgi et al., 1994; Meenaghan, 1983; Speed &
Thompson, 2000), ‘cause-related marketing’ (Irwin, Lachowetz, Cornwell, & Clark,
2003; Mekonnen, Harris, & Laing, 2008; Olsen, Pracejus, & Brown, 2003) and
‘partnerships’ (Seitanidi & Crane, 2009; Seitanidi & Ryan, 2007; Simpson, Lefroy, &
Tsarenko, 2011). As demonstrated in Figure 2.1, each component of the continuum
comprises different stages, motivations, and expectations.
8
Figure 2.1: Austin's Corporate Community Involvement Continuum
Adapted from Austin (2000); Seitanidi and Ryan (2007)
9
A shift from the philanthropic end of the continuum, philanthropy or
donations, to the juxtaposing integrative stage, partnership, does not necessarily
progress in a linear fashion (Austin, 2000). However, classifying and placing
relationships into a box along the continuum can be a double-edged sword. This is
because the separate categories are suggestive of limiting each relationship with
preconceived notions or aiding in the creation of confusion when extrapolating
implications for theory and practice (Seitanidi & Ryan, 2007). Indeed, by nature a
continuum allows for a progressive evolution, hence the possibility of overlap
between two forms of CCI could exist. For example, an overlap could be possible
between the two forms of suggested sponsorship – commercial and socio-sponsorship.
Austin (2000) has posited that key differences between commercial and socio-
sponsorship pertain to compensation and incentives. Where commercial sponsorship
seeks predominately tangible benefits through sales, promotions, and advertising,
socio-sponsorship seeks intangible benefits accomplished via the concept of corporate
social responsibility (CSR; Austin, 2000). While Austin (2000) has made these useful
distinctions between commercial and socio-sponsorship, it is recognised that both
forms of sponsorship are situated on a continuum. As such, disability sport
sponsorship relationships have the potential to demonstrate an overlap between
commercial and socio-sponsorship objectives, and motives, due to the nature of the
organisation and an ability to exploit both tangible and intangible benefits. To
explore these notions in more detail, chapter two now focuses solely on sponsorship
as a benefit exchange vehicle for commercial organisations and nonprofits.
2.2. SPONSORSHIP
2.2.1. Defining Sponsorship
Sponsorship is big business. The roots of sponsorship can be traced back to
ancient Greece and Rome where bloody battles between gladiators saw only one man
left alive (Carrigan & Carrigan, 1997). In today’s society, sponsorship is less of a risk
in terms of physical life and death but has become a multi-billion dollar industry
world wide (IEG, 2011). As a result, it is an industry that provides numerous ways
through which organisations can survive and prosper (Simpson et al., 2011).
As demonstrated in Austin’s (2000) CCI theory, a gradual increase in
interactions between the profit and nonprofit sectors has been observed (Simpson et
10
al., 2011). This was due in part to the recognition that the philanthropic nature of
sponsorship was inhibiting its growth (Parker, 1991). Thus, the previous few decades
have seen an evolution within the realm of sponsorship from that of a philanthropic
gesture to sponsorship securing a place within the marketing mix (Cornwell &
Maignan, 1998; Javalgi et al., 1994; Polonsky & Speed, 2001). It is even considered
by some to be the equivalent of advertising (Dolphin, 2003) in terms of performance
(Meenaghan, 1998) with suggestion sponsorship has become the marketing tool of the
twenty-first century (Tripodi, 2001). Indeed, in the last ten years, sponsorship
expenditure has grown from $13 billion worldwide to more than $48 billion since
1996 (IEG, 2011). Within this sum, the vast majority (i.e. 60-70%) is sport
sponsorship related (IEG, 2011). These statistics demonstrate the progressive leaps
made within this industry (Meenaghan, 1998) as well as reinforce the importance of
this research area as a key revenue source for sport sponsees or right owners,
particularly those of nonprofit orientation.
However, whilst the past two decades have seen the growth of sponsorship
outperform other promotional tools (Tripodi, 2001), the ambiguity and lack of an
accepted definition (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998; Erdogan & Kitchen, 1998; Sleight,
1989) within the sponsorship literature has resulted in numerous attempts to define
and capture the essence of sponsorship (Cornwell, 1995; Erdogan & Kitchen, 1998;
Meenaghan, 1991). Indeed, Sleight (1989) described sponsorship as “one of the most
abused and misunderstood words in the English language” (p. 3). Consequently,
many definitions, with many alterations, exist within the sponsorship arena and some
have stood the test of time more so than others (Arthur, Scott, & Woods, 1997;
Zdravkovic et al., 2010). One such definition is provided by (Meenaghan, 1991) and
is employed throughout this thesis;
An investment in cash or kind, in an activity, in return for access to the exploitable commercial potential associated with that activity. (p. 36)
This definition is sufficiently broad as to encompass the variety of motives
and drivers pursued within a sponsor-property relationship (Meenaghan, 1983). It
also highlights the important underlying nature of exchange found in sponsorship thus
differentiating sponsorship from terms such as patronage or benefaction (Seitanidi &
Ryan, 2007). Admittedly, there are many more varieties of the sponsorship
definition; however, the core or essence of all definitions remains consistent with
11
terminology, breadth, and focus, discerning one definition from another (Cornwell,
1995, Tripodi, 2001).
In a similar fashion to the holistic progression of sponsorship, perceptions of
sponsorship value have shifted markedly in recent times. For example, there has been
a change from tactical to strategic direction, transactional to relationship-orientated,
short-term to long-term (Farrelly, 2010; Farrelly et al., 2006), as well as periphery to
core corporate and brand positioning thereby ensuring greater brand meaning
(Cornwell, 1995; Farrelly & Quester, 2005). Research has suggested that successful
sponsorships display reciprocal commitment, sponsorship-led brand building
capabilities and collaborative capabilities enabling goal alignment (Farrelly et al.,
2006). As such, sport sponsees have had to adapt and become more commercialised
over time (Meenaghan & O'Sullivan, 2001).
2.2.2. Current Issues within the Sponsorship Literature
In line with the commercialisation and growth of sponsorship as a marketing
tool has been the research dedicated to sponsorship (Cornwall, 2008), albeit the
suggestion that it is a scholarly area still “riddled by ambiguity” (Dolphin, 2003, p.
184) and one that seriously lacks an understanding of sponsorship relationship
dynamics (Olkkonen, 2001). However, research has highlighted three common
threads that can be considered characteristic of sponsorship investigations (Olkkonen
& Tuominen, 2006). The first two topics relate to definitional and promotional issues.
More pertinent to this thesis is the third theme relating to managerial concerns
(Olkkonen & Tuominen, 2006), which involve objectives or drivers (Garry et al.,
2008) of commercial organisations who incorporate sponsorship into their marketing
mix strategies (Olkkonen & Tuominen, 2006). Guiding sponsorship objectives, and
related to managerial concerns, are established sponsorship management frameworks.
2.2.3. Frameworks for Sponsorship
Playing an essential role in the efficiency of contributions to an organisation’s
communication objectives are comprehensive sponsorship management frameworks
(Arthur, Scott, Woods, & Booker, 1998; Thwaites, 1995). Sponsorship management
frameworks simultaneously provide tools for sponsorship managers as well as allow
frameworks for researchers to investigate sponsorship issues. The research conducted
by Farrelly et al. (2006) presented validation of the importance of utilising a
12
sponsorship management framework. The authors suggested that problems arose
when a culture was built around securing rather than managing a sponsorship
(Farrelly et al., 2006). Farrelly et al. (2006) also expressed the significance of
commitment, clear and articulated requirements, and expectations found in the dyadic
relationship to help ensure agreed upon obligations are met and maximised.
Underpinning the sport sponsorship management framework is the general
model of decision-making, which has no specific referent; however, Ray (1973) was
one of the first to utilise the sequence analysis in marketing communications
(Cornwell, 1995). A number of researchers have adapted the general model of
decision-making into the sponsorship arena (Arthur et al., 1997; Arthur et al., 1998;
Cornwell, 1995; Irwin & Asimakopoulos, 1992; Lund, 2010) thus accepting the task
of modeling “the complex and challenging” sponsorship construct (Chadwick &
Thwaites, 2004, p. 40). Although sponsorship has been criticised for lacking an
“integrated and coherent body of empirical research” (Dolphin, 2003, p. 176) and
“theoretical and conceptual foundations” (Garry, Broderick, & Lahiffe, 2008, p. 960),
the consensus across the literature is that of a strategic starting point, followed by
defining objectives, sponsorship selection and implementation, and concluding with
sponsorship evaluation (Arthur et al., 1997; Cornwell, 1995; Lund, 2010). Recent
developments of sport sponsorship management frameworks have included the
proposal of a cyclical version of these components (Karg, 2007). This justified and
logical process model enables the basic requirements for sponsorship communication
objectives or goals to be achieved and benefits obtained (Arthur et al., 1998).
Past literature opined this situation as being a win-win for both the sponsor
and sponsee as it allows for benefits to be reciprocally exchanged (Shilbury et al.,
2009) and thus reinforces Meenaghan’s (1991) definition of sponsorship. However,
there is general agreement that benefits are not received simultaneously (Farrelly,
2010; Farrelly et al., 2006; Hoek, Gendall, Jeffcoat, & Orsman, 1997). For example,
initially the sponsee may receive revenue from rights fees but the sponsor may receive
benefits of increased consumer awareness in the form of sales at a much later date,
providing the association has been effectively leveraged (Farrelly, 2010). Indeed,
many years may pass before sponsors receive value generated from the sponsor-
property relationship (Speed & Thompson, 2000). This points to the importance of
clearly establishing strategies not only when the initial relationship is formed but also
ensuring continuous measurement and appropriate sponsee selection.
13
2.2.3.1. Sponsorship Selection, Implementation and Measurement
Sponsorship selection not only involves the initial sponsorship agreement
entered into by sponsors and sponsees but also the renewal of a sponsorship
relationship (Arthur et al., 1998). Found within this selection process are multiple
criteria that have been used to determine what sponsorship arrangements should, or
should not, be entered into (Walliser, 2003). Pertinently, Thwaites et al. (1999) has
suggested that a clean image may be virtually a prerequisite for the sponsee. As such,
literature has proposed image and functional congruence as among the most important
sponsorship selection criteria (Irwin, Asimakopoulos, & Sutton, 1994; Copeland,
Frisby, & McCarville, 1996; Marshall & Cook, 1992; Turner et al., 2010) thereby
highlighting the critical role of congruence in the selection process (Mason, 2005).
Moreover, decisions to select a particular sponsee may be based upon rational or
emotional motives (Arthur et al., 1997), or stem from existing evaluation models
(e.g., Irwin & Asimakopoulos, 1992; Meenaghan, 1983).
Once the sponsorship relationship has been formed, in order to be implemented
properly, it needs to be correctly leveraged (Arthur et al., 1998; Fahy, Farrelly, &
Quester, 2004). When considering sponsorship is only one part of an organisation’s
communication mix, the value of correctly integrating the medium into the overall
strategy has been shown to maximise synergy, thereby creating a powerful image for
the company (Amis, Slack, & Berrett, 1999; Tripodi, 2001). While congruence is
considered in detail in subsequent sections, it is important to note that the construct
contributes to the effectiveness of communication activities designed to leverage
sponsorship relationships (Fleck & Quester, 2007). However, measuring the
effectiveness created through sponsorship has been perceived as difficult (Harvey,
2001; Horn & Baker, 1999) and remains a contentious issue within the sponsorship
domain (Dolphin, 2003) despite a need to justify a return on investement (Stotlar,
2004). Measurement difficulties arise for a number of reasons and include an
inability to separate sponsorship effects from other communication efforts due to their
simultaneous usage (Walliser, 2003). Further, the time delay in benefits received
between a sponsor and sponsee have also been posited as hindering measurement
activities (Farrelly, 2010; Farrelly et al., 2006). Posing fewer issues to sponsorship
relationships, albeit still potentially just as ambiguous, are the multiple objectives and
motives found within a sponsorship relationship and as such will now be discussed.
14
2.2.3.2. Sponsorship Strategy and Objectives
Literature has proposed differing links exist between sponsorship activities
and corporate strategy (Berrett & Slack, 1999). However, corporate strategy is
strengthened when the sponsorship medium is utilised as a strategic approach to
marketing (Dolphin, 2003) thereby enabling the development of corporate advantages
(Fahy et al., 2004) and positive returns (Aguilar-Manjarrez, Thwaites, & Maule,
1997). Moreover, when sponsorship objectives are congruent with organisational
objectives, strategy alignment is achieved (Farrelly, Quester & Burton, 1997; Irwin &
Amisakopoulos, 1992).
Macbeth’s notion, “in one fell swoop” aptly captures the ability of sponsorship
to simultaneously achieve multiple objectives (Cornwell, Roy, Edward, & Steinard,
2001), despite a tendency for these objectives to be vague in nature (Javalgi et al.,
1994). Indeed, it is beyond the scope of this thesis to define and pinpoint the
numerous objectives related to sponsorship as others have already focused on this
topic (e.g., Cordeio, Quah, Smart, & Shah, 2005; Dolphin, 2003; Javalgi et al., 1994;
Karg, 2007; Meenaghan, 1991). However, the following discussion emphasises key
sponsorship objectives applicable to the disability sport sponsorship context.
When considering sponsorship relationships, an array of terminology is used
interchangeably to represent the main intentions and expectations for its outcomes.
For example, some discuss expectations as sponsorship ‘objectives’ for such
outcomes as the boosting of staff morale (Tripodi, 2001) or using sponsorship as a
‘driver’ to alter public perceptions (Grimes & Meenaghan, 1998). Others have
spoken in terms of sponsorship ‘goals’ or ‘benefits’ such as enhanced sales or
increased goodwill (Gwinner, 1997; Shilbury et al., 2009). These examples seek to
highlight the terminology clutter found within this domain. However, it is evident
that sponsorship objectives span across and dynamically contribute to numerous
dimensions within sponsor-property relationships (Thwaites, 1995).
Regardless of whether studies have employed the terms objectives or goals,
there has been a recent shift in primary sponsorship objectives (Dolphin, 2003).
Whereas past sponsorship relationships focused on media exposure as the primary
objective (Grohs, Wagner, & Vsetecka, 2004), current sponsorship relationships have
viewed the medium as a tool to ultimately alter purchase behaviour and thus facilitate
sales objectives (Austin, 2000; Desbordes, Ohl, & Tribou, 2004; Meenaghan, 1991).
15
This is achieved through utilising sponsorship to enhance image and awareness
(Gwinner, 1997; Gwinner & Eaton, 1999), given target market congruence (Doherty,
& Murray, 2007). The evolution of sponsorship objectives can be seen within the
CCI continuum where sponsorship is clearly distinguished from philanthropic or
‘director’s choice’ origins (Meenaghan, 1998) with potential to extend to partnerships
where strategic objectives are a priority (Dolphin, 2003; Fahy et al., 2004).
Desbordes et al. (2004) provided one example of classifying succinctly the
differing, and pertinent, sponsorship objectives – communication, brand, and
commercial objectives. Within these objectives, unique access to interests and
ideologies, often perceived to be lacking, are granted to commercial organisations
when a relationship with a nonprofit is formed (Simpson et al., 2011). Subsequently,
sponsorship arrangements provide a distinctive link between the objectives of a
sponsor and sponsee in order to achieve an exchange of benefits (Shilbury et al.,
2009; Simpson et al., 2011). Related to sponsorship objectives, and often used
interchangeably with, are motivations for sport sponsorship relationships.
2.2.4. Motivations for Sport Sponsorship
Sport is unique in the passion, emotion, heroes, and attachments it creates
(Quester & Thompson, 2001; Seguin, Richelieu, & O’Reilly, 2008). It also provides
a vehicle to access niche or multi-segment target markets (Meenaghan, 1991;
Thwaites, 1995). Other motivators captured within sport sponsorship are the ability
of sports to transcend cultural, lingual, and geographic boundaries (Quester &
Thompson, 2001). This has not gone unnoticed by sponsorship managers with sport
sponsorship representing the majority of their spending (IEG, 2011). Encapsulating
the epitome of sports sponsorship is the Olympic movement (Papadimitriou &
Apostolopoulou, 2009). Associative symbolism runs rife in this context, especially in
regards to the Olympic rings. Seguin et al. (2008) suggested these associations
include success, high standards, international co-operation, a force for world peace
and a source of national pride. Subsequently, sponsors have specifically referred to
the Olympic brand as having rich “associative imagery” (Seguin et al., 2008, p. 8).
Enabling associative symbolism to occur in the minds of consumers, which can then
trigger trust and loyalty towards a sports brand, is the concept of congruence
(Cornwell et al., 2006; Gwinner & Bennett, 2008; Seguin et al., 2008).
16
Given that not all research confirms the value of sport sponsorship, even
within an Olympic context (Miyazaki & Morgan, 2001), many corporations are
asking themselves whether sponsoring the Olympic Games is worth the large
financial outlay (Soderman & Dolles, 2008). This is further compounded when other
sponsorship avenues, such as sponsorship at a national sporting level, have been
shown to rapidly aid redefinition of brand values (Alexander, 2009) and provide a
competitive advantage, given congruence has been employed effectively (Turner et
al., 2010). Moreover, important social and economic issues are forcing organisations
to refocus on notions such as CSR (Babiak, 2010; Margolis & Walsh, 2003; Sagawa
& Segal, 2000). CSR can be successfully communicated through cause sponsorship
(Geue & Plewa, 2010) thereby achieving not only community involvement
sponsorship objectives but also altering public perceptions (Dolphin, 2003) to
leverage corporate reputation (Javalgi et al., 1994). As such, both the applicability of
disability sport sponsorship relationships and congruence are naturally apparent.
Further, when considering these relationships enable sponsors to connect with
Paralympic athletes, specific intricacies and complexities of disability sport
sponsorships need to be considered.
2.2.5. Disability Sport Sponsorship
The nature of Paralympic Sport means that disability sport sponsees can offer
a unique brand to sponsors. Specifically, Paralympians have the ability to influence
society by challenging peoples’ perceptions of normality, ability, and capabilities
(Bailey, 2008). Moreover, Paralympians can inspire and motivate individuals to
become active and take on new challenges (Bailey, 2008). However, research
regarding disability sport, and consequently from a sponsor’s perspective on disability
sport, remains scarce (Burton, 2010). Indeed, to this author’s knowledge, there is no
study that has exclusively sought to determine selection motives, objectives, or
leveraging activities of disability sport sponsorship relationships. Furthermore, the
specific context provides opportunities to consider sport sponsees outside the classic
sport sponsorship domains in Australia such as Australian Football League (AFL) or
National Rugby League (NRL; e.g., Farrelly, 2010; Farrelly et al., 2006; Kelly &
Whiteman, 2010; Turner et al., 2010).
Given the focus on disability sport sponsorship, it needs to be taken into
account that the power dynamics and ideological imbalances found within
17
sponsorship relationships still favour the commercial entity (Ryan & Fahy, 2003;
Simpson et al., 2011). Consequently, a “lack of symmetry during implementation”
limits interaction and flexibility found within sponsor-property relationships
(Seitanidi & Ryan, 2007, p. 255). Strengthening evidence of imbalance in sponsor-
property relationships lies in nonprofits relying heavily on sponsorships for income
(Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriou, 2004) with the potential of producing a feeling of
reduced bargaining power (Simpson et al., 2011). As such, Simonin (1997) suggested
that this can lead to coercion within the sponsorship relationship.
In contrast to the nonprofit perspective, are commercial organisations that
want to gain more for their brand (Dickinson & Barker, 2007) thereby favouring
associations with prestigious nonprofits to improve their own image (Piperno, 1996).
Contributing to the current sponsorship environment, is a trend from sponsoring big,
established sports, towards niche sport sponsorships (such as skateboarding, surfing
and snowboarding; Shilbury et al., 2009). Furthermore, research has confirmed that
disability sport organisations, such as the APC, are not a “top of mind organisation”
(Woolcott Research, 2010, p.1). When consideration is given to all of these factors,
the desired sponsorship objectives of the disability sport sponsee may not always
align with that of the sponsor.
In this light, motivations behind sponsorship have been a source of skepticism
within the minds of consumers (Seitanidi & Ryan, 2007; Szykman, Bloom, &
Blaizing, 2004). Logically this leads to questions such as, what tools facilitate the
portrayal of socio-sponsorship relationships? Specifically, can these socio-
sponsorships project CSR and altruistic motives when elements of commercial
motivations and expectations exist? Research has proposed that the theoretical
concept of congruence provides a tool to answer these questions within the domain of
sponsorship (e.g., Johar & Pham, 1999; McDaniel, 1999; Rifon, Choi, Trimble, & Li,
2004; Speed & Thompson, 2000). As a result, discussions will now focus upon the
construct of congruence.
2.3. CONGRUENCE
In order to gain an understanding of the role played by congruence within
disability sport sponsorship relationships, a sound theoretical foundation must first be
provided. The following discussion highlights congruence within and beyond the
sponsorship domain before defining the construct. A brief explanation on congruence
18
theories, congruence dimension, and the inhibitors of congruence within sponsorship,
concludes this portion of the literature review.
2.3.1. Defining Congruence Within and Beyond the Sponsorship Domain
Before sponsorship can affect consumer behaviour, it must have some form of
mental impact (Poon & Prendergast, 2006). Congruence not only creates intellectual
stimulus (Cornwell et al., 2006) but also aids multiple sponsorship objectives
(Thwaites, 1995). Furthermore, it provides a lens for which to examine various
motives within sponsorship relationships (Cornwell et al., 2001; Tripodi, 2001). Akin
to the plethora of available definitions for sponsorship within the literature, there has
been an extensive commitment to the examination of congruence across an array of
fields such as management, marketing, and sponsorship. This makes reviewing the
construct difficult, not least because of the numerous branches relating to congruence
but also the interchangeable terminology used to describe it (Fleck & Quester, 2007).
Conversely, the numerous terms associated with congruence may enable the varied
demands of discourse to be enhanced through “versatility and generality of words
and phases” (Cafagna, 1960, p. 113). Indeed, evidence of terms such as ‘fit’ (Basil &
Basil, 2003; Speed & Thompson, 2000), ‘match’ (McDaniel, 1999; Turner et al.,
2010), or ‘relatedness’ (Johar & Pham, 1999), have all been used to convey what is
essentially the same concept within the literature (Fleck & Quester, 2007; Olson &
Thjømøe, 2011).
Beginning with the research domain of management, semantical
operationalisations of congruence have been associated with suggestions that strategic
management, organisation theory, and behaviour structures should ‘fit’ (Egeihoff,
1982) or be ‘aligned’ (White & Hamermesh, 1981) with an organisation’s
environment and strategy. Within marketing literature, the term ‘congruence’ has
been associated with a “vague concept” (Fleck & Quester, 2007, p. 977) but can
specifically be related to brand research, in particular brand extensions (Aaker &
Keller, 1990; Boush & Loken, 1991; Broniarczyk & Alba, 1994; Lane, 2000; Park,
Millberg & Lawson, 1991; Sheinin & Schmitt, 1994; Tauber, 1993) or co-branding
communication efforts (Park, Jun, & Schocker, 1996; Simonin & Ruth, 1998), using
related terms such as ‘fit’ (Tauber, 1993), ‘similarity’ (Boush et al., 1987), or
‘congruence’ (Lane, 2000).
19
Similarly, conceptualisations of congruence within the sponsorship literature
have demonstrated multiple terminologies, with the majority still holding a place in
current discourse (Olson & Thjømøe, 2011). For example, initial research sought to
determine the ‘link’ between an event and sponsor on a continuum (Otker & Hayes,
1988). Other studies examined the term ‘relatedness’ within the context of
sponsorship (Johar & Pham, 1999; McDonald, 1991) or referred to a ‘match’
(Gwinner, 1997; McDaniel, 1999; Richelieu & Lopez, 2008; Turner et al., 2010)
based on image or functional similarities within the sponsor-property relationship
(Gwinner & Eaton, 1999). Other terminology has included ‘compatibility’ (Ruth &
Simonin, 2003), ‘relevancy’ (Rodgers, 2003; Poon & Prendergast, 2006), or
‘similarity’ (Simmons & Becker-Olsen, 2006).
However, the terms ‘congruence’ and ‘fit’ have received substantial use within
the sponsorship literature (Becker-Olsen & Simmons, 2002; Fleck & Quester, 2007;
Kelly & Whiteman, 2010; Koo, Quarterman, & Flynn, 2006; Menon & Kahn, 2003;
Olson & Thjømøe, 2011; Rifon et al., 2004; Speed & Thompson, 2000) with many
authors relying on previous literature to explain the construct (Fleck & Quester, 2007;
Johar & Pham, 1999; McDaniel, 1999). As a result, a summary of existing
explanations is used in this thesis to define congruence as;
A central theoretical concept based on symbolic matching properties between the sponsor and sponsee; related to the processing and transfer of sponsorship stimulus; examined on a multidimensional basis and found to influence a wide variety of sponsorship outcomes and communications (Cornwell et al., 2005; Cornwell et al., 2006; Gwinner & Eaton, 1999; Martensen, Gronholdt, Bendtsen, & Jensen, 2007; Menon & Kahn, 2003; Olson & Thjømøe, 2011, Rifon et al., 2004; Roy & Cornwell 2003; Simmons & Becker-Olsen, 2006; Speed & Thompson, 2000).
In light of this definition, it is recognised that a consistent understanding of
congruence is linked to an effective ability to facilitate favourable outcomes desired
by orchestrating parties (Fleck & Quester, 2007). That is to say, certain benefits can
be achieved when an attempt is made to align various macro-dimensions (e.g.,
prominence or marketing strategy; Zdravkovic et al., 2010) to sub-dimensions (e.g.,
geographic similarity, image or function similarity; Gwinner & Eaton, 1999; Olson &
Thjømøe, 2011; Zdravkovic et al., 2010). Moreover, if ‘natural’ congruence is not
20
present, ‘artificial’ enhancement of congruence through articulation messages has
been found to be successful (Cornwell et al., 2006; Simmons & Becker-Olsen, 2006).
However, conflicting research has shown benefits when there is a high level
(Cornwell et al., 2005) or moderate level of congruence (Meyers-Levy, Louie, &
Curren, 1994; Meyers-Levy & Tybout, 1989; Sheinin & Schmitt, 1994) whereas
others speculate incongruence may be of benefit to a sponsorship relationship (Olson
& Thjømøe, 2009; Fleck & Quester, 2007). Preceding a discussion that illuminates
these inconsistencies across the literature is an examination of the benefits obtained as
a result of congruence.
2.3.2. Benefits of Congruence
When approaching congruence from a global perspective, the literature has
highlighted its importance in achieving communication goals or the value added to
sponsorship effectiveness (Cornwell, 2008; Olson & Thjømøe, 2011). Of particular
significance within this thesis is the beneficial role congruence plays in facilitating
awareness, recognition, recall and an ability to evoke a positive attitude towards the
sponsor and brand (Cornwell et al. 2006; Cornwell et al, 2005; Johar & Pham, 1999;
McDaniel, 1999; Martensen et al. 2007; Menon & Kahn, 203; Olson, 2010; Roy &
Cornwell, 2003; Simmons & Becker-Olson 2006; Speed & Thompson, 2000;
Wakefield, Becker-Olson, & Cornwell, 2007). Indeed, multiple studies have
demonstrated how congruence facilitates brand image transfer (Gwinner & Eaton,
1999; Becker-Olsen & Simmons, 2002) and a change in brand attitude (McDaniel,
1999; Rodgers, 2003; Speed & Thompson, 2000). Evidence strengthening the
benefits of congruence can be found in research that has shown how congruence aids
sponsorship recall when there is a strong perceived relationship (i.e. congruence)
within an Olympic sponsorship brand context (Stipp, 1998; Stipp & Shiavone, 1996).
As such, there can remain little doubt that congruence plays a significant role in
shaping the effectiveness of communication in sponsor-property relationships (Fleck
& Quester, 2007).
Whilst some of the many benefits of congruence have been identified, it is
important to recognise that the differing roles played by congruence across
unexplored contexts would aid in placing one more piece into the congruence jigsaw
puzzle. Cornwell (2008) suggested it would be beneficial to investigate congruence
within a commercial orientated sponsor-property relationship versus a socio-
21
sponsorship. Cornwell (2008) also speculated that congruence might be used to
emphasise different characteristics in different sponsor-property relationships. For
example, it is posited that image transfer and development of goodwill may be more
pertinent within a charitable sponsorship arrangement (Cornwell, 2008). This is in
contrast to the proposition that for a commercial sport sponsorship, the role of
congruence in brand identification and differentiation may have greater applicability
(Cornwell, 2008). Turner et al. (2010) consolidated this by proposing investigations
should explore different types of sponsorships where different levels of congruence in
terms of renewals (i.e., different stages along the sponsorship life cycle) are present.
Disability sport sponsorships provided a context to create insight into both
these scenarios as they are not only associated with notions such as disability and
wheelchairs (Woolcott Research, 2010), but also operate within an increasingly
commercialised environment where sponsorship duration and type (i.e., financial,
services and product) vary. This would then also answer the call from Farrelly et al.
(2006) for examining sponsorships of various financial contributions and leads into
determining the extent that organisations utilise congruence within a sponsorship
relationship to reach specific audiences (Dolphin, 2003). To shed light on how these
questions may be answered, an understanding of the theories underpinning
congruence is now presented.
2.3.3. How Congruence Works: Theories Underpinning the Concept
Underlying the concept of congruence within the sponsorship arena are a
number of interrelated theories and hypotheses, which in essence offer
complementary constructs presented from a management perspective (Cornwell et al,
2005). Firstly, Rogers (2003) proposed that many authors who have investigated
congruence either acknowledge or assume the congruity principle. The congruity
principle suggests congruent information is favoured over incongruent information
(Osgood & Tannenbaum, 1955) and is supported by strong associative networks to
help ensure a connection between the sponsor and sponsee (Rogers, 2003). A
discussion on complementary theories and principles to further illustrate the congruity
principle will now occur.
22
2.3.3.1. Schema Theory
A schema is a hypothetical cognitive structure that develops over time as a
result of experiences and helps to shape how people process information (Taylor &
Crocker, 1981). Consequently, a schema guides perception, thought or action based
on an individual’s previous knowledge (McDaniel, 1999). When examining schema
theory in a sport sponsorship context, it is important to note that sponsors target
consumers who value the sponsored property (e.g., the Olympics, Crimmins & Horn,
1996). As such, it is probable that the consumer will already have an established set
of schemas related to the sport property (McDaniel, 1999). Thus, when congruence is
present, it is more likely that the established sport property schemas held in memory
will be stimulated (Koo et al., 2006). This results in the incorporation of ideas about
the sponsorship activity aligning with the existing sport property schema set (Koo et
al., 2006).
2.3.3.2. Associative Networks Principle
Literature has also posited the associative networks principle as a theoretical
framework for sponsorship effects (Rogers, 2003), either through specifically
highlighting the model or assuming it to be so (Cornwell et al., 2005). Whilst the
concept is used heavily in the marketing literature (Keller, 1993; 2001), the
foundations are drawn from basic psychological theory on information processing
(Cornwell, 2008; Rogers, 2003). To briefly summarise this body of work, a network
of associations (Anderson, 1973) are connected by links with various degrees of
strength (Rogers, 2003). These links provide the perceived strength of congruence in
a sponsor-property relationship with suggestions that stronger links have a greater
power of persuasion when compared to weaker links (Rogers, 2003). However,
existing research has found mixed results where strong associative links are thought
to be present (d’Astous & Bitz, 1995; McDaniel, 1999) thereby making the exact
nature of links unclear (Rogers, 2003). Devised methods to overcome this uncertainty
have included communicating semantic features, a sponsor’s descriptive elements and
its alliance, thereby ensuring crystallisation within the minds of consumers (Rogers,
2003). Consequently, congruence results in sponsorships influencing memory,
attitudes and behavioural intentions (Rogers, 2003).
23
2.3.3.3. Attribution Theory and the Discounting Principle
Similar to the associative networks principle, attribution theory and the
discounting principle shape perceptions of sponsor motivations. Based on the
assumption that individuals make causal inferences regarding observed events and
experiences (Heider, 1958; Jones & Davis, 1966; Kelley, 1973), the generation of
inferences enable beliefs to be formed that aid in understanding of the observable
world and thus form attributes. Attributions are shaped by either intrinsic or extrinsic
motives (Heider, 1958). When extrinsic motivation is present, intrinsic motivation is
discounted in favour of extrinsic motivation to explain an event (Rifon et al., 2004).
This is demonstrated within the celebrity match-up hypothesis where a celebrity
endorses a particular product or event (Misra & Beatty, 1990; Schaffer & Keillor,
1997). Motives for the endorser within this scenario can fall into two categories, (1)
the endorser believes in the quality of the product or event (intrinsic motivation), or
(2) the endorser wishes to leverage the situation to make financial gains (external
motivation; Sparkman, 1982).
In the same way, when a commercial corporation sponsors a nonprofit, the
sponsorship can be viewed as either internal motivation (the cause is worthy of
support) or external motivation (the cause will generate favourable benefits for the
corporation such as financial gain; Bendapudi, Singh, & Bendapudi, 1996; Piliavin &
Hong-Wen, 1990). As a result of attribution theory and the discounting principle, if
congruence exists between the sponsor and sponsee, this will generate stronger
consumer attributions of altruistic motives as internal motivators have not been
discounted (Rifon et al., 2004). This suggests that congruence will enhance attitudes
of consumers towards a product and the corresponding sponsored brand (Johar &
Pham, 1999; McDaniel, 1999). However, not all research has supported the
discounting principle. Geue and Plewa (2010) found that congruent value-driven
cause sponsorships elicited perceptions of higher egoistic motivations. Notably,
congruence was based upon the broad dimensions of relevancy and expectancy (Geue
& Plewa, 2010) whereas Rifon et al. (2004) employed the micro-dimensions of
functional and target market congruence, along with an implied image dimension.
While a discussion on dimensions will be explained forthwith, it is important to
recognise how subtle differences in research design may impact upon a study’s
results. As complementing theories have now been presented, the following section
24
details how congruence has been measured when the construct is based upon a
holistic concept as opposed to recent dimensional approaches.
2.3.4. Measuring Congruence
Most of the work done to measure the dimensions of congruence, for the sake
of simplicity and parsimony, has constructed a unidimensional model (i.e., low fit –
high fit; Speed & Thompson 2000) or relied upon obvious fitting sponsorship pairings
such as the functional fit of Nike and sporting events (e.g., Johar & Pham 1999).
However, the past decade has seen the concept of congruence in the sponsorship
context develop from that of a unidimensional construct to a multifaceted component
(Fleck & Quester, 2007; Olson & Thjømøe, 2011; Zdravkovic et al., 2010).
Early congruence research produced measures of congruence through ratings
based on broad concepts such as logical connection, makes sense, stand for similar
things, and image (Speed & Thompson, 2000). Contrastingly, other authors have
specified image congruence as a dimension (Gwinner, 1997; Gwinner & Eaton,
1999; Howard & Crompton, 2004; Olson & Thjømøe, 2011), with this thesis
adopting a similar approach. Others have measured whether a good fit exists through
scales ranging from ‘poorly matched’ to ‘matched’ (Roy & Cornwell, 2003), or from
‘not complementary’ to ‘complementary’ (Ruth & Simonin, 2003). This is in
contrast to studies that have measured the dimension of brand equity and
congruence (Roy & Cornwell, 2003). Roy and Cornwell (2003) found that in general,
low equity brands (i.e., low media spending levels) were perceived as having poor
congruence if sponsoring high equity objects (i.e., important and well known).
However, with the exception of one study (Gwinner & Eaton, 1999), it was
not until recently that multiple dimensions of congruence were given greater attention
within the literature (Chien, Cornwell, & Pappu, 2011; Fleck & Quester, 2007; Olson
& Thjømøe, 2011; Zdravkovic et al., 2010). Gwinner and Bennett (2008) found that
the two variables, brand cohesiveness and sport identification, positively influence
congruence with specific reference to the match-up hypothesis and schema theory. A
two-dimensional scale for congruence based on relevancy and expectancy has also
been shown to positively correlate with overall fit (Fleck & Quester, 2007). The
scale was adopted from a psychological perspective within the specific context of
advertising (Heckler & Childers, 1992), and as such is underpinned by predetermined
schemas that allow for the development of understanding.
25
It has been argued that the dimensions proposed for congruence were still
rather broad and difficult to apply practically in the managerial decision-making
process (Zdravkovic et al., 2010) as the constructs did not provide a foundation for
understanding why a certain brand was either expected or relevant as a sponsor
(Olson & Thjømøe, 2011). Furthermore, the seminal work completed by Gwinner
and Eaton (1999) was based on Aaker’s (1997) brand-personality scale, and while the
scale has been commonly used in the marketing literature, it has not been proven as a
measure to predict overall congruence (Olson & Thjømøe, 2011). As a result, recent
studies have created multiple dimensions to measure congruence and have been
summarised into Appendix A. Appendix A also provides definitions, examples, and
where appropriate, similarity with other dimensions has been highlighted.
Within Zdravkovic et al’s. (2010) two macro-dimensions of prominence and
marketing strategy are ten micro-dimensions (visibility, explicitness, slogan,
mission, colour composition, target market, promotional activities, geographic
compatibility, local attributes, and active involvement) that contribute to the
overall level of congruence between the sponsor and sponsee. Some of the micro-
dimensions share elements with explanations of congruence perceptions from the
literature. Both target market match and geographical compatibility are found
within Olson and Thjømøe’s (2011) dimensions for congruence. Moreover, target
market match is similar to Cornwell et al.’s (2005) description of congruence to both
the object and sponsors’ target audience. Attitude towards sponsor and attitude
towards brand dimensions adopted from Simmons and Becker-Olsen (2006) by
Zdravkovic et al. (2010) can be related to attitude similarity found in Olson and
Thjømøe (2011), whereas time duration of sponsorship (Olson & Thjømøe, 2011)
shows an association with Fleck and Quester’s (2007) broad expectancy dimension.
Further, Olson and Thjømøe’s (2011) dimension of product use and relevance is
akin to the natural congruence conditions found within Becker-Olsen and Simmons
(2002) or direct product relevance as suggested by McDaniel (1999). It is also
interchangeable with functional based similarity dimension (Gwinner & Eaton,
1999; Howard &Crompton, 2004). However, disagreements over certain dimensions
of congruence exist within the literature. For example, some studies have found that
image or visibility dimensions were related to overall congruence (Gwinner & Eaton,
1999; Howard & Crompton, 2004; McDaniel, 1999; Speed & Thompson, 2000;
26
Zdravkovic et al., 2010), whereas other research has not confirmed this (Olson &
Thjømøe, 2011).
In contrast to dimensions that are relevant across a sponsorship dyad, is a
dimension that is applicable solely to a sponsor and is known as sponsorship
category relatedness (Chien et al., 2011). Given a sponsorship portfolio,
sponsorship category relatedness (hereafter referred to as portfolio congruence)
has been shown to aid brand personality, brand meaning through unity and clarity
(Chien et al., 2011).
The development and refinement of dimensions for congruence has occurred
primarily via student participants (Gwinner & Eaton, 1999; Olson & Thjømøe, 2011;
Zdravkovic et al., 2010) thereby has potential external validity shortcomings
(Zdravkovic et al., 2010). Consequently, this is of concern as external validation
plays a critical role in the research process (McGrath & Brinberg, 1983). As such,
Zdravkovic et al. (2010) speculated that an opportunity exists to explore whether
current dimensions are applicable within a broader subject pool along with possible
identification of additional dimensions.
The preceding discussion has demonstrated how various scholars have
provided congruence dimensions that allow sponsorship managers to efficiently
choose and manage sponsorship relationships, especially where the sponsor has no
natural congruence with the sponsored entity. While high natural congruence can be
artificially enhanced via various articulation messages (Simmons & Becker-Olsen,
2006), this strategy should be considered in light of the following discussion that
contrasts perspectives on the optimal level of congruence.
2.3.5. Different Levels of Congruence
It has been frequently demonstrated that within a sponsorship relationship, a
higher level of congruence can result in benefits such as higher recall and recognition
accuracy (Cornwell et al., 2005). However, the inconsistency of results has alluded to
dynamic relationships requiring differing levels of congruence in order to achieve
optimal benefits. Currently, benefits have been examined across popular sporting
domains, such as NASCAR (Dees et al., 2010) and Formula 1 racing (Olson &
Thjømøe, 2011). However, largely overlooked within literature are critical sectors of
our sporting community, such as inclusive sporting initiatives targeted at PWD.
Notable exceptions to this have included Simmons and Becker-Olsen (2006) where
27
congruence was studied within the context of the Special Olympics. It should also be
mentioned that while Javalgi et al. (1994) did not focus on congruence per se, the
research revolved around how different sponsorships (basketball, theatre or the
Special Olympics) could help achieve corporate objectives through enhancing
corporate image. A discussion of the various levels of congruence will now occur in
order to demonstrate how both the nature and environment of a sponsorship
relationship needs to be considered when evaluating optimal levels of congruence.
2.3.5.1. Benefits of High Congruence
Motivations to enter, or continue, a sponsorship relationship may be driven by
the benefits received when a higher level of congruence is apparent (Gwinner, 1997;
Gwinner & Eaton, 1999; Speed & Thompson, 2000). In a situation where there is
high congruence between the sponsor and sponsee, either through natural or artificial
congruence, a more seamless acceptance of altruistic sponsorship motives occurs due
to attribution theory and the discounting principle (Rifon et al., 2004). Additionally, a
greater transfer of image and emotions from the sponsee to the sponsor occurs as a
result of stimulus generalisation and a desire for cognitive consistency (Martensen et
al., 2007; Rifon et al., 2004; Simmons & Becker-Olson, 2006). Cognitive
consistency is built around common associations (Johar & Pham, 1999) and the
greater ease of remembering congruent information compared to incongruent
information (Gwinner & Eaton, 1999; Osgood & Tannenbaum, 1955; Simmons &
Becker-Olson, 2006; Stipp & Schiavone, 1996). These associations are based upon
the strength of connective associative links with strength developed naturally or
through articulated connective logic (Cornwell et al., 2006; Rodgers 2003). A key
driver of the sponsorship relationship is ultimately to influence purchase behaviour
through increasing image and awareness (Dolphin, 2003). Findings from the
literature demonstrated that high congruence could help facilitate enhanced image and
awareness (Gwinner & Eaton, 1999). However, high congruence may not necessarily
be present in all sponsor-property relationships and thus methods to improve the level
of congruence need to be considered. Moreover, high congruence may not always be
optimal due to the complexity of sponsorship relationship (Fleck & Quester, 2007).
28
2.3.5.2. Benefits of Creating ‘Artificial’ Congruence
Sponsorships that exhibit low natural congruence have been shown to benefit
from effective communications to overcome low congruence perceptions (Dardis,
2009; Simmons & Becker-Olsen, 2006). As a result, artificial congruence has been
created and can improve congruence perceptions by more than 30% when compared
with poor congruence articulations (Olson & Thjømøe, 2011). This is critical to
sponsorship managers who find themselves in low natural congruence situations as
they must try and ensure that congruence articulations are effective (Simmons &
Becker-Olsen, 2006) and thus avoid poor congruence articulations that make the
situation worse compared to non-action (Olson & Thjømøe, 2011). However, it has
also been found that only positive articulation affects congruence perceptions
(Cornwell et al., 2006, Simmons & Becker-Olsen, 2006; Weeks, Cornwell, &
Drennan, 2008). Hence, an ineffectual communication would not result in
catastrophic consequences for the sponsorship relationship. As such, the
inconsistencies in findings suggest that each sponsorship relationship is unique and
should be treated accordingly.
Additionally, levels of congruence have usually been tested where
associations revolve around ‘success’ and ‘prestige’ (Seguin et al., 2008; Soderman &
Dolles, 2008). To the present study’s author’s knowledge there has only been one
study that found congruence could be improved through effective communications
within a disability context, specifically the Special Olympics (Simmons & Becker-
Olsen, 2006). Whilst the congruence construct had high reliability (Olson &
Thjømøe, 2011), the Special Olympics are not necessarily associated with images of
wheelchairs as strongly as disability contexts incorporating the Paralympics
(Woolcott Research, 2010). Hence, an opportunity exists to examine congruence
articulation communications within contextually different sponsorship-property
relationships.
2.3.5.3. A Role for Incongruence?
The notion that congruence “gives rise to valuations of familiarity,
acceptability and a basic sense of liking” (Mandler, 1982 p. 3) and thus predictability,
could mean the sponsor-property relationship is less interesting, thereby resulting in
less cognitive processing. As such, Fleck and Quester (2007) argued that mild or
29
moderate incongruence could be beneficial, provided it is interesting. Fleck and
Quester (2007) developed this line of reasoning by highlighting that incongruence
results in deeper processing of the association in order to ascribe meaning to a given
situation. Specifically, a greater number of inferences within a schema structure have
been generated and hence produce higher recognition accuracy (Jagre, Watson, &
Watson, 2001). An analogy to describe this would be trying to solve a jigsaw puzzle -
while it is initially not apparent how the pieces fit together, once the task has been
brought to attention and accomplished, the experience has been rewarding and
valuable (Cornwell, 2008). For example, the sponsorship of the Moonlight Music
Festival by Heinz Food Company appears to be incongruent. However, when it is
articulated that the same young people attracted to the festival are those who opt for
easy-to-prepare foods, the incongruence is resolved and provides value (Cornwell et
al., 2006). Consequently, mild incongruence can result in high sponsor recognition
and recall accuracy, as well as more positive attitudes due to increased attention or
elaboration (Jagre, Watson, & Watson, 2001; Olson & Thjømøe, 2009).
The preceding discussion has illustrated a lack of consensus as to whether
congruence or incongruence, or specific dimensions, are most beneficial and relevant
for sponsorship relationships. Moreover, scholars have clearly flagged a need to
externally validate congruence with the potential of discovering additional
dimensions. Clearly, this demonstrates the dynamic nature displayed within
sponsorship relationships and the merit of further research in this “greatly neglected
academic area” (Dolphin, 2003, p. 173). In this light, the provision is made for
further investigations into the congruence construct across different sponsorship
contexts. Further contextualising the current thesis are additional inhibitors of
congruence related specifically to the sponsorship medium.
2.3.6. Specific Inhibitors of Congruence within Sport Sponsorship
Demonstrated throughout the literature review has been how theories,
principles, dimensions, and levels of congruence can play an interchangeable role,
either inhibiting or facilitating a sponsorship relationship. However, additional
inhibitors exist due the environment in which sponsorship operates.
The nature of sponsorship entails two specific characteristics that need to be
taken into account when evaluating effectiveness (Fleck & Quester, 2007). These
relate to peripheral processing and message articulation (or lack thereof). Peripheral
30
processing highlights that consumers are attending the sport event rather than having
a specific desire to allocate attention to the sponsorship message per se. Thereby, the
risk involved for sponsors is that of only triggering superficial processing, or worse,
going completely unnoticed (Janiszewski, 1993; Petty, Caccioppo, & Schumann,
1983). Secondly, message articulation refers to how sponsorship messages are
usually non-verbal, implicit or consist of the desired association with the event itself
(Hastings, 1984; Tripodi, Hirons, Bednall, & Sutherland, 2003). If congruence has
not been employed correctly via articulation messages not only can this result in
consumer frustration (d’Astous & Bitz, 1995) but can also be more detrimental than
saying nothing (Olson & Thjømøe, 2011). However, not all research confirms the
importance of congruence in articulation messages, and subsequently leveraging
activities (Cliffe & Motion, 2005). As such, these inhibitors demonstrate the role
congruence can play in the implementation phase of the sponsorship management
framework and thus need to be addressed by managers during this time.
Further inhibitors of congruence exist within the sponsor-property
relationship. The study by Farrelly et al. (2006) explored the perceived changes in
sponsorship relationships overtime, highlighting that incongruent commitment levels
can spawn disharmony between the sponsor and sponsee. Problems arose if one party
in the relationship made an attempt to adapt to the constantly evolving sponsorship
arena in terms of investment in time and resources. When a lack of reciprocity was
displayed, and asymmetry between the dyadic partners was generated, serious
relationship problems became apparent with eventual sponsorship dissolution
(Farrelly, 2010). This research threw the spotlight on how a sponsorship relationship
can be a double-edged sword, not only inhibiting congruence but in some cases
terminating the relationship (Farrelly, 2010; Farrelly et al., 2006). Subsequently,
Farrelly et al. (2006) implied that the role of congruence within a sponsorship
relationship changes during the course of a sponsorship relationship and requires
certain characteristics to aid in facilitating symmetry. The importance of
commitment, combined with clearly articulated requirements and expectations from
the dyadic sponsorship relationship, help ensure agreed upon obligations are met and
maximised (Farrelly, 2010; Farrelly et al., 2006). Consequently, both parties are on
the same page and thereby congruent with one another.
The previous section on congruence has clearly established the significant role
if plays in sponsorship relationships as well as created a sound understanding of the
31
construct. As a result, a conceptual framework that incorporates key concepts
identified in the literature review thereby addressing RQ1 and RQ2 will now be
provided.
2.4. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The development of a conceptual framework through the literature provides
the necessary links between the congruence construct and the management of
disability sport sponsorship relationships. As a consequence, the framework enables
exploration into both research questions and is presented in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Framework for Congruence in Disability Sponsorship Relationships
Adapted from Arthur et al., (1998); Cornwell (1995); Lund (2010); Karg (2007); Lynch and Schuller (1994); Olson and Thjømøe (2011); Zdravkovic et al. (2010)
32
A key aim of this study has been to develop insight into the perceptions and
practices of sponsors who are currently in a disability sport sponsorship agreement.
As a result, the conceptual framework provides a necessary tool for which to extend
current understanding of congruence into disability sport sponsorship. Moreover,
Figure 2.2 simultaneously facilitates operationilisation of the construct across the
sport management framework. Given the intentions of this research, sub-research
questions were developed to guide the overarching research questions and have also
been incorporated into the conceptual framework.
RQ1- WHAT IS THE ROLE OF CONGRUENCE IN DISABILITY SPORT
SPONSORSHIP RELATIONSHIPS?
Is congruence perceived to exist and play a role in these relationships?
Is congruence perceived as an overall, macro or micro-dimensional concept?
Are the known dimensions of congruence applicable within this context;
Are there additional dimensions that have not been identified?
RQ2 – WHAT IS THE ROLE OF CONGRUENCE IN DISABILITY SPORT
SPONSORSHIP MANAGEMENT?
What is the perceived role of congruence in sponsorship strategy?
What is the perceived role of congruence in sponsorship objectives?
What is the perceived role of congruence in sponsorship selection?
What is the perceived role of congruence in sponsorship implementation?
What is the perceived role of congruence in sponsorship measurement?
2.5. CHAPTER SUMMARY Chapter two has provided a review of literature relevant to the research area of
interest. An introduction to sponsorship through the CCI continuum facilitated
discussions on existing frameworks used to manage sponsorship relationships.
Identification of congruence as a construct applicable to sponsorship saw a detailed
investigation into dimensions, differing levels and benefits of congruence. As such,
the presentation of a conceptual framework based on the literature incorporated both
overarching and sub-research questions. Given the exploratory nature of the research
questions, chapter three details the necessary tools and techniques needed to discuss
research findings, which are presented in chapter four.
33
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The aim of chapter three is to discuss and justify the research methodology
utilised throughout this thesis. As a result of the exploratory research questions
developed through the literature review, the applicability of a qualitative case study
research design is identified through six sections. Section one highlights the
relevance of a qualitative case study whereas section two demonstrates how purposive
sampling enabled participant selection and data collection methods. Subsequently, a
focus is placed upon the data collection techniques of semi-structured interviews,
document analysis, and short ranking tools. The chapter concludes with the analysis
procedures employed for this thesis, delimitations, and ethical considerations.
3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN
3.1.1. Nature of the Study
The nature of qualitative research enables exploration into contexts where little
is known (Smith & Stewart, 2001; Zaltman, LeMasters, & Heffring, 1982) and assists
in clarifying ambiguous problems. As such, qualitative research can help to create an
understanding of a problem’s dimensions (Zickmund, 2003). Moreover, there has
recently been “important strides made on the qualitative frontier” (Bansal & Corley,
2011, p. 233), which has resulted in qualitative research methodologies gain
prominence in the sport sponsorship context (e.g., Farrelly, 2010; Farrelly et al.,
2006; Olkkonen & Tuominen, 2006; Ryan & Blois, 2010; Turner et al., 2010).
However, research that has investigated congruence across sport sponsorship
domains has employed either exclusively quantitative inquiries (e.g. Gwinner &
Bennett, 2008; Gwinner & Eaton, 1999; Papadimitriou & Apostolopoulou, 2009;
Rifon et al., 2004; Simmons & Becker-Olsen, 2006) or a mixed-method approach
(e.g. Fleck & Quester, 2007; Olson & Thjømøe, 2011; Richelieu & Lopez, 2008;
Speed & Thompson, 2000; Zdravkovic et al., 2010). While minimal qualitative
research exists in relation to congruence within sport sponsorship, the appropriateness
of a qualitative inquiry becomes evident given the strengths of qualitative research
and the exploratory nature of the research questions. Moreover, the value provided
through investigating existing dimensions, with the potential of validating or adding
to the current body of knowledge, would further clarify the ambiguous and limited
34
understanding of the congruence construct across the unexamined disability sport
sponsorship domain. Therefore, the adoption of exploratory qualitative research
formed the foundation for the case study research methodology used in this thesis.
3.1.2. A Case Study Approach
The case study approach has been widely used in both management and
marketing contexts (Gummesson, 2000; Scapens, 1990), and in the broader social
science discipline (Hartley, 1994). Moreover, it has been argued that within and
beyond the field of marketing, case studies are necessary for theory development
(Eisenhardt, 1989; Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007; Gummesson, 2007; Yin, 2009).
Contention surrounding case study research exists within the literature and whether
case study research is a methodology (Creswell, 2007; Hartley, 1994), a strategy of
inquiry, a comprehensive research strategy (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Merriam, 1998;
Yin, 2009) or a choice of what is to be studied (Stake, 2005). However, as past
research within the sponsorship discipline has viewed case study research as a
methodology (Ryan & Blois, 2010), this thesis adopted a similar approach.
Case study research is an appropriate methodology to refute, or extend,
existing concepts given an associated observational richness (Stuart, McCutcheon,
Handfield, McLachlin & Samson, 2002). Moreover, Hartley (1994) has highlighted
how case studies are ‘tailor-made’ for exploring behaviours or processes in contexts
that are little understood. Hartley (1994) went on and suggested case studies can be
employed when the purpose is to explore “not typicality but unusualness… with the
intention of illuminating process(es)” (p. 213). As such, a case study methodology is
appropriate to explore and extend theoretical concepts (Miles & Huberman, 1994;
Yin, 2009), and specifically related to the research questions guiding this thesis.
Creswell (2007) captured the essence of case study research succinctly when
defining case study research as “the study of an issue explored through one or more
cases within a bounded system” (p. 73). Hartley (1994) extended this definition by
proposing case study research is of interest precisely because it revolves around its
unique context and allows for realisation of particularisation (Gummesson, 2000).
Found within the case study approach are different types of case studies (e.g.,
intrinsic, instrumental and collective; Creswell, 2007). Instrumental case studies are
distinguishable in terms of their intent; the researcher concentrates on a problem or
concern, and then decides on one bounded case to illustrate the issue (Stake, 1995;
35
Yin, 2009). As demonstrated during the literature review, research related to the
congruence construct is limited to classic sport domains and has not seen external
validation of existing dimensions. In this light, an instrumental case study approach
was fitting as it permitted an exploration into the theoretical congruence concept
bounded by an Australian disability sport sponsorship context. Further detailed
discussions on how the case was bound occur in the first section of chapter four.
Additionally, the case study incorporated a number of different data sources
(Yin, 2009), such as interviews, documents, social media, and ranking tools. The
multiple data sources simultaneously permitted several levels of analysis within the
disability sport sponsorship case study (Eisenhardt, 1989) and shall be focused upon
in subsequent sections. As a result of the numerous data origins, a richer
understanding of organisational phenomena (Geertz, 1973) was achieved. Moreover,
the unequal ratio of variables-to-observations (Gummesson, 2007) made the
application of quantitative analysis questionable when considering the continuous ebb
and flow of organisational activities (Hartley, 1994) conducted by sponsors.
Consequently, the suitability of employing a case study research approach becomes
apparent from the previous discussion. Playing a critical role in the case study was
selection and recruitment of participants, which will now be discussed.
3.2. SAMPLING
3.2.1. Sampling Method
The sampling method employed was ‘purposive sampling’ as it helped to
ensure relevant participant selection (Patton, 2002). Purposive sampling provided the
researcher with the ability to select individuals, organisations, and locations for the
study given that those selected purposefully informed an understanding, and created
insights, into the research questions (Berg, 2001; Creswell, 2007). The importance of
devising categories and parameters helped to make certain those being interviewed
provided a meaningful contribution (Stroh, 2000) and different perspectives were
gained (Amis, 2005). Naturally, the sampling category was organisations involved in
a disability sport sponsorship relationship but was not limited to one specific type of
relationship. However, the geographic parameter saw the sample purposefully
restricted to Australian disability sport sponsorship relationships given the honours
36
time frame and main data collection technique (see Section 3.3.). Hence, using
purposive sampling, the sample frame was able to be determined.
3.2.2. Sample Frame
Smith and Stewart (2001) have suggested a small sample frame is appropriate
given a qualitative nature of inquiry, with McCracken’s (1988) statement, “less is
more” adding further confirmation (p. 17). Additional reinforcement for a small
sample size is found in qualitative sport sponsorship research where participant
figures have ranged from seven (Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriou, 2004) to twelve
(Olson & Thjømøe, 2011). Similarly, past literature that has adopted a case study
approach demonstrated the number of participants was based on attempts to speak to
key personnel involved in sponsorship relationships and their ability to contribute
different perspectives to the case (Lund, 2010; Ryan & Blois, 2010). In this light, the
sample frame saw sponsors from fourteen different Australian disability sport
sponsorship relationships invited to participate in the research. This number was in
alignment with the CCI continuum and a desire to incorporate organisational,
individual, product, financial, and service sponsorship relationships. As a result, the
small number of interviews resulted in working closely with fewer people, as opposed
to spending less time with many, and thereby facilitated a rich and detailed
exploration of the case study (Denscombe, 1998; McCracken, 1988).
The above approach of seeking highly knowledgeable participants is in line
with literature (Farrelly et al., 2006) as value creation was simultaneously achieved
through diverse perspectives and incorporated participants who are key decision
makers in their respective organisations (Dexter, 1970). This strategy was designed
with the intention of producing an understanding of relevant information
(Drumwright, 1996) such as viewpoints regarding management of disability sport
sponsorship relationships. Moreover, the range of viewpoints helped to limit bias
(Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007) when analysing the data. Bias was also minimised
through time constraints that ensured the researcher did not become immersed in data
collection over an extended period of time (Lund, 2010). Nevertheless, it was hoped
that through participants’ collective experiences, a dynamic picture was painted to
capture the role congruence has played in respective sponsorship arrangements.
As a result of the sampling approach, viewpoints from important societal
actors facilitated the production of knowledge from different perspectives found in
37
disability sport sponsorship relationships. The different perspectives were achieved
through multiple data collection methods and will now be focused upon.
3.3. DATA COLLECTION METHODS
It is recognised that in order to align with the case study methodology,
multiple perspectives and data sources need to be obtained (Creswell, 2007;
Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007; Yin, 2009). Accordingly, different types of disability
sport sponsorship relationships were chosen for analysis. Forming the backbone that
elucidated these views were semi-structured interviews. Alongside the individual
interviews, data was drawn from other sources such as documents (for example,
annual reports, press releases, company data etc) and a brief quantitative ranking tool
integrated into the interview. The inclusion of the short ranking tool was deemed to
be useful as it generated further evidence to triangulate the data without jeopardising
the underlying qualitative nature of the study (Gummesson, 2007). Discussions will
now focus on data collection methods to demonstrate how this thesis created data
validity.
3.3.1. Semi-Structured Interviews
Patton (1990) suggested, “interviewing begins with the assumption that the
perspective of others is meaningful, knowable, and able to be made explicit” (p. 278)
and thus was an appropriate methodological vehicle to generate rich data (Amis,
2005; Murray & Sixsmith, 1998). In-depth interviews allowed for detailed and frank
discussions (Alam, 2005; Amis, 2005). Further, the semi-structured interview
technique allowed participants to influence the interview structure (Barriball & While,
1994) and offered a higher degree of self-expression compared to structured
interviews (Murray & Sixsmith, 1998) where the wording and question sequence does
not vary (Wengraf, 2001). Given the research questions framing this thesis and the
unique context in which they were explored, semi-structured interviews provided a
suitable method for achieving the research aims.
Furthermore, literature has proposed semi-structured interviews are employed
when the study is concerned with “exploring… experiences, thoughts and feelings”
(Murray & Sixsmith, 1998, p. 105) centering on predetermined themes (Andrews,
Mason, & Silk, 2005). This point is confirmed by Amis (2005) who stated that the
detailed exploration afforded by interviews is “not possible with other forms of data
38
collection” (p. 105). Other benefits of semi-structured interviews included an ability
to vary the question order and a capacity to insert additional exploratory questions
(Amis, 2005). Moreover, the nature of the semi-structured interview enabled the
interviewer to adapt the language of the questions to suit the participant as well as
incorporate key themes into subsequent interviews as they emerged (for example,
Amis, 2005; Farrelly, 2010; Shaw & Amis, 2001); a method known as the reiterative
approach (Remenyi & Williams, 1998). Consequently, the exploratory nature of
semi-structured interviews made them an appropriate tool for this study and was used
as the main data collection technique to uncover information not usually generated
through quantitative methods (Smith & Stewart, 2001).
Additionally, semi-structured interviews, within the specific sponsor-property
relationship context, were seen to be advantageous over other qualitative data
collection methods, such as focus groups, for a number of reasons. Firstly, the
increasing trend of research to focus on strategic decision-making (such as the case in
sponsorship objectives; Dolphin, 2003) has seen the suggestion that interviews
become the primary data source (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007). Associated
explanations for this trend have included an efficiency to gather rich data combined
with control over confidentiality (Amis, 2005). The promise of anonymity (in terms
of name, firm, and pseudonyms during data coding) was considered particularly
pertinent to this thesis due to the context framing the research questions. Given
anonymity, literature has highlighted how interviews present an opportunity for
participants to express opinions that do not necessarily conform to what could be
considered the norm (Stokes & Bergin, 2006) and thereby provides less sociably
desirable answers (Patton, 2002). Moreover, interviews allowed for exploration of
participants’ opinions regarding sensitive issues and enabled probing if more
information was required (Barriball & While, 1994). This is in contrast to a focus
group situation where participants could be more inclined to create a politically
correct viewpoint when in fact other sponsorship beliefs are held. Consequently, it
was hoped that the interview environment created a setting where participants felt
comfortable to express their honest opinions, thus producing valid responses to
capture the construct of congruence.
The interview method has been shown to give participants a feeling of
empowerment as well as create situations where strong levels of rapport and trust can
be built (Stokes & Bergin, 2006). Hence, not only can this improve the quality of the
39
data collected (Stokes & Bergin, 2006) but it can also potentially overcome the issue
of bias, particularly when the topic of discussion revolves around sponsorship and a
disability sport property. Lastly, in an attempt to recognise the extreme value of time
for the participants within the study, individual interviewing provided the most
appropriate method of obtaining rich data while still offering flexibility for both
parties involved (Amis, 2005). Given the pivotal role of both the interview guide and
protocol in ensuring consistency and minimisation of time wastage across individual
interviews, a discussion outlining both these components will now ensue.
3.3.2. Interview Protocol and the Interview Guide
An interview protocol allowed for a consistent analytical pathway to be
followed after interview data had been collected (Alam, 2005) as well as improved
the reliability of this qualitative study (Yin, 2009). It is recognised that the design of
an interview must be suitable for the particular study as the various research methods
incorporate different styles and purposes (Sorrell & Redmond, 1995). In light of this,
an interview protocol was developed with the support of several academics, who have
substantial expertise in the sport marketing discipline, in conjunction with supporting
literature. Found within the interview protocol were respondent details, the interview
schedule, a plain language statement (PLS), a participant consent form, a revocation
of consent form, the three short ranking tools, several semi-structured questions used
to guide the interviews, and a blank pro-forma to aid the researcher note responses
from participants.
Similarly to the interview protocol, the interview guide was drawn from
relevant literature but was also based upon the research questions for this thesis (see
Appendix B). The interview guide was flexible in nature, both during and across
interviews, and hence permitted modification and variation throughout individual
interviews. This was not viewed as an inhibitor to the research, rather, as evidence of
the qualitative inquiry design (Minichiello, Aroni, Timewell, & Alexander, 1995). As
such, the interviews began with structured questions such as how long the participant
had been involved in their current role, in line with previous literature (Patton, 2002).
This was followed with broader questions (e.g., can you please tell me about the
sponsorship culture at your organisation) to establish rapport, which thus enabled the
participant to feel comfortable. Consequently, discussions then began to focus on
specific issues that required a delicate touch. This is known as the funneling approach
40
and is commonly used in qualitative exploratory research (Minichiello et al., 1995).
While the initial few questions remained constant across interviews to allow for
comparable data, the nature of semi-structured interviews allowed for open discussion
of emerging themes and the use of probing questions (as probing questions allow for
eliciting information more completely compared to the original question).
Additionally, the same researcher conducted all the interviews to ensure key themes
were addressed but also allowed for questions to be expressed in the participant’s
language. As a result, these techniques allowed for comparable data and emerging
themes to be incorporated into individual, and subsequent, interviews.
3.3.3. Pilot Study
Before commencement of interviewing participants from disability sport
sponsorship relationships, pilot testing of the research instrument occurred. Pilot
studies are recommended as they provide the researcher with the opportunity to
review and revise a research instrument and interview guide (Eisenhardt, 1989;
Parkhe, 1993; Minichiello et al., 1995). Moreover, pilot studies enable testing of the
interview protocol (Alam, 2005). As such, a pilot study is akin to a full “dress
rehearsal” where the refinement of relevant questions and corrections can be made
(Yin, 1994, p. 74). In an attempt to simulate the semi-structured interview
environment, a pilot study was conducted with the marketing manager at a state-level
sporting institute. The interview guide, developed with academic staff and relevant
literature, was utilised and enabled a prominent theme regarding culture as a
dimension of congruence to be incorporated into the third ranking tool during data
collection.
3.3.4. Recruitment
Following the purposeful sampling technique, initial contact was made with
participants. An email invitation was sent to fourteen sponsors of disability sporting
sponsees. Attached to the email was an introduction from the researcher concerning
the purpose of the research as well as reiteration to participate in the study (see
Appendix C). Pertinently, the matter of confidentiality was assured along with the
desire to produce high quality research achievable through recruitment of expert
opinions. While no financial incentives were offered, an invitation to receive a copy
of the research findings was also provided in the introductory letter. This approach is
41
supported by Alam (2005), who suggested that a benefit of participating in qualitative
interviews is the research generated. Subsequent to this delivery, a follow-up phone-
call or email after approximately one week occurred with the objective of providing
more detail and arranging a prospective meeting date and time.
3.3.5. Interviews
Interviews formed the major form of data collection for the case
studies. Of the fourteen organisations approached, ten agreed to participate in the
study. The participants had a range of titles, some of which included marketing
manager, director, or sponsorship manager. While differences in titles existed, there
was no doubt of participants’ responsibility and authority over their respective
sponsorship relationships. Moreover, a holistic view of Australian disability sport
sponsorship relationships was created with six relationships between a sponsor and
individual and the remaining business-to-business sponsorship relationships. Further,
there were a total of six financial, two product, one service, and one mixed
sponsorship relationship. Depth of findings was achieved through interviewing both
current and recently dissolved sponsorship as well as incorporated sponsorship
durations from a few weeks to eight years. The sponsors included a variety of small
to large organisations (ABS, 2002), and saw Melbourne and Sydney Head Office
locations. Also, industries that participants represented included communication
services, manufacturing, retail trade, finance and insurance, transport and storage, and
accommodation, cafes and restaurants (ABS, 1998). Appendix D provides further
detail through individual sponsorship profiles of sponsors involved in the study.
To the best of the researcher’s ability, the interviews took place at an agreed
upon location and time that was convenient for the participant and thereby saw the
researcher conduct interviews in both Sydney and Melbourne. The ten interviews
lasted between 45 to 90 minutes. Prior to each interview, participants were provided
with a PLS containing details of the research (such as an introduction to the study,
objectives, benefits of the research and ethical considerations; see Appendix E).
Upon agreement to participate in the study, participants were asked to sign and return
a consent form and were provided with both a copy for their personal records as well
as a revocation of consent form (Appendix F). With the permission of the participant,
interviews were recorded and notes were taken with comments placed onto a prepared
pro forma categorised into key themes (see Appendix G). Field notes were also taken
42
soon after each interview to capture any additional thoughts and potential ideas for
subsequent interviews.
During the interviews, three brief ranking tools were administered in order to
produce additional comparative data and triangulate the study. Participants were
asked to rank the importance of different generic sponsorship motives, objectives as
well as dimensions of congruence thereby reinforcing qualitative findings. Similarly,
a word-association tool was completed during the interviews to substantiate
unprompted qualitative findings. The word association tool saw participants ascribe
five words to their organisation along with their associated reasoning. Subsequently,
participants were asked to repeat this process for the sponsee. Interviews were
transcribed verbatim into MS Word documents with clarification being sought on
occasion with participants. These transcripts were complemented through the
multiple sources of other data collected throughout the study.
3.3.6. Documentation and Ranking Tool
While interviews have formed the foundation of many studies where sport
sponsorship decision-making has been explored (Amis, Pant, & Slack, 1997; Amis et
al., 1999; Shaw & Amis, 2001), other forms of documentation are needed when a
case study approach is adopted (Creswell, 2007; Yin, 2009). This aids in
triangulation of the research and is considered a strength of the methodology (Alam,
2005). Although triangulation of evidence occurred through collecting data from
multiple key participants (i.e., different types of sponsorship relationships), additional
sources of data collection facilitated understanding of the research questions.
Documents such as annual reports, mission statements, internal organisational
information, previous research conducted by the disability sporting bodies, media
releases and other relevant sources all formed a part of this thesis. However, when
document analysis is presented alongside findings from participants, the documents
have been de-identified in order to preserve and respect participant confidentiality.
Furthering the pre-requisite of multiple data sources for a case study
(Creswell, 2007; Yin, 2009) is the espoused suggestion that both quantitative and
qualitative approaches can be used to develop a case study (Yin, 2009). As such,
three short ranking tools supported the main qualitative data collection technique and
included motivators, objectives and congruence micro-dimensions of sponsorship
relationships. Copies and origins of tools can be found in Appendix H, Appendix I,
43
and Appendix J. Item generation for the tools was based upon existing literature and
saw participants allocate a score on a scale of one to seven, with seven indicating
strong agreement, in line with previous research (Irwin, Asimakopoulos, & Sutton,
1994). Opportunities for participants to include additional items not found on the
short ranking tools were provided to capture specific relationships nuances. It is
acknowledged that the sample size is not sufficient to allow findings to be generalised
to the population (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). However, the tool enabled
comparison across two main areas. Firstly, the ranking tool enabled organisational
(O) sponsorships (i.e., corporate business-to-sport organisation) to be compared with
those of individual (I) sponsorship relationships (i.e., corporate business-to-athlete).
Secondly, it allowed for trend identification and contrast across the different
sponsorship types (i.e. financial (F), service (S) and product (P)).
The rationale behind multiple data sources lay in the increased accuracy of
research conclusions (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2008; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Yin,
2009) and minimising participant bias (Eisenhardt, 1989; Patton, 2002). Essentially,
reliance on further data sources enabled crosschecking, any contradictory or
inconsistent findings to be resolved (Alam, 2005), and common patterns to be
discovered in an unobtrusive manner (Babbie, 1999). Moreover, time was not wasted
on fact finding during the interviews as the multiple data sources provided assistance
in developing the interview guide (Cepeda & Martin, 2005; Meyer, 2001). Lastly,
document analysis allowed for a holistic picture to be painted and capture where
sponsor-property relationships have come from, where they are now, and what future
plans are perceived to be.
3.4. DATA ANALYSIS
According to Patton (1990), “data interpretation and analysis involves making
sense out of what people have said, looking for patterns, putting together what is said
in one place with what is said in another place, and integrating what different people
have said” (p. 347). Patton’s (1990) statement highlighted the core elements of
qualitative analysis (Creswell, 2007). More formally, the stages of qualitative
analysis initiated with reducing data through open coding and summaries (Miles &
Huberman, 1994). This stage started in conjunction with data collection and was an
ongoing process (Gratton & Jones, 2010). As such, it permitted an appreciation of
themes to be developed and allowed for modifications of the interview guide (Amis,
44
2005). It was at this point that the software program ‘NVivo’ was utilised as a data
management tool and saw the development of three broad initial codes, as highlighted
in as highlighted in Appendix K. The second stage involved data display and
combining the data into themes (e.g. tables, charts, diagrams; Creswell, 2007) and
resulted in 16 secondary codes (see Appendix K).
Lastly, conclusions, verifications, and comparisons were made (Miles &
Huberman, 1994). While the stages of qualitative data analysis can be viewed as the
foundation for which subsequent research methodologies can be built, Creswell
(2007) suggested that data analysis should not be viewed as “off the shelf; rather it is
custom built [and] revised” (p. 150). Indeed, the process of data collection, data
analysis, and report writing were all intertwined and occurred simultaneously within
the research project.
3.4.1. Data Analysis for the Case Study
Building from the foundations of qualitative analysis, the adoption of
Wolcott’s (1994) traditional approach to case study data analysis was employed for
this thesis. Case study analysis commenced with highlighting certain information in a
descriptive manner. Patterns were identified and contextualised in the conceptual
framework developed from the literature. Findings were then displayed in different
formats (e.g. charts, tables, diagrams) in order to enable comparisons.
Wolcott’s (1994) traditional approach was supplemented with suggestions
made by Creswell (2007). Specifically, in order to describe the case and context, not
only did data need to be managed through the creation and organisation of files but
the text needed to be read in its entirety, enhanced through margin notes. Indeed, the
initial readings of transcripts saw the researcher go beyond predetermined questions
so participants could be ‘heard’ (Asmussen & Creswell, 1995). As Creswell (2007)
emphasised the importance and applicability of establishing the case study setting,
this was included at the beginning of chapter four.
Subsequent to the case description, initial codes were formed to begin
categorical classification that saw the development of themes and patterns. Of note is
that themes or patterns originated from multiple sources and were achieved through a
variety of approaches (Creswell, 2007). For example, themes were derived from
research questions, the research instrument, a priori research, and the data (Stroh,
2000). Similarly, both an inductive (direction achieved from the data; Ryan & Blois,
45
2010) and deductive (using theory and extant literature to inspect the case; Ryan &
Blois, 2010) approach was used to develop themes and patterns (Creswell, 2007;
Denis, Lamothe, & Langley, 2001). A benefit of this approach was the creation of
insights from the data without “necessarily denying or reinventing concepts” that have
come before (Denis, et al., 2001, p. 812). This approach is known as ‘systematic
combing’ where reality is ‘matched’ with theory during the research process (Dubois
& Gadde, 2002). Both Wolcott’s (1994) final stages of contextualisation and display
of findings is akin to Creswell’s (2007) interpretation and visualisation stages.
In addition to both Wolcott’s (1994) and Creswell’s (2007) case study data
analysis techniques were four complementary forms of data analysis techniques. The
first form was ‘categorical aggregation’, a technique where instances were collected
from the data with the desire of discovering issue-relevant meanings (Stake, 1995).
Illuminating the opposite perspective was the ‘direct interpretation’ technique (Stake,
1995). Direct interpretation saw the examination of a single example, with meaning
extracted from it without confirmation from other examples (Stake, 1995). An
analogy used to describe this process is pulling it apart and putting it back together in
a way that provides meaning; in essence, order out of meaningful chaos was created.
Only after this task was accomplished were patterns explored (Stake, 1995). Lastly,
naturalistic generalisations, as a result of the data analysis, enabled learning to occur
from the specific case (Stake, 1995).
Various perspectives exist in relation to when data analysis is complete.
Lincoln & Guba (1985) proposed data analysis should end when data ‘saturation’ has
been reached; when no new themes, linkages or relationships emerge. However,
Amis (2005) recommended a more practical suggestion where time and resources
dictate the end of data analysis. This can be expressed as, “we know that our analysis
is not finished, only over” (Van Maanen, 1988, p. 120). While time and resource
constraints did influence the research process, the combination of data analysis tools
and techniques saw a thorough examination of the data. As a result, the point of data
saturation was viewed as being accomplished.
3.4.2. Data Analysis Validity
This thesis sought to ensure trustworthy and valid findings within the given
predetermined timeframe. This was achieved through principles suggested by
Holloway and Wheeler (2009). Firstly, member validation enabled the researcher to
46
confer with participants about any ambiguities discovered during data analysis.
Secondly, in order to minimise confirmation bias, both contradictory (negative cases
and alternative explanations) and confirmatory themes were explored (Amis, 2005;
Gephart, 2004; Holloway & Wheeler, 2009). Some academics have proposed at least
three examples should be provided to support any assertions that are made through the
data and any inconsistencies should be highlighted (Stake, 1995). As such, the
researcher is able to link the key concepts based on methodological grounds with the
broader corpus of data used in the study (Gephart, 2004). In this light, the common
problem of ‘exampling’ was mitigated and the data was presented in an analytical
manner (Gephart, 2004). However, Krane, Andersen, and Strean (1997) suggested,
“in many cases, rare experiences are no less meaningful, useful or important than
common ones. In some cases, the rare experience may be the most enlightening one”
(p. 214). Hence, examples that were deemed to have provided unique insight into
disability sport sponsorship relationships were not discounted simply because other
examples could not supply confirmation. Thirdly, triangulation through multiple data
collection sources combined with an audit trail (i.e. data analysis description) was
employed. Fourthly, reflexivity was achieved through the researcher having an
awareness of their role, how this potentially influenced the findings, and critically
reflecting on their preconceptions during data analysis stages. Lastly, verisimilitude
was incorporated into the findings through context creation, thus giving the reader a
“sense of almost being there” (Gratton & Jones, 2010, p. 248).
3.5. DELIMITATIONS OF THE PROPOSED RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
According to Babbie (1999) “few social patterns are 100% consistent”, thus
highlighting that it is necessary to discuss delimitations associated with the qualitative
research methodology adopted in this thesis (p. 294). Given that one of the many
purposes of this study was to provide useful findings for sponsors and sponsees
involved in disability sport sponsorship relationships, the ambivalent image that
persists among many practitioners (Burton & Patterson, 1999) and academics alike
(de Ruyter & Scholl, 1998) in regard to qualitative inquiries needs to be recognised.
However, it is the position of this thesis, as well as the literature (Bansal & Corley,
2011), that qualitative research has “come of age” (p. 1) and can produce valid
findings through triangulation (Yin, 2009). It is also argued that the exploratory
47
nature of the case study necessitated the adoption of a qualitative inquiry (Creswell,
2007) and was beneficial to the research findings.
A common criticism of case study research is an inability to generalise the
findings (Hartley, 1994; Stake, 1995). However, Yin (1981) disputed this and
claimed that case studies should be considered on par with whole experiments due to
the detailed and in-depth perspectives created through multiple data collection
techniques (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007; Creswell, 2007). While this thesis does not
seek to generalise the findings, it does attempt to shed new light onto the congruence
construct within the disability sport sponsor-property context, thus “elucidat[ing] the
particular, the specific” (Creswell, 2007, p. 126) within a single case study.
Similarly, inclusion of the short-ranking tools was not intended to produce
results applicable to the wider population, especially given the sample size (n=10).
Rather, the purpose of the short ranking tools was primarily focused upon validation
of qualitative findings gathered during the semi-structured interviews. Moreover, it is
important to note that short ranking tool three, which related to dimensions of
congruence, was conducted at the conclusion of the interview and thus did not
influence or bias qualitative results.
Lastly, the contextual boundaries chosen for the case study placed have
resulted in the ‘social research’ category and thus limitations of the selected data
collection method need to be established. During semi-structured interviews,
participant bias could have existed as participants potentially wanted to create an
image that was thoughtful and concerned to the researcher and themselves (Mohr,
Webb, & Harris, 2001). However, it was hoped that through the use of individual
interviews, a location chosen by the interviewee, and the use of non-leading
questions, participant bias was reduced thereby widening the research findings.
3.6. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Irrespective of the approach taken to qualitative inquiry, researchers face
many ethical issues when spending time completing a research project (Creswell,
2007) and thus ethical issues were considered at the outset of the research project
(Amis, 2005). Additionally, the inherent human interaction involved in the primary
data collection method, semi-structured interviews, necessitated that the rights of
participants were protected (Amis, 2005). In an effort to consider ethical issues, this
thesis turned to Kent’s (2000) ‘rules’ for ethical research.
48
Firstly, ‘veracity’ involved the researcher telling the truth, avoiding
misleading or deceiving participants, and reporting results truthfully (Kent, 2000).
All participants were provided with a PLS and consent form (see Appendix E and
Appendix F) prior to the interview. Secondly, ‘privacy’ was ensured by not placing
pressure on the participant during the course of interviews (Kent, 2000). Thirdly,
‘fidelity’ was adhered to by keeping the promise of providing research findings to
participants (Kent, 2000) given the invitation was accepted after the initial
introductory letter. Lastly, and of critical importance, is ‘confidentiality’ (Kent,
2000). Within the PLS, consent form, and initial introductory letter, participants were
assured that their confidentiality was protected, that they would remain anonymous,
and that pseudonyms would be used during data coding and analysis. As a result,
names of organisations, participants, sponsees, and specific sports, were not
mentioned throughout the current thesis.
A requirement, and strength, of this thesis was the acquirement of Deakin
University Human Research Ethics Committee approval thereby ensuring the study
followed the ethics procedures and protocols outlined by Deakin University. As a
result of ethics protocols, all recordings, transcripts and other data collected, will be
stored in a locked file cabinet in the supervisors room for a minimum of six years
once the project has been completed. Should the supervisors leave Deakin University
within this time frame, the responsibility of storing the research data falls to the head
of the School of Management and Marketing at Deakin University.
3.7. CHAPTER SUMMARY
Chapter three has highlighted the persuasive power and suitable advantages of
a case study methodology. As such, a case study was used to explore the role of
congruence within the bounded disability sport sponsorship context. Data collection
methods included semi-structured interviews with sponsorship decision-makers taken
from a sponsor perspective. Complementing the semi-structured interviews was the
collection of data from multiple sources, such as documents and a brief ranking tool,
in order to achieve triangulation and case validity. Data analysis was accomplished
via data reduction, data display and combining the data into themes, and concluded
with data verifications and comparisons.
49
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Chapter four presents findings from data analysis processes followed by
relevant discussions. Following an initial discussion on disability sport sponsorship
relationships to create the context, this chapter is divided into two main sections in
alignment with each of the overarching research questions. When findings are
described, quotes and figures are used to provide examples. Tables have been utilised
if more than two quotes are employed, to highlight specific research findings, for
short ranking tool results, and as a quick reference guide for abbreviations.
4.1. DISABILITY SPORT SPONSORSHIP RELATIONSHIPS
In accordance with case study methodology, it is initially necessary to create
an in-depth understanding of the case under exploration (Creswell, 2007). Given the
details and profiles of sponsors found in both chapter and Appendix DD discussions
commence with sponsors reinforcing the definition of sponsorship. Firstly however, a
guide to abbreviations utilised throughout this chapter is presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Abbreviations for Sponsorship Relationships
Abbreviation Term F Financial I Individual O Organisational P Product S Service
4.1.1. Exchange Nature of Sponsorship Relationships
In line with established definitions, disability sport sponsorship relationships
strongly emphasised the exchange nature of sponsorship. Sponsor 1 (O + P/F) noted
that the sponsorship provided “benefits for the sponsee and sponsor” and was
confirmed by other sponsors who viewed mutual obligations resulting in a benefit
exchange. For example, sponsees would receive product and in return be expected to
actively promote the product of the sponsor. As such, participants provided
corroboration for Meenaghan’s (1991) exchange-based definition of the marketing
communications technique.
50
4.1.2. Classification of Disability Sport Sponsorship Relationships
Further context creation was achieved through placing each sponsorship
relationship along Austin’s (2000) CCI continuum (see Figure 4.1). Placement along
the continuum was based upon the tangible or intangible nature of sponsorship
motivations and expectations as expressed by sponsors during the interviews, in line
with literature definitions (Austin, 2000; Seitanidi & Ryan, 2007). Reinforcement
occurred through individual results of short ranking tool one and two where intangible
motivators and objectives were identified by sponsors.
Figure 4.1: Placement of Sponsorship Relationships Along CCI Continuum
Adapted from Austin (2000); Seitanidi and Ryan (2007)
4.1.2.1. Philanthropic Disability Sport Sponsorship Relationships
As seen in Figure 2.1, two organisational relationships were termed
sponsorships, however, participants indicated strong philanthropic roots and the donor
recipient position. Consequently, these relationships align heavily with the common
role played by sponsorship in the 21st century (Witcher et al., 1991).
Philanthropy was clearly evident and emphasised by Sponsor 8 (I + F) who
disliked receiving public recognition. As a result, Sponsor 8 “didn’t put any displays
up like everybody else did” during fundraising galas where they were one of the
51
primary sponsors. Moreover, Sponsor 8 expressed negligible interest in leveraging
sponsorship relationships, including the disability sport sponsorship, as sponsorships
were based upon the of director’s choice notion. As such, utilisation the highly
congruent tagline, “realise your dreams” (Sponsor 8 website), was not exploited.
Another financially based sponsorship within the philanthropic stage of the CCI
continuum saw the sponsorship geared towards making employees “feel good, like we
are giving back ” (Sponsor 5, O +F). This altruistic motive and reward was
considered sufficient for the sponsorship. Indeed, if Sponsor 5 got more than the
“warm and fuzzy feeling” out of the sponsorship, then “that was a bonus”.
4.1.2.2. Socio Disability Sport Sponsorship Relationships
In contrast to philanthropic sponsorship relationships, the warm and fuzzy
terminology was used in three other sponsorship relationships to highlight
relationship origins. As a result, sponsors were able to compare sponsorship
beginnings to their current position where the medium was viewed as “an integral
marketing tool for any marketing programme” (Sponsor 4: I + F). Consequently, the
majority (eight out of ten) of sponsorship relationships could be placed into Austin’s
(2000) socio-sponsorship classification where expectations were orientated towards
intangible rewards. Intangible rewards were strategic in nature with the intention of
improving reputation, gaining “some credibility”, and thereby facilitating “a seat at
the table” (i.e., an ability to influence relevant people; Sponsor 6, O + F). As such,
sponsorships had “benefit for the sponsor and the community” (Sponsor 1, O + P/F).
This was particularly pertinent in organisations which wanted to be perceived as
“equal opportunity employers” (Sponsor 4, I + F) or wished to demonstrate “in a
tangible way” their “full understanding of all Australian Olympic athletes” (Sponsor
3, I + F). As a result, this “didn’t just mean summer or able-bodied” but extended to,
and incorporated, the Paralympics (Sponsor 3). Not all sponsors anticipated a
significant reward, particularly if the product was exchanged for the sponsee “singing
the sponsor’s song” (Sponsor 9, I + P). Moreover, expectations included “little things
that are important to [the sponsor] and usually do not cost anything” (Sponsor 2, O
+F). As a result, strong expectations of intangible rewards logically saw the majority
of sponsorships placed into Austin’s (2000) socio-sponsorship classification.
52
4.1.2.3. Commercial Elements of Disability Sport Sponsorships
Given sponsorships have either been classified as philanthropic or socio-
sponsorships, the case study did not incorporate a pure commercial sponsorship
relationship. However, sponsorships did display commercial elements thereby
highlighting the nature of Austin’s (2000) continuum and applicability of
Meenaghan's (1991) sponsorship definition. As a result, sponsors expressed
expectations significantly revolved around intangible rewards but did extend to
tangible rewards. For example, Sponsor 1 (O + P/F) sought advertising space in order
to promote the business. This is demonstrated in the comment, “they were just blank
products. Instantly we started putting ‘proudly supporting sponsee’ so even though
the product was being used at no cost, at least it was a travelling billboard”. A further
example of the nature of a continuum was provided by Sponsor 4 (I + F) who stated,
“we had the commercial, hard-nosed sponsorships where you make a buck… and
others were there for brand awareness. Like the arts and that, we put into the bucket
as CSR… The sponsee was in the commercial side”. However, subsequent
discussions revealed expectations were predominately targeted towards intangible
rewards such as staff motivation, increased reputation and brand awareness creation.
Consequently, only elements of commercial sponsorships were evident within
disability sport sponsorship relationships.
Pertinently, in sponsorship relationships where commercial elements were
stronger, the balance of power still favoured the sponsor, which reflected existing
literature (Ryan & Fay, 2003; Simpson et al., 2011). In alignment with
Apostolopoulou and Papadimitriou (2004), disability sponsees relied heavily on
sponsors as a source of income. Sponsor 6 (O + F) highlighted this insight in the
comment, “the sponsee has been wonderful so far. I think that they need the money.
They just bend over backwards for us and they are quite professional – even with
limited staff”.
4.1.3. Impingement Factors in Disability Sport Sponsorship Relationships
Also of contextual relevance is how sponsors saw athlete schedules, limited
time, ‘old-school’ cultures, communication breakdowns, law reforms, as well as
finances depending on economic situations, as impinging upon their relationships
53
with sponsees. However, only one sponsor noted how the sponsorship relationship
was impacting as a result of the sponsee having a disability.
The reality is that existing interest in the Paralympics is a lot less…The penetration of the Paralympics in peoples’ consciousness is fairly low compared to able-bodied… There was no point getting locked in and thinking that by associating with the Paralympics we were going to be connecting with as many people as we were through the able-bodied Olympics… There are more able-bodied people out in the world so in terms of relevance to individuals around Australia, it is a lot lower. The extremes of the active components, what can be achieved by the Paralympians in terms of how fast they can go, how high they can jump, what they have hit – all the different aspects of that are not as great as the Olympians (Sponsor 3, I + F).
As a result of previous discussions, a clear and comprehensive context has
been created for the case under investigation with additional insight achieved through
sponsorship relationship profiles found in Appendix D. The mixture of sponsorship
relationships contained within the current study allows a diverse and holistic picture
to be created of disability sport sponsorship relationships in Australia. As such, it is
within this setting that the concept of congruence will now be investigated and
discussed.
4.2. RESEARCH QUESTION ONE: EXPLORATION OF CONGRUENCE
As demonstrated in the literature review, the majority of research on
congruence in sponsorship relationships has occurred in an able-bodied sport setting
(e.g., Alexander, 2009; Richelieu & Lopez, 2008). Moreover, terminology used to
describe overall congruence as well as dimensions of congruence varies greatly across
papers (Fleck & Quester, 2007). The following sections focus on research question
one, and related sub-questions, with the aim of exploring perceptions of congruence
within disability sport sponsorship relationships as an overall, macro, and micro-
dimensional construct.
4.2.1. Existence of Congruence
As congruence is the most widely studied theoretical concept relating to how a
sponsorship stimulus is processed (Cornwell et al., 2005; Speed & Thompson, 2000),
the concept has been thoroughly explored in the context of able-bodied sponsorship
relationships. In line with the exploratory case study methodology, the purpose of
54
this section was to determine whether congruence naturally existed and was perceived
by sponsors within disability sport sponsorship relationships.
4.2.1.1. Case Study Findings: Existence of Congruence
The emergence of congruence within disability sport sponsorship relationships
occurred naturally in discussions with nine out of ten participants. The unprompted
surfacing of the theoretical concept saw the term ‘fit’ used by six sponsors. Other
expressions such as “like-minded principles” and “shared goals” were utilised to a
lesser extent with the intent of inferring the same notion. More specifically,
statements such as “you always look for a good fit” (Sponsor 4: I + F), “it was a
perfect fit from our perspective” (Sponsor 5: O +F), and “it was just a good fit”
(Sponsor 9: I + P) leave little uncertainty as to the existence of congruence within
disability sport sponsorship relationships. Sponsor 5 (O + F) highlighted congruence
explicitly through the statement “there has to be a connection. I mean, you don’t go
off sponsoring something if there is no connection at all.” Congruence terminology,
as employed by sponsors, both in an unprompted and prompted fashion, is presented
in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Terminology Used to Infer Congruence In Sponsorship Relationships
Sponsor 1 (O + P/F) Alignment, similarities Sponsor 2 (O + F) Fit, alignment, match, synergies Sponsor 3 (I + F) Fit, alignment, links, relatedness, relevancy Sponsor 4 (I + F) Fit Sponsor 5 (O + F) Fit, connection, similarities Sponsor 6 (O + F) Fit, alignment, similarities, synergies Sponsor 7 (I + S) Fit, alignment, synergy Sponsor 8 (I + F) Fit, links, match, synergies Sponsor 9 (I + P) Fit, alignment, connection, links Sponsor 10 (I + P) Fit, alignment
Sponsors professed that congruence played a role from day one with Sponsor
7 (I + S) commenting that the sponsorship relationship was not only “a good fit at the
time” but “continued to be so”. Another sponsor highlighted the continual role of
congruence within the relationship as over time the construct appeared to have
changed in “a more positive way” (Sponsor 5: O + F). These findings indicate how
the presence of congruence has spanned across sponsorship lifecycles as opposed to
simply specific timeframes within relationships.
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4.2.2.2. Case Study Discussion: Existence of Congruence
While congruence has been widely researched in broader fields such as
management and marketing (Park et al., 1991; Tauber, 1993), the recent attention on
the construct in sport sponsorship (Fleck & Quester, 2007) has resulted in an
examination of congruence within prominent sports (e.g., NASCAR by Dees et al.,
2010; AFL by Turner et al., 2010). As such, the above findings extend existing
contexts to demonstrate sponsors unprompted perceptions of congruence and the
important role it plays in disability sport sponsorship relationships. In alignment with
Fleck and Quester (2007), sponsors used a plethora of terminology to describe the
concept with the intent of inferring similar meanings. Consequently, the findings
complement consumer perceptions of congruence found in sponsorship relationships
with the Special Olympics (Simmons & Becker-Olsen, 2006).
Interestingly, the exception was Sponsor 8 (I +F) who through prompted
discussion noted the significance of congruence but could not provide details on other
links within the relationship. This suggested that the nature of congruence may differ
across sponsorship relationships, particularly when the sponsorship has strong
philanthropic roots. Further discussion of congruence in relation to different types of
sponsorship relationships occurs later in this chapter. With the existence of
congruence now established, the following section aims to create an understanding of
overall, macro, and micro-dimensions of congruence in sponsorship relationships.
4.2.3. Congruence: Overall, Macro and Micro-Dimensions
Congruence has commonly been examined on an overall basis with academics
recently turning their attention to dimensions underpinning global congruence
perceptions (Olson & Thjømøe, 2011; Zdravkovic et al., 2010). As such, findings
initially focus on congruence as an overall concept before exploring specific
dimensions, which have sometimes been referred to as macro and micro-dimensions
(Zdravkovic et al., 2010). Given the numerous similarities and disparities between
dimensions and how authors have expressed them, the following section incorporates
classifications of macro and micro-congruence as guided by the research findings (see
Table 4.4).
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4.2.3.1. Case Study Findings: Overall and Macro-Dimensions of Congruence
The salient emphasis placed by sponsors on the importance of congruence
within their respective relationships extends findings from the previous section. Table
4.3 highlights sponsor perceptions on the significant role of the theoretical concept as
well as the proclivity for sponsors to utilise the term ‘fit’.
Table 4.3: Comments on Overall Congruence
Sponsor 2 (O + F) Make sure that it is the right fit. Sponsor 4 (I + F) It was a good fit, it was a natural fit. Sponsor 5 (O + F) It was actually a perfect fit for us. Sponsor 7 (I + S) It’s a good fit for the sponsee and a
good fit for us overall. Sponsor 9 (I + P) It’s part of the overall mix and it’s a
good fit… it’s just a good fit for us. Sponsor 10 (I + P) The sponsee definitely fits.
When overall congruence was examined, three different macro-dimensions emerged
from the findings and were employed for this thesis - logical connections / makes
sense, stands for similar things or marketing strategy. As such, Table 4.4
collectively presents how overall congruence was classified into macro-dimensions
and provides related micro-dimensions, which will be discussed in the next section.
Table 4.4: Classification of Overall, Macro and Micro-Dimensional Congruence
Macro-Dimensions Micro-Dimensions
Marketing strategy
Alignment with company strategy Alignment with company objectives Geographical Local attributes Portfolio Promotional activities Target market or audience similarities
Logical connection / makes sense
Company duration* Functional Image Time duration of sponsorship relationship
Stand for similar things
Culture, principles, or philosophies* Mission or goals Values
Note: * indicates proposed new dimensions
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Beginning with the macro-dimension of a marketing strategy, sponsors
spoke of “commonalities in strategy that make a partnership work” (Sponsor 2, O +
F). Moreover, during planning stages of marketing strategies, sponsors “look for a
good fit” (Sponsor 4, I + F) and saw subsequent discussions relate specifically to
micro-dimensions of marketing strategy. Similarly, findings did not produce highly
obvious themes at the macro-dimensional level of a logical connection / makes
sense. However, a sponsor implied this macro-dimension with the sponsee when they
stated,
We are all about getting people back to their lives…so to a certain extent we are saying ‘Well, what a good way to get people back to their lives. Because when you are in a wheelchair, it doesn’t mean you can’t work. And how do you get [people] back to their lives, how do you have a normal life?’ Well, sport is a critical part. And us sponsoring some of the wheelchair sports we think is critical (Sponsor 6: O + F).
Further, the comment below indicates one sponsor explaining how logical
connections were formed thereby ensuring the sponsorship relationship made sense.
You’ve got to try and transform that into something relevant over a number of years so that you’ve built a bridge so that when you are asking consumers… to accept the connection between [the sponsee] and [sponsor], that’s a very reasonable connection because you have seeded that association over the previous handful of years so it makes sense (Sponsor 3: I + F).
However, it was the macro-dimension of standing for similar things that was used to
identify a strong theme within the findings. Over 40 different statements made from
all ten participants inferred this particular macro-dimension of overall congruence.
As highlighted in Table 4.5, standing for similar things meant common starting
points, common objectives and common qualities, such as authenticity, embedded in
the dyadic relationships regardless of the type, duration or nature of the sponsorship.
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Table 4.5: Comments Regarding Sponsor and Sponsee Standing for Similar Things
Sponsor 2 (O + F) We’ve got a common starting point. Sponsor 5 (O + F) We are loyal to our sponsees, our sponsees are loyal to us; They
are the same aren’t they? They [sponsee] are there to try and help athletes and we are there to try and help.
Sponsor 7 (I + S) [Sponsee]’s got a lot of the qualities that represent our brand – the innovation, the fitness, and the tenacity.
Sponsor 9 (I + P) Having an authentic, credible [sponsee] out there that lives and breathes health, fitness, wellbeing, improvement, motivation - it is a great fit for us when you look at what [the sponsor] products are all about.
Sponsor 8 (I + F) Externally we try and promote that we are extremely professional, that we have integrity and everything is above board. That we are committed and dedicated and will fight hard for people. Internally we foster the commitment to each other – try to improve yourself, improve your mates. [The sponsee] is all of those things. [The sponsee] ticks everything that we want to be looking out and looking in.
Given findings relating to the three macro-dimensions of congruence have
been presented, an examination of the related micro-dimensions within each category
now follows.
4.2.3.2. Case Study Findings: Micro-Dimensions of Standing for Similar Things
Sponsor perceptions generated findings related to micro-dimensions of
congruence thereby creating the detail that is deficient in both the overall concept and
macro-dimensions. As highlighted in Table 4.4, the macro-dimension of standing
for similar things was found to represent a myriad of micro-dimensions. In
relationships that were financially orientated, congruence was implied when company
missions, philosophies, principles, goals or cultures displayed synergies. These
distinctions, as made by participants, can be seen in Table 4.6.
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Table 4.6: Comments on Congruence Across Organisational Elements
Mission Sponsor 1 (O + F/P) The sponsorship aligns very well with the [sponsee] and
what their strategic direction is for now and 2010 and onwards.
Sponsor 6 (O + F) Our strategic plan - ‘We want to be the best [industry] company and get injured people back to their lives’. And [the sponsee] is all about getting people back to their lives. So it is blunt.
Philosophy Sponsor 6 (O +F) One of our philosophies is to get people back to their lives…
[The sponsee] is all about saying to people that sport is an important part of a younger person’s life… And all of a sudden we just looked at the synergies going ‘We are trying to get people back to their life, [the sponsee] actually actively promotes sport for people in wheelchairs – perfect!’
Principles Sponsor 1 (O + F/P) Our work there was for disability transport and obviously
whomever we aligned with in sponsorship, had to have like-minded principles.
Culture Sponsor 1 (O + F/P) It’s culture – both organisations are passionate about what
they do. Goals Sponsor 1 (O + F/P) It’s a matter of having very similar goals. Sponsor 2 (O + F) There is an element of shared goals. Sponsor 5 (O + F) It is a perfect fit because we do have a common goal. The
common goal, from our perspective, is we are supporting an organisation that has, and will continue to support some of our clients. And that is where the common interest is.
Standing for similar things was also found to imply shared values between
the sponsor and property. While one organisational sponsorship relationship heavily
espoused the significance of sharing similar values,
We are going to make sure that when we go into partnerships or sponsorships that their values are very much aligned with what our values are… It’s really identifying people who obviously have the same values as you and then work out the best way to align with them… We are out there doing the right things for the right reasons and anybody that is associated with us obviously has those same values as well (Sponsor 1 - O + F/P).
Shared values between the sponsor and property were of greater prominence
in individual sponsorship relationships. This theme is demonstrated by Sponsor 3’s (I
+ F) comment “I was quite clear about those brand values from a [sponsor] point of
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view such as we had with [the sponsee] because [the sponsee] played back all of those
brand values.” Sponsor 9 (I + P) advanced this trend when they stated that “also
understanding what the values are of the organisation or the individual so they link.
It’s got to be real, they’ve got to connect.” Moreover, document analysis
consolidated a value match at a strategic level in individual sponsorship relationships
as the sponsor’s interest was implied in sport and sport was viewed as embodying
unified values and challenges. The sponsor then adapts to the regions or countries
where the brand is present to ensure congruence within relevant target markets.
While sponsors provided specific values that were perceived to be mirrored across the
dyadic relationships, Sponsor 3 (I + F)’s comment provides a specific example,
I think the integrity, that sense of belonging… That same integrity, the sense of belonging were displayed in a mini-way within this person called [the sponsee]… You’re actually saying that by associating with [the sponsee] that the values that [the sponsee] represents are the sort of values we’re proud of and want to associate with (Sponsor 3: I + F).
The emergence of congruent values evolved naturally from discussions with
participants in individual sponsorship relationships. However, it was organisational
sponsorship relationships that by means of a word association tool (Table 4.7)
produced a greater number of congruent values, in conjunction with other word
matches, when compared with individual sponsorship relationships. The word
association tool saw sponsors initially provide five words for their respective
organisations and then identify five words for the sponsee. The results of congruent
values and other matches can be seen in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7: Findings from the Word Association Tool
Generated words for both sponsor and sponsee
Organisational sponsorship relationships
Individual sponsorship relationships
Shared values Loyal, caring, secure, trusted
Healthy, fit, integrity
Other word matches Long standing, family environment, culture, passion, innovative
Warmth (x2), belonging, magical, vibrant
4.2.3.3. Case Study Findings: Micro-Dimensions of Marketing Strategy
In relation to the macro-dimension of marketing strategy, sponsors opined a
number of micro-dimensions. Portfolio congruence was viewed as enhancing the
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consistency of brand meaning and provided clarity for the sponsor’s brand within
three relationships. This is highlighted in the statement,
Sponsorships for the business meant going in and aligning the brand within the portfolio of the business. We had sponsees outside of the business that helped reinforce or promote our brand in a favourable way (Sponsor 3: I + F).
Portfolio congruence was also deemed to be either critical from a sponsor
viewpoint or expected from a consumer perspective. This helped to ensure a sound
culture mix existed within a sponsors portfolio, with Sponsor 2 (O + F) elucidating
this viewpoint when they commented, “there are some groups that fit well into a
sponsorship portfolio. And being a big company it is fairly expected that we will
have some depth to our program”.
Along similar lines, sponsors expressed how target market congruence
facilitated sponsorship objectives such as increased sales or enhanced reputation.
Reasons provided by sponsors included the perception of when target market’s
aligned, a “soft in” (Sponsor 1, O + F/P) was created with potential or existing
consumers. The consumer link was specifically explained by Sponsor 5 (O + F) as
“the fit is because of the nature of the work that we do and the nature of the clients i.e.
those that have suffered spinal injuries”. However, findings highlighted the
applicability of target market congruence within organisational sponsorship
relationships as opposed to sponsorships at an individual level.
Complementing target market congruence was when audience similarities
existed between the sponsor and sponsee. One sponsorship relationship, heavily
driven by brand protection and the enhancement of their reputation, noted “the people
that the sponsee are working with have some synergies with our audience” (Sponsor
2: O + F). Also a clear focus in financial relationships was the extent to which the
sponsor and sponsee had ties to the same geographical area. However, if the
financial sponsorship had traces of philanthropic origins, geographic congruence was
found to hold less significance. Almost as a subset of the geographical dimension,
local attributes and links played a strong role in three relationships. In discussions
with Sponsor 3 (I + F), it was brought to light that even though the sponsor is an
international brand, the common perception is that it is an Australian company.
Hence, congruence helped to reinforce brand image through the sense of belonging
locally embodied in “a local [sponsee] from Australia” (Sponsor 3: I +F). Not only
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does this example relate to the local micro-dimension but also highlights how the
image micro-dimension can be formed through brand attributes, and thereby relates to
the broader macro-dimension of logical connection / makes sense.
4.2.3.4 Case Study Findings: Micro-Dimensions of Logical Connection / Makes Sense
Within the macro-dimension of logical connection / makes sense, sponsors
created image congruence through brand positioning within promotional
communications. For example, Sponsor 4 (I + F) espoused how the sponsorship was
“a good fit, it was a natural fit for us because we are an equal opportunity employer”.
Publically available information regarding Sponsor 4 correlated heavily with this
statement and further compounds the sponsor’s public stance as an equal opportunity
employer. Additionally, image links were encapsulated within comments such as
how the sponsee “fits our brand, look, and feel” (Sponsor 10, I + P).
Sponsors also referred to congruence through the micro-dimension of time
duration of the sponsorship relationships. Two participants agreed, during both
discussions and the word association tool, that associations are created over a number
of years and that “one of the attributes of a high quality sponsorship is longevity”
(Sponsor 3, I + F). Consequently, perceptions of trustworthiness existed thus
facilitating further congruence in terms of shared values and brand positioning.
Also relating to the macro-dimension of logical connection / makes sense,
was the micro-dimension of functional congruence. Sponsor 2 (O + F) explained that
the sponsorship with the sponsee,
Fitted well with the goals at the time. The sponsee is about being active and we wanted to show that people [with a disability] can use the system…It was a visual demonstration that disabled people can use our services” (Sponsor 2: O + F).
The functional dimension emerged in an unprompted fashion across 50% of
sponsorship relationships, with even distributions between organisational and
individual sponsorships. However, it was found that there was a natural alignment of
this dimension with product sponsorship relationships with Sponsor 9 commenting,
The sponsee is firmly in that space where they are obviously very active and needed products that gave them an edge and [the sponsor product] is a better product to have compared to [other products].” (Sponsor 9: I + P).
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Compounding the applicability of functional congruence to product
sponsorship relationships was the short ranking tool (see Table 4.8), which
highlighted a comparatively higher ranking in this type of relationship. The short
ranking tool also emphasised the specific nature of the geographic dimension as
Sponsor 2 (O +F) ranked this particular dimension poorly as the sponsee was a
statewide organisation as compared to purely metropolitan or existing in the local
market. Participants also reinforced the general nature of the image dimension found
during the interviews as image, on average, was ranked the highest across all
sponsorship relationships. However, a disparity existed between findings and ratings
provided by sponsors for the target market dimension. This was particularly evident
in organisational relationships with lower ranking scores provided by participants.
Table 4.8: Short Ranking Tool Three – Dimensions of Congruence
Congruence Dimension Ave. score (n=10)
I ave. score (n=6)
O ave. score (n=4)
Culture 5.95 6.25 5.50 Geographical 5.50 6.17 4.50 Image 6.00 5.83 6.25 Mission 5.40 5.33 5.50 Promotional activities 5.60 5.50 5.75 Target market 5.20 5.33 5.00 Functional 5.80 5.83 5.75 Visibility 4.90 4.83 5.00
Subsequent sections within this chapter will see discussions regarding micro-
congruence dimensions of promotional activities, and alignment with company
strategy or objectives. This was deemed appropriate as these micro-dimensions hold
greater relevance and applicability to the second research question.
4.2.3.5 Case Study Discussion: Overall, Macro and Micro-Dimensions of Congruence
The effectiveness of sponsorship as an integrated marketing communications
device has been shown to increase when congruence exists between the sponsor and
sponsee (Martensen et al., 2007; Rifon et al., 2004) with resultant benefits for both
sides of the sponsorship dyad (Tripodi, 2001). In this light, the prominence and
significance of congruence within disability sport sponsorship relationships suggested
that the majority of sponsors are attempting to utilise, either consciously or
unconsciously, the construct in bids to convey brand messages to target audiences.
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The extensive utilisation of the term fit, which was employed by nine out of ten
sponsors to describe the theoretical concept in an overall manner, not only shows
commonality with literature (Olson, 2010; Simmons & Becker-Olsen, 2006) but also
demonstrates how disability sport sponsorship relationships should approach the
construct as it is the most understood term and thus will facilitate maximum
understanding within their current or potential relationships.
Some sponsors displayed an acknowledgement to underlying theories
regarding congruence when discussing how longevity builds up associations within
the minds of consumers to help ensure logical connections are formed, thereby
resulting in a sponsorship relationship making sense. As such, it appeared that
sponsors are making reference to schema theory to explain how congruence facilitates
positive sponsorship attitudes (McDaniel, 1999).
As demonstrated in Table 4.4, findings relating to specific macro and micro-
dimensions of congruence provided support for a number of different dimensions
currently existing in the literature. The importance placed by sponsors on the macro-
dimension, standing for similar things, highlighted how this broad statement holds a
myriad of meanings across different disability sport sponsorship relationships and as
such needs to be contextualised within each relationship to determine relevant
connotations. Logically, this finding is reflected in the literature, as standing for
similar things has been a measure of overall congruence in a number of different
research papers (Olson & Thjømøe, 2011; Simmons & Becker-Olsen, 2006; Speed &
Thompson, 2000). However, the current research provided the detail needed to
determine the basis of standing for similar things and as such generated tangible and
measurable micro-dimensions when examining standing for similar things.
Findings indicated that if the relationship is business-to-business, the presence of
congruence across missions, goals, and principles holds more relevance as obviously
alignment in these areas with regards to individual sponsorship relationships is not
highly applicable. As such, this study supports Turner et al. (2010) findings that a
congruent brand image can be created through shared visions, values and ideals.
However, the research presented here further develops these themes by illustrating
specific relevance of dimensions applicable to sponsors of disability sporting
organisations.
Subsequently, while missions, goals, and principles held greater relevance to
organisational relationships, value congruency was emphasised in individual
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sponsorship relationships. In a sense, this finding is partly reflected within research
conducted by Dees et al. (2010) who investigated personality congruence from a
consumer perspective as opposed to congruent values from a sponsor viewpoint.
However, Dees et al. (2010) findings of personality fit positively effecting variables,
such as consumer attitude towards sponsor or brand, is partially demonstrated in that
there was a role played by personality congruence when shared values existed in
individual disability sport sponsorship relationships. As such, when an individual
sponsee connected with the sponsor through congruent values, either at a personal or
brand value level, congruence was created within relationships. Moreover, findings
generated through the word association tool relating to shared values in organisational
relationships, reflect those of Geue and Plewa (2010) where congruent sponsorships
appeared to be value-driven. Similarly, the word association tool and related findings
also support Farrelly and Greyser (2007) who found that common values were used to
strategically motivate employees given that sponsorship was used as an internal
marketing vehicle.
Congruent values also included sponsors stating that in the presence of
incongruent values, a sponsorship relationship would not eventuate because disability
sport sponsors would “not associate with just anyone” (Sponsor 3, I + F). Indeed,
three sponsors suggested that if a sponsee was considered incongruent with the
sponsor brand because their values indicated a bad reputation, image, or were deemed
to be controversial, a sponsorship association would not be entered into. Admittedly,
incongruence was not perceived to have been a factor in dissolving any of the three
sponsorship relationships that had ended. However, wider examples outside the
existing study, which support sponsor perceptions, include the Transport Accident
Commission terminating a sponsorship agreement with Collingwood Football Club in
2008 after a player was charged with drink driving (Roberts, 2008). Interestingly,
exceptions existed to the requirement of sponsees having a spotless image (Thwaites
et al., 1999). Such was the case within one disability sport sponsorship where
associations with niche sport markets enabled an ‘irreverent’ element thereby
permitting the sponsor to employ brand-positioning differentiation. The comment, “it
is not necessarily just having that mainstream person. We are not a brand that’s just
going to jump off and say thanks but no thanks during those times... We are not
necessarily all about being clean cut", captures the exception to the rule.
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Consequently, it becomes evident that standing for similar things in
disability sport sponsorships relationships through congruent elements such as goals,
missions, or values, is highly esteemed by sponsors. Explanations for this finding
can be found both in short ranking tool three and comments made by Sponsor 3 (I +
F). It was suggested that because visibility of Paralympians within society is lower,
other dimensions or ways to match the sponsor with the sponsee, such as standing for
similar things, were more important and should thus be sought in these specific
relationships.
As the research was exploratory in nature, additional micro-dimensions not
found in existing literature were discovered. To recognise and incorporate
contributions made by sponsors, these dimensions will be presented under future
research directions in chapter five. Interestingly, one of the proposed dimensions is
that of company duration. This dimension was evident in three sponsorship
relationships and while not identified as a dimension of congruence, can be found in
the study by Apostolopoulou and Papadimitriou (2004). These researchers reported
sponsors of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games felt that because of their history and
length of establishment, a need and obligation existed to sponsor the Olympics – a
sponsee also with an established history.
Findings created additional insight across the micro-dimensions of image,
target market and functional congruence, when compared with definitions found in
Appendix A. Currently, not only do multiple definitions for the image dimension
exist but they are also extremely broad in nature (see Appendix A). As such, it is
possible that the strong ranking of the image dimension could be attributed to
numerous interpretations of the term by the sponsors. Nonetheless, if an image link
was created within the sponsorship, such as with brand or product attributes (Keller,
1993), the existence of congruence across other dimensions was facilitated. One
example, in accordance with Crompton (2004), is how image components include
trust and credibility – two strong values shared within a number of the relationships
investigated.
However, in the sense that the current image dimension within the literature
holds numerous meanings, the narrow definition presently relating functional
congruence, was found to be restrictive in disability sport sponsorship relationships.
For example, when a sponsee consumed sponsor products as part of their daily
training routine, a clear functional link was evident but would not fulfill the current
67
definition of functional congruence as it was not consumed ‘during the game’ (see
Appendix A). As such, findings supported suggestions by Poon and Prendergast
(2006) who identified that the existing dimension needs to be expanded to ‘use of the
brand either directly or indirectly’.
The disability sport sponsorship case reported here found that target market
congruence varied across sponsorship relationships. Some sponsors perceived a
significant target market alignment, which is in line with other sponsorship research
(Cornwell, 1995; Olson & Thjømøe, 2011; Zdravkovic et al., 2010). However,
Sponsor 2 (O + F) highlighted that strong voices exist in small segments of a
customer base. Consequently, disability sport sponsorships were found to alleviate or
combat the strong minority voices found in specific target segments. As such,
findings demonstrated the need for a sponsorship portfolio to include a disability
sport sponsee in these ever-increasing times of political correctness, equal opportunity
legislation, and competitions between municipalities for ‘the most inclusive’ award.
4.2.4 Comparison with Able-Bodied Sponsorship Relationships
The fact that congruence has been extensively researched in able-bodied
sponsorship relationships has been heavily emphasised throughout this thesis (e.g.,
Gwinner & Bennett, 2008). The purpose of this section is to compare and contrast
sponsor perceptions of congruence in disability sponsorship relationships with that of
able-bodied sponsorship relationships.
4.2.4.1. Case Study Findings: Comparison with Able-Bodied Sponsorship Relationships
Sponsors’ awareness and perception of congruence was not limited to
disability sport sponsorship relationships. There were unprompted comments made
regarding congruence in able-bodied sport properties with general consensus on
congruence captured in the comment,
Fit is everything that makes a sponsorship what it is – it is macro and micro - micro to each other’s customers and macro… in what it represents (Sponsor 7, I + S)
No major differences were found in terms of overall congruence and how this was
expressed in able-bodied relationships. However, when contrasting disability
properties with that of able-bodied, interesting trends occurred in micro-dimensions of
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congruence. On the whole, when sponsors had other able-bodied sport properties,
there were quantitatively more micro-dimensions expressed for these relationships in
comparison with the disability sport sponsee. The exception was Sponsor 6 (O + F)
where the prime focus throughout the interview was on the disability sport sponsee
and thereby resulted in an emphasis on related micro-dimensions. Table 4.9
highlights these results.
Table 4.9: Comparison of Micro-Dimensions of Congruence
Sponsor Disability sport sponsorship relationship Other sponsorship relationships
Sponsor 3 (I + F)
Local attributes, values Functional, geographical, local attributes, portfolio, promotional activities, strategy alignment, time duration of sponsorship, values
Sponsor 4 (I + F)
Image, philosophy Company duration, culture, geographical, goals, local attributes, values
Sponsor 6 (O + F)
Company duration, culture, geographical, goals, mission, philosophy, promotional activities, strategy alignment, target market
Goals, mission
Sponsor 7 (I + S)
Image, values Image, portfolio, target market, values, visibility, visual/colour
Sponsor 9 (I + P)
Functional, image, promotional activities, values
Functional, Geographical, image, promotional activities, target market, values, visibility
Sponsor 10 (I + P)
Functional, image, strategy alignment, time duration for sponsorship, values
Functional, image, strategy alignment, values
Note: BOLD represents different micro-dimensions across sponsored properties
4.2.4.2. Case Study Discussion: Comparison with Able-Bodied Sponsorship Relationships
The intent of this thesis was not to differentiate congruence within each
specific relationship. However, in light of the insight provided by the findings, it was
deemed appropriate to briefly discuss obvious themes. When examining the findings
in a quantitative fashion, the number of dimensions referenced within able-bodied
sport properties is generally significantly higher than that of disability sport
properties. Thus, it would appear that congruence is emphasised to a greater extent
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within able-bodied sport properties given the unprompted nature of the micro-
dimensions and focus during interviews on respective disability sport properties. The
point that must be stressed is that while more dimensions were mentioned with
reference to able-bodied sport properties, the dimensions themselves in both able-
bodied sport properties and disability sport sponsees do not differ significantly from
current literature.
4.2.5. Summary for Research Question One
The previous section has summarised the findings in relation to RQ1 and
resulted in an exploration of congruence in disability sport sponsorship relationships.
Not only have the findings demonstrated the importance of the theoretical concept but
also related congruence to overall, macro, and micro-dimensions. As a result, thirteen
different micro-dimensions were categorised into three macro-dimensions - standing
for similar things, logical connection / makes sense, and marketing strategy (see
Table 4.4). The research has also provided external validation for existing micro-
dimensions as well as identified additional micro-dimensions applicable to disability
sponsorship relationships. Consequently, specific findings reflected each sub-
research question associated with RQ1. The next section will focus on findings and
discussions related to RQ2 where congruence was explored in relation to the
sponsorship management framework.
4.3. RESEARCH QUESTION TWO: CONGRUENCE IN SPONSORSHIP MANAGEMENT
Having established the importance of congruence within disability sport
sponsorship relationships, as well as relevant macro and micro-dimensions, the thesis
will now turn to operationalisation of congruence within sponsorship relationships.
As demonstrated in the literature review, components of the sport management
framework include selection, strategy, objectives, implementation and measurement
or evaluation (Arthur et al., 1997; Cornwell, 1995). With specific reference to each
stage of the sponsorship management framework, the perceived role of congruence
will be explored and discussed. For the sake of simplicity and parsimony, the second
section will refer to overall and micro-congruence dimensions thereby implying
associated macro-dimensions, as viewed in Table 4.4.
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4.3.1. Congruence in Sponsorship Selection
While placement of the stage, sponsorship selection, differs in its position
across frameworks (Arthur et al., 1997; Cornwell, 1995; Karg, 2007), Aguilar-
Manjarrez et al. (1997) highlighted sponsee selection occurs early in sponsorship
programs. As such, the appropriateness of initiating section two with sponsorship
selection was based on literature guidelines as well as an ability to create context, and
thereby facilitated subsequent discussions.
4.3.1.1. Case Study Findings: Congruence in Sponsorship Selection
The scope of this thesis does not permit an entire narrative on disability
sponsorship selection. As such, Appendix L presents how each sponsorship
relationship began alongside the associated reasons as perceived by the sponsors. In
addition to this information, it was found that sponsorship selection was aided when
the sponsee was upfront about issues regarding disabilities thereby facilitating a
strong foundation upon which the sponsorship relationship could grow.
The sponsee was very upfront, very authentic and pragmatic right from the start. He never pretended that he was Ian Thorpe. The sponsee acknowledged that straight off the bat their disability was a difficult conversation or the unspoken elephant in the room. They wafted that right out of the room by being upfront (Sponsor 3, I + F).
Holding greater relevance to this thesis were findings that suggested
congruence played a significant role in sponsorship selection. As has been previously
highlighted, the macro-dimension of standing for similar things in some
sponsorships related to shared missions. This micro-dimension of congruence was
found to be salient during sponsorship selection, particularly in organisational
relationships where it is naturally more relevant. Sponsor 5 (O + F) perceived
selection of the sponsee occurred because it was the “perfect fit given the fit doing the
type of work we do”; the sponsor has “a lot of spinal clients who have actually gone
onto the sporting environment - it is just the perfect fit supporting a sporting
organisation”. In the same way, micro-dimensions of philosophies and audience
similarities aided sponsee selection. One sponsor commented that,
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Our customers have severe injuries…we wanted to sponsor someone with the really serious injuries. What resonates more is getting young people back to their lives. We have had a philosophy of wanting to get people back to their lives. We kept looking at it going ‘Oh sport!’ What is more significant for a person to have a life than be able to participate and play sport?! (Sponsor 6: O + F)
Also under the macro-dimensions of standing for similar things was an
agreement by sponsors that values reflected by the sponsee contributed to sponsee
selection. For example, shared authenticity was important in three sponsorship
relationships. Sponsor 9 (I + P) expressed this viewpoint in the statement, “the
sponsee was keen to get out and promote brand, sing the sponsor song but had an
authenticity… it was a good fit”. Not only does this demonstrate value congruence
but also the role played by overall congruence. Sponsor 7 (I + S) continued the
overall congruence theme when they stated that it was an “internal decision to offer
sponsorship to the sponsee at the time as the sponsee was seen as a good fit for the
brand.” Moreover, when looking at what sponsees to associate with, the statement
“you always look for a good fit” (Sponsor 4, I +F) leaves little doubt as to the
importance of congruence between a sponsor and sponsee.
During sponsorship selection, sponsors in individual sponsorship relationships
also indicated congruence through forming connections with the sponsee given they
stood for similar things. One sponsor described this as,
There were other people that I met on the [disability sport] team that didn’t have the same level of warmness and authenticity as the sponsee…They just didn’t have the same personality that the sponsee had that connected us… The sponsee connected with colleagues and provided an accessible way to disability issues and created that insight (Sponsor 3, I + F).
Other sponsors perceived dimensions such as portfolio, geographical, and
image congruence as influencing selection of the sponsee. Found within a number of
sponsorship selection criteria were requirements of target market alignment.
However, when Sponsor 2 (O + F) was asked to expand upon their sponsorship
guideline statement an interesting insight was created for the disability sponsorship
relationship. Sponsor 2 (O + F) highlighted that by percentage, able-bodied people
far outweigh people with a disability in Australia. As such, this results in only a small
percentage of people with a disability using their services. Subsequently, a lack of
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congruence in terms of target market existed but sponsorship selection was based on
having a “disability group by the way of having a broad portfolio”. Reasons offered
for this strategy included suggestions that “some groups fit well into a sponsorship
portfolio” (Sponsor 2, O + F). Consequently, the sponsorship relationship could not
be viewed in a “brutally business minded” way (Sponsor 2, O + F).
Sponsee selection based upon target market congruence was also seen in a
complementary form in one other sponsorship relationship. In this relationship, the
sponsee was specifically selected, as congruence existed through both dyads having
involvement in the community thereby creating a community brand image. However,
target market congruence was achieved in a non-traditional sense as the sponsee
“resonates particularly well with older people” as “if anyone knows what it is like to
be young and incapacitated [i.e. the sponsee target market]… it is older people”
(Sponsor 6, O +F). As such, sponsee selection was based on specific objectives and
was further explained in the comment,
That fits in perfectly, particularly that group at 40+ where you have kids and you know that if something happens, the sponsor is working with the sponsee to really make an impact and it is not just a nice thing to do but it is like ‘at least they are putting their money into something worthwhile’ (Sponsor 6, O + F)
This highlights target market congruence does only occur between sponsor
and sponsee target markets but also how congruence enables sponsors to reach their
particular target market. Interestingly, Sponsor 1 (O + P/F) provided insight into
target market congruence playing a significant role in sponsorship renewal. This
was due to a change in the sponsee’s strategic direction, which resulted in an
increased target market alignment between the sponsor and sponsee. Indeed,
Sponsor 1 (O + F/P) emphasised that this was a “massive, massive reason for
continuing the sponsorship”.
Reinforcing perceptions provided by sponsors were sponsorship guideline
statements where selection was based upon congruence between the sponsee, sponsor
and sponsor objectives. Additionally, the short ranking tool (see Appendix J) brought
to light the dimension of local attributes during sponsorship selection as it prompted
Sponsor 8 (I +F) to comment that they “like to see money stay local… and support
somebody locally”.
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4.3.1.2. Case Study Discussion: Congruence in Sponsorship Selection
Similar to Arthur et al. (1997), decisions to invest in sport sponsorship were
based on an array of rational and emotional motives. Sponsorship selection was
found to be heavily influenced by congruence as evident throughout the findings and
could even be considered critical in the majority of relationships. In line with
previous literature (Meenaghan, 1998; Thjømøe et al., 2002), many sponsorship
relationships were based upon the ‘director’s choice’ and related ‘someone that knew
someone’ (see Appendix L). Nevertheless, the role of congruence during sponsorship
selection was indicated to be one of high importance. Specifically relating to the
notion of director’s choice, sponsors emphasised personality congruence between
themselves and the sponsee as a motivating factor for sponsorship selection. Indeed,
personality congruence formed the basis for half of the individual sponsorship
relationships thereby demonstrating the need for individual sponsees seeking
sponsorship to determine and reflect sponsor values. As a result of personality
congruence, the sponsees developed positive associative networks regarding
disabilities in the minds of their sponsors. Hence, to a certain extent, this thesis
supports authors such as Cornwell et al. (2006) and Rogers (2003) who have utilised
the associative networks theory to explain the congruence construct.
Contrastingly, it was dimensions such as mission or philosophy alignment
that was of greater importance in organisational sponsorship selection. Interestingly,
these dimensions were more pertinent than image congruence. Admittedly, as
discussed previously in findings relating to micro-dimensions, the majority of
sponsors reflected comments made by Thwaites et al. (1999) that a prerequisite for
selection was a clean image thereby ensuring the avoidance of incongruence.
However, this finding along with others does not support previous academics, who
found image congruence, or functional congruence, were among the most important
criteria in sponsorship selection (Copeland et al., 1996; Irwin et al., 1994; Marshall &
Cook, 1992; Turner et al., 2010). Although, sponsor selection decisions did partially
mirror criteria found in the evaluation model for sponsorship selection as proposed by
Irwin and Asimakopoulos (1992), and Meenaghan’s (1983) sponsorship selection
tool. Commonalities between the findings and the literature included corporate-
image links and mission or philosophy, image-target market fit, and demographic
fit as seen in target market congruence.
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In the case described here, sponsor perceptions suggested that target market
congruence and congruence within a sponsorship portfolio were powerful selection
tools. This finding is reflected in “the selection of a sport that provides exposure to
the target market of the company is crucial for realising product / brand objectives”
(Irwin & Asimakopoulos, 1992, p. 47). Numerous other authors have also
emphasised target market congruence (Cornwell, 1995; Doherty & Murray 2007;
Javalgi et al., 1994, Meenaghan, 1983) as this facilitates strategic communication
links and ensures brand equity is not subject to question (Fleck & Quester, 2007).
As a result of findings and discussions, it is apparent that standing for similar
for things as a macro-dimension, and target market, portfolio, and geographic
congruence as micro-dimensions, were pertinent in disability sport sponsorship
selection. Given these dimensions, a synergy between sponsorship initiatives and
various levels of organisational strategy was facilitated.
4.3.2. Congruence in Sponsorship Strategy
Sponsorship as a strategic activity enables the development of corporate
advantages (Fahy et al., 2004) and strengthens corporate strategy (Berrett & Slack,
1999). While specific sponsorship strategies existed across each relationship,
findings and discussions will revolve around congruence within sponsorship strategy.
4.3.2.1. Case Study Findings: Congruence in Sponsorship Strategy
Seven of the sponsorships investigated highlighted congruence within
sponsorship strategy, with particular emphasis placed upon this stage by
organisational and financial relationships. Naturally, it was the two philanthropic
relationships where congruence in sponsorship strategy did not play a significant role.
Providing insight into congruence in sponsorship strategy was the comment that the
sponsorship “aligns very well with [the sponsee] and what their strategic direction is
for now, 2010, and onwards” (Sponsor 1, O + P/F). In this specific example,
congruence in sponsorship strategy increased due to a shift in the sponsee’s strategic
direction thereby resulting in the micro-dimension of target market congruence. As
such, the role of congruence changed in a positive way during the relationship. This
was mirrored in other organisational sponsorships where initial motivators revolved
around the “warm and fuzzy” feeling but are currently “much more tied to the needs
of the business” (Sponsor 2, O + F). Explanations for the shift in sponsorship
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strategies revolved around protecting the reputation of sponsors “from people who
claim we are not doing things” (Sponsor 2, O +F).
However, congruence in company strategy was not only related to corporate
reputation and brand protection but also to the potential credibility it would create.
One sponsor commented that their “strategy is to work with specific stakeholders.
Strategically, we want to work and influence these stakeholders across Australia. Our
sponsorship allows us to have a seat at the table” (Sponsor 6, O + F). When asked to
expand further upon this statement, the sponsor noted that,
From a strategic point of view, it gives us credibility when we go to the authority and say ‘We want to be part of your license and have a license’. We are actually coming in and saying, ‘Well, not only do we do [business activity] but we actually participate in the community and are trying to make lives better for the sponsee.’ And what better way to do that is there than the sponsee! (Sponsor 6, O + F)
As such, congruence is evident in terms of aligning company missions and strategies
with the sponsee to help facilitate sponsorship objectives such as increased brand
health and being involved in the community.
While not as prominent in individual sponsorship strategies, congruence was
evident in the macro-dimension, standing for similar things, and related value
micro-dimension. One sponsor’s strategy revolved around differentiation from
competition by positioning the product with authenticity due to the extensive science
supporting it. Consequently, the sponsorship strategy involved the sponsee exhibiting
authenticity and thus demonstrated value congruence. Furthering the trend of values
reflected by individual sponsees was a comment made by Sponsor 3 (I +F),
To formulate a sponsorship strategy, you need to be crystal clear about the brand values that may not be in place right now but the ones you are aspiring to have… I was quite clear about those brand values from a [sponsor] point of view such as we had with [sponsee] because [sponsee] played back all of those brand values (Sponsor 3, I + F).
Reflecting sponsor perceptions were ranking results provided by sponsors
during the first short ranking tool (see Table 4.10). The tool demonstrated that
motivators of disability sport sponsorship relationships included a strong desire to
align the sponsorship with the company strategy. Similarly, the tool reinforced
findings through demonstrating that organisational sponsors placed a greater emphasis
on strategy alignment as compared with other types of relationships. Indeed, it
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prompted the comment from one sponsor that “alignment with company strategy is
really important” (Sponsor 6, O +F). Furthermore, the short ranking tool highlighted
how sponsors were motivated in terms of the sponsorship aligning with company
objectives and that these objectives are less tangible in nature. Findings and related
discussion on sponsorship objectives will occur in the following section.
Table 4.10: Short Ranking Tool One – Motivators of Sponsorship Relationships
Motivator Ave.
score (n=10)
I ave. score (n=6)
O ave. score (n=4)
Sponsorship aligns with company strategy 6.30 5.83 7.00
Sponsorship aligns with corporate objectives 5.80 5.67 6.00
Tangible benefits 4.55 4.92 4.00 Intangible benefits 6.10 5.83 6.50 Other: Good fit * 6.00 6.00 NA
Note: * indicates n=1
4.3.2.2. Case Study Discussion: Congruence in Sponsorship Strategy
Congruence has been extensively studied in order to determine how and why
it can assist marketing strategy decisions with the aim of establishing which sporting
organisation or individual to sponsor (Fleck & Quester, 2007). The case study
findings reported here indicated that within disability sport sponsorships, there is an
increasing role of congruence in sponsorship strategy and related decision-making
activities. This is in alignment with literature and the key role played by sponsorship
in integrated marketing communications (Dolphin, 2003) as well as the need to link
sponsorship activities with broader corporate strategy (Amis et al., 1999).
Interestingly, the view held by Sponsor 2 (O + F) indicated sponsorship strategy can
be defensive in nature to aid in protection of reputation. It was through portfolio
congruence that the sponsor believed this strategy would be achieved.
Congruence in sponsorship strategy was differentiated across organisational
and individual sponsorship relationships. The logical alignment of sponsor and
sponsee missions related specifically to organisational strategies. This was in
comparison to the role of brand value congruence in individual sponsorship
strategies. As such, this finding partially supported Alexander (2009) where the
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sponsor’s strategy saw semantic fit employed to redefine and establish new brand
values. However, Alexander’s (2009) case study involved an organisational
sponsorship relationship and is thus not entirely reflected in the findings.
A point emphasised by Cornwell (1995) is that during a situation analysis,
which precedes strategy development, geographical congruence needs to be taken
into account. The research findings did not note geographical congruence within
decisions related to sponsorship strategy, perhaps indicating non-localisation
strategies of sponsors. However, sponsors did agree with Cornwell (1995) that target
market congruence holds applicability to sponsorship strategy. As Cornwell (1995)
suggested, target market congruence enables associations to be created and built
with specific audiences and thereby facilitates objectives of increasing corporate
image and awareness.
The various congruence macro and micro-dimensions, along with results from
the short ranking tool, facilitated the centrality of the congruence theme in
sponsorship strategy. In this, the research supported other results where it was critical
for sponsorship goals to be congruent with those of the organisation as a whole thus
producing strategy alignment (Farrelly et al., 1997; Irwin & Amisakopoulos, 1992).
Moreover, the findings of the current study are reflected by Berrett and Slack (1999),
who highlighted companies exhibited differing links between sponsorship activities
and corporate strategy. Subsequently, companies who perceived stronger links
believed the sponsorship was more successful. In this way, some sponsors indicated
that congruence helped to avoid conflicting messages within the overall company
strategy. In contrast, it was the philanthropically orientated sponsorships that
displayed a lack of synergy to broader corporate strategies thereby further reinforcing
the results of Berrett and Slack (1999).
4.3.3. Congruence in Sponsorship Objectives
Sponsorship strategy (Berrett & Slack, 1999) and objectives form the
introductory stage in sponsorship management (Karg, 2007). In light of congruence
within sponsorship strategy, a focus will now be placed on the construct within
disability sport sponsorship objectives.
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4.3.3.1. Case Study Findings: Congruence in Sponsorship Objectives
When asked to explain objectives relating to the sponsorship relationship, it
was common for sponsors to opine the importance of congruence as an overall
construct, as well as at a macro and micro-dimension level. In reference to overall
congruence, Sponsor 4 (I + F) felt the objective of increasing revenue was achieved
given “a good fit” existed. However, while overall congruence was apparent for
objectives in their own right, philanthropic sponsors did not perceive sponsorship
relationships aligning with corporate objectives or congruence impacting other
objectives.
Pertinent to organisational sponsorships, as well as to two individual
relationships, was the objective of involvement in the community. Indeed, one
sponsor with multiple brands picked out a specific brand as the brand “fits well in the
community” (Sponsor 6, O + F). A component of community involvement related to
CSR with one sponsor stating “CSR – why should you do it? Because you should”
(Sponsor 2, O + F). Consequently, the purpose of sponsors “connecting with local
communities” (Sponsor 2, O + F) was to “establish in people’s minds that the sponsor
is working and helping these people [i.e. the sponsee]” (Sponsor 6, O + F). However,
some of the larger organisational sponsors perceived community involvement as a
means of generating long-term sales. Sponsor 6 (O + F) volunteered that they “can
get more business and make more money in the long term by actually doing this good
stuff for the community – it is enlightened self-interest and it is a really good thing”.
Within this relationship and others, the objective of community involvement was
facilitated due to like-minded principles thereby enabling the creation of
associations within the minds of relevant stakeholders, clients and consumers.
Also linked to sales objectives was the congruence dimension of target
market alignment. One sponsor spoke of a direct target market match enabling the
organisation to generate new business.
[The sponsee] members are members with a disability. The sponsor’s customers were people with a disability…The sponsee’s new members were potential, or existing, customers. So aligning them together and introducing them to each other. If the sponsor can not get at them one way, then using the sponsee as a conduit to get their business (Sponsor 1: O + F/P).
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The comments provided above, along with discussions with other sponsors,
indicated the objective of third party advocacy endorsement and how word-of-mouth
advertising can be extremely beneficial for sponsors. Confirming this view was a
statement from Sponsor 2 (O + F) where “if the sponsee says something to their
members about us, that would carry more weight compared to our other sponsees
putting the same message out to their audience”. As a result, not only do sponsors
perceive target market congruence as impacting sales but also producing increased
networks, an enhanced image, and improved brand health. Additionally, target
market congruence related to the sponsorship objective of increasing staff
motivation. Congruence in target markets was viewed as a medium to enable staff
to “appreciate the clients they are acting for” (Sponsor 5, O + F) and hence develop an
“understanding and appreciation of diversity” (Sponsor 1, O + P/F).
One unique finding provided by Sponsor 6 (O + F) demonstrated the ability of
sponsorship relationships to achieve multiple objectives, how objectives stem from
both company strategy and selection, as well contain congruence through like-
minded principles and mission alignment.
It gives us the credibility when we go to the stakeholder and say ‘We want to be part of your license and have a license’. We are actually coming in and saying, ‘well, not only do we do claims but we actually participate in the community and trying to make lives better for people.’ And what better ways in there than the sponsee… So now they [health community] will have a positive attitude towards us (Sponsor 6, O + F)
Reputation enhancement through community involvement also implied
visibility congruence through sponsors promoting sponsees. This led sponsors to
believe the community would think, “these guys are alright. They help out in the
community, they must be good blokes” (Sponsor 1, O + P/F). Interestingly, a
philanthropic relationship commented that if the sponsorship “puts our firm out there
and creates a level of awareness and people see we are making a difference in
someone else’s life, then that is a bonus for us” (Sponsor 5: O + F). Consequently,
sponsors perceived objectives related to promotional community activities would
facilitate the creation of image links. One sponsor highlighted this in the comment,
“it really is about showing access and that we are doing something on the access side
of things” (Sponsor 2, O + F). As such, wheelchair sponsees provided the sponsor
with a vehicle of achieving this objective due to the presence of image congruence.
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Sponsor 2 (O + F) created an interesting insight into the role of congruence
across both sponsorship selection and objectives. Within the sponsorship
relationship, sponsorship management was “generally more structured” and
conservative than what Sponsor 2 had with the sponsee. Consequently, Sponsor 2
would “dip [their] toes into the water” before “jumping into bed” with sponsees. As a
result, sponsorship relationships have not usually initiated with Sponsor 2 providing
financial assistance to sponsees. This was interesting as the disability sport
sponsorship relationship had always been financially orientated but was viewed as
“easy”, “flexible”, and “not high maintenance” (Sponsor 2). The contradiction
suggested when objectives relate to leveraging a sponsors reputation with the intent of
brand protection, the role played by portfolio congruence could be quite large.
Confirming a tendency for sponsors to emphasise intangible objectives were
results from the second short ranking tool (see Table 4.11). Moreover, the
comparatively lower ranking of tangible benefits also reinforced the major objectives
of community involvement and increasing staff motivation found during interview
discussions. Triangulation of findings also occurred through document analysis,
which revealed congruence in community-related objectives due to synergies
facilitating mission fulfillment of sponsors and their related sponsees.
Table 4.11: Short Ranking Tool Two – Objectives of Sponsorship Relationships
Objective group Ave.
score (n=10)
I ave. score (n=6)
O ave. score (n=4)
Establish/increase brand awareness 5.3 5.33 5.25 Improve brand health/perception 5.6 5.33 6.00 Increase sales/market share 4.2 5.00 3.00 Communicate with target markets 4.9 5.33 4.25 Gain media exposure 4.8 5.17 4.25 Engage and motivate employees 5.6 5.50 5.75 Enhance client relations 4.9 5.00 4.75 Enhance corporate image/leverage reputation 5.6 5.50 5.75
Community involvement/promote corporate citizenship 5.9 5.83 6.00
Other: Balanced sponsorship portfolio* 5.00 NA 5.00 Note: * indicates n=1
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4.3.3.2. Case Study Discussion: Congruence in Sponsorship Objectives
Desbordes et al. (2004) suggested sponsorship objectives can be grouped into
corporate, communication and brand objectives. Findings, in conjunction with short
ranking tool results, demonstrated the majority of sponsors focused upon broad
communication and brand objectives such as community involvement, increasing
brand health or corporate image, and leveraging employee morale. These findings are
reflected to a certain extent by previous research (Dolphin, 2003; Howard &
Compton, 2004; Quester & Thompson, 2001; Tripodi, 2001) but the lack of emphasis
placed by sponsors upon sales objectives is not in alignment with prior studies
(Dolphin, 2003; Easton & Mackie, 1998; Javalgi et al. 1994).
Pertinently, communication and brand objectives capitalised on congruence
thereby enabling “communities to look at [the sponsor] in a different light to other
companies” (Sponsor 6, O +F). As such, brand objectives related to the creation of
emotional connections with target audiences. Similar to Geue and Plewa (2010),
sponsors believed values would be transferred from the sponsee to the sponsor
thereby resulting in credibility and ability to leverage sponsorship relationships.
Reflecting congruence in sponsorship strategy, schema theory along with the
associative networks principle offered appropriate explanations for the transfer of
values. However, attribution theory and the discounting principle were able to
complement these explanations and provided further insight. As suggested by Rifon
et al. (2004), sponsors utilised congruence to ensure the creation of altruistic
perceptions thus internal motivators have not been discounted. As a result, brand
equity was nurtured in sponsorship relationships (Richelieu et al., 2008). However,
Geue and Plewa (2010) cautioned too much congruence might result in perceptions of
egoistic motivations.
Findings clearly demonstrated how objectives worked in combination,
interrelate and overlapped, in line with previous research (Cornwell et al., 2001;
Meenaghan, 1983; Thwaites, 1995). One such example was when congruence existed
through mission alignment, a number of related objectives existed. Subsequently,
these objectives were ranked the highest and reinforced through document analysis.
Possible explanations include how these objectives are the predominant goals of
sponsorship arrangements as they directly relate to sponsee image alignment (Fahy et
al., 2004). This was particularly evident in product sponsorship relationships where
82
an image link was plainly visible and worked alongside the functional dimension of
congruence.
While presented in the previous section, results from short ranking tool one
(Table 4.10) highlighted how congruence is present when the sponsorship aligns with
corporate objectives. In this, the case reported here supported Meenaghan’s (1983)
marketing communications hierarchy of objectives. However, both findings and the
ranking tool suggested this was more applicable in organisational and financial
sponsorship relationships, thus implying commercialisation and professionalisation
varies across different types of disability sport sponsorship relationships.
4.3.4. Congruence in Sponsorship Implementation
From a sponsor perspective, sponsorship strategy and objectives generally
influence how a sponsorship is leveraged both internally and externally. The section
initiates with a brief presentation of common leveraging activities as well as specific
disability sport leveraging activities. This facilitates findings regarding the role of
congruence in leveraging activities and is supported by short ranking tool three
(Appendix J) before the case study discussion.
4.3.4.1. Case Study Findings: Congruence in Sponsorship Implementation
The connection between sponsorship strategy, objectives and implementation
impacted the nature of leveraging activities within sponsorship relationships.
Moreover, three sponsors emphasised how leveraging a relationship was just as
important, if not more, than putting finances into a sponsorship contract.
You can pay a lot of money for the sponsorship to get the actual contract but you have actually got to make it work. So it’s like buying all the ingredients to make a cake but then you have actually got to put it together as a cake and get consumers to buy it…Leveraging sponsorships is critical…Leveraging a sponsorship is the most important thing (Sponsor 9, I + P)
As the purpose of this thesis is not focused upon specific type of leveraging
activities, a brief overview of both common and disability sport specific leveraging
activities in presented in Table 4.12 in order to aid in context creation.
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Table 4.12: Leveraging Activities in Disability Sport Sponsorship Relationships
Common leveraging activities Leveraging activities related to Disability sport
Naming rights to sport teams, events and fundraisers
Sponsor signage on prosthetic equipment
Placing signage in, around, or on sponsee Disability sport specific activities Electronic games to mimic
environment experienced by athlete
Games of wheelchair basketball with staff
Endorsement through third party advocacy Social media communications Motivational talks by sponsees to sponsors, their clients or potential customers Hospitality activities Product give-away by sponsees Merchandise featuring sponsees Media coverage of events Athletes as ambassadors
In the presence of mission and target market congruence, disability sport
specific activities enabled fulfillment of sponsorship objectives such as engaging and
motivating employees. Sponsees provided staff with “an understanding of why they
were doing it… it was a real eye opener” (Sponsor 1: O + F/P). Moreover, these
experiences were a tangible, non-classroom situation and helped to “enrich their day
and made people feel good” (Sponsor 3, I + F) thus creating “a lot of positive energy
throughout the business” (Sponsor 1, O + P/F). Subsequently, sponsorship
relationships enabled employees to “pick up those transfer of excellence values into
the job and increased productivity” (Sponsor 4, I + F).
The sponsorship objective of engaging and motivating employees, and related
leveraging activities, was also facilitated through overall congruence when the
sponsor and sponsee stood for similar things. This was achieved as,
The sponsee would express themselves and position themselves in a way that people would relate to... at the same time as competing in the world championships and holding their own. That sort of insight that people can relate to quite quickly… creates an association… The sponsee connected with colleagues (Sponsor 3, I +F).
In relation to disability sport, the sponsor went on to highlight that,
The sponsee was able to provide in a very accessible sort of way what the issue was with their amputation, the way they were born… The sponsee helped people understand how their performance stacked up against able-bodies… It was those little insights that enabled the light bulb to come on for people and suddenly disability sport wasn’t at arm’s length, it was a little bit closer (Sponsor 3, I + F).
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Apart from the congruence micro-dimension of mission alignment, other
micro-dimensions such as functional, image, target market and value congruence
were evident in promotional activities. For example, Sponsor 2 (O + F) had “some
[sponsee] athletes getting on the [service] and it was on the front page of the customer
newsletter”. As such, this highlights congruence in a functional manner. Both
functional and image congruence were found in product sponsorship relationships
with one sponsor commenting that “physically the sponsee is a good looking guy and
wears our product well and promotes it well” (Sponsor 10, I + P).
Interestingly, one of the larger organisational sponsorship relationships was
adamant that during promotional activities, a “clash of brands” would not be created
through placing the “sponsor as number one” as it is “the sponsee that we are
promoting”. As a result, it was important for the brands to “fit well together”
(Sponsor 6, O + F).
Reinforcing these findings short ranking tools two and three, particularly in
terms of the strong results indicated by sponsors across promotional activities (see
Table 4.11 and Table 4.8). Further confirmation was gained through document
analysis where congruence was evident within articulation messages generated by the
sponsorship relationships. For example, press releases express congruence through
the creation of “synergies” between the sponsor and sponsee as a result of mission
alignment. Similarly, where the sponsee had utilised a sponsor product, social media
enabled communications that incorporated the congruence micro-dimensions of
functional and image. For example, the sponsee would tweet how they had just
eaten a sponsor’s product before training. Whereas other sponsees have blogged
about how they used a sponsor’s product during a recent competition or training ride.
As such, document analysis revealed the micro-dimensions of functional, image,
mission, and target market congruence within media releases, websites, YouTube,
Facebook and Twitter.
4.3.4.2. Case Study Discussion: Congruence in Sponsorship Implementation
The sponsorship management framework displays a number of interconnected
stages found within sponsorship relationships (see Cornwell, 1995; Irwin &
Asimakopoulos, 1992; Karg, 2007). While congruence has been demonstrated across
sponsorship selection, strategy, and objectives, the purpose of congruence relates to
communicating and creating links within the minds of target audiences (Cornwell et
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al., 2006; Johar & Pham, 1999; Rifon et al., 2004). As such, the findings of
congruence within sponsorship implementation should not come as any surprise.
Indeed, the findings are reflected by the vast majority of sponsorship literature that
has examined sponsorship communication activities using the tool of congruence
(Cornwell et al., 2005). The innate knowledge demonstrated by sponsors to employ
congruence in their communication activities makes sense according to Cornwell et
al., (2005). This is because good articulation messages have been shown to improve
overall congruence perceptions by more than 30% thereby increasing effectiveness of
the sponsorship medium (Olson & Thjømøe, 2011).
However, in the case of disability sport sponsorship relationships, findings
suggested the micro-dimensions of mission, functional, target market, values and
image were used to articulate overall congruence. As such, the majority of these
dimensions are reflected in the study conducted by Zdravkovic et al. (2010).
Contrastingly, Olson and Thjømøe (2011) found that only geographical, functional,
target market, sponsorship duration and attitude similarity can be used to
positively increase overall fit perceptions.
Nevertheless, congruence enabled fulfillment of objectives such as increasing
employee motivation through leveraging activities such as wheelchair basketball
games. Target market and value congruence enabled staff insight into disabilities
thus creating not only understanding but also positive and lasting image associations
in the minds of employees. As the employees were exposed to further leveraging
activities, further associations were created thereby implying that the role of
congruence increased over time. As such, the applicability of both associative
networks theory and schema theory becomes apparent in sponsorship leveraging
activities. These speculations align with research conducted by Cornwell et al. (2005)
who found articulation of sponsorship relationships may be beneficial for various
stakeholders. Cornwell et al. (2005) suggested that articulation messages serve as a
signal to the role and value of the sponsorship to the firm. The view by one sponsor
that articulation messages avoided a “clash of brands” (Sponsor 6, O + F) indicated a
desire to portray altruistic motives. Consequently, and along similar lines to theories
within objectives of sponsorship relationships, it appears that the discounting
principle is applicable as it suggested that given congruence, altruistic perceptions are
created in the minds of consumers (Rifon et al., 2004).
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Furthermore, the findings suggested that congruence can be used to leverage
the sponsorship relationship beyond levels that may not have been obtainable if
congruence was absent. Research conducted by Alexander (2009) reflects this
finding as semantic congruence heightened leveraging activities to build and redefine
brand values to levels that may not have otherwise been expected. However, the
findings here, and that of Alexander’s (2009), are in contrast to Cliffe and Motion
(2005) who reported an ability of the sponsor to leverage sponsorship outcomes,
regardless of whether congruence existed between the sponsee and sponsor’s brand.
To a certain extent, Sponsor 8 (I + F) confirmed results by Cliffe and Motion (2005),
as congruence did not play a major role in the relationships but the sponsorship
produced positive client hospitality outcomes. Whether outcomes would have been
improved in the face of congruence articulation messages remains to be seen.
4.3.5. Congruence in Sponsorship Measurement
Measurement of a sponsorship relationship assists in recognising sponsorship
effectiveness thereby justifying a return on investment (Stotlar, 2004). The following
section identifies measurement techniques, or lack thereof, in conjunction with
associated rationales before exploring congruence within measurement of disability
sport sponsorship relationships.
4.3.5.1. Case Study Findings: Congruence in Sponsorship Measurement
Sponsors indicated evaluation occurred when the activity was perceived as
tangible and could thus be measured numerically. One sponsor saw evaluation as an
opportunity to “look at how to utilise the sponsorship and the sponsee’s services to
best promote the sponsor” (Sponsor 1, O + P/F). However, a lack of sponsorship
evaluation was prevalent across the majority of sponsorships, particularly if the
sponsorship had philanthropic roots. Explanations for the lack of measurement
revolved around the perceived hardship related to measurement of intangible
objectives and how the outcomes of a sponsorship are very indirect. One sponsor
noted that these difficulties are not specific to disability sport sponsorship
relationships, rather, are a generic issue within sponsorship programs (Sponsor 3, I
+F). The general consensus among sponsors was summarised in the comment,
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It’s very hard to identify the value isolated in a sponsorship... when there are a lot of other people in the business who are putting advertising programs that are a lot more quantifiable... Sponsorship is grey versus the hard black and white science of most advertising campaigns… you really need to have a strategic belief in it rather than black and white financial hurdles that might be applied to most other initiatives in the business (Sponsor 3, I +F).
Financial sponsors went on to contrast relevant disability-sporting sponsees
with those of able-bodied sport sponsees contained in their sponsorship portfolio. It
was suggested that able-bodied relationships naturally have more tangible benefits,
such as media coverage, and thereby facilitates value isolation and measurement of
the sponsorship relationship.
4.3.5.2. Case Study Discussions: Congruence in Sponsorship Measurement
Findings highlighted that the construct of congruence was not measured
during sponsorship evaluation. One possible dimension that was inferred by two
organisational / financial sponsors was visibility congruence. As a result of
sponsorship evaluation, the sponsors realised a lack of visibility and hence sought to
rectify the situation through placing logos on player’s uniforms, increasing media
promotion, and introducing naming rights into the sponsorship agreement.
Consequently, the creation of the visibility micro-dimension as proposed by
Zdravkovic et al. (2010) could be considered to be the result of sponsorship
evaluation.
Previous findings and discussions have demonstrated the importance of
congruence within sponsorship selection, strategy, objectives, and implementation.
Given that existing tools are able to both measure and significantly predict overall
congruence (see Appendix A), a lack of measurement within disability sponsorship
relationships is of concern. For example, an audience profile analysis is one method
to ensure continual target market congruence and is an evaluation technique that has
existed in the sponsorship medium for over four decades (Meenaghan, 1983). Not
only is it becoming increasingly necessary to measure congruence (Fleck & Quester,
2007) due to its importance in predicting sponsorship effects (Menon & Kahn 2003;
Roy & Cornwell 2003) but also the significant role of congruence in disability sport
sponsorship relationships suggested that evaluation of the construct should occur.
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As per all cases, the seemingly intangible nature of sponsorships and related
objectives created a perceived inability among sponsors to carry out measurement
activities or gauge sponsorship success. This finding is reflected across a wide range
of literature (Harvey, 2001; Horn, 1999; Cordeiro et al., 2005) thus implying it is not
unique to disability sport sponsorship relationships. This suggests that in disability
sport sponsorships, evaluation still is “perhaps the greatest challenge faced by
sponsors” (Copeland et al., 1996, p. 45). Other reasons relating to a lack of
measurement include how perhaps the sponsorship investment costs are so low that
measurement is not worthwhile (Arthur et al., 1998; McDonald, 1991).
As such, the lack of congruence implied sponsor perceptions of congruence
still prominently exist at a global level rather than the relatively more tangible micro-
dimensions. The findings have also highlighted the limited role congruence plays in
sponsorship measurement. Hence, if sponsorship managers are to capitalise on
congruence in their decision-making, they must be able to measure and compare
congruence across a range of associations (Fleck & Quester, 2007).
4.3.6. Summary for Research Question Two
This section discussed the construct of congruence across each stage of the
sponsorship management framework thereby reflecting the sub-research questions
related to RQ2. Sponsors perceived and spoke of congruence in all stages bar
sponsorship measurement. The interconnection between selection, strategy,
objectives and implementation, meant that dimensions relating to specific sponsorship
relationships also overlapped across sponsorship management. As such, management
of disability sport sponsorship relationships was found to incorporate congruence as
an overall, macro and micro-dimensional concept with particular relevance to each
different type of sponsorship relationships.
4.4. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Chapter four has provided findings and discussions relating to the two
overarching research questions and associated sub-research questions for this thesis.
For RQ1, findings extended previous literature to confirm not only the existence of
congruence in disability sport sponsorship relationships but also the important role it
plays in these relationships. Sponsors shed light on the construct of congruence at an
overall, macro and micro-dimensional level. In this sense, the case reported here
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reflected a significant number of dimensions currently existing in the literature as well
as suggested refinement of functional congruence. Similar to the dimensions of
congruence through sponsorship duration, sponsors proposed that congruence can
also be created via company duration. As such, findings demonstrated that
congruence in disability sponsorship relationships does not differ significantly in
terms of specific dimensions from that of able-bodied sport sponsorship relationships.
However, the emphasis placed upon various dimensions by sponsors was found to
contrast with those suggested for able-bodied sport sponsees.
Findings and discussions relating to RQ2 built upon the first research question
by operationilising the construct across the sport sponsorship management
framework. On the whole, when dimensions were present in sponsorship strategy, the
cyclical nature of sponsorship management saw the same dimensions repeated across
the framework. Consequently, objectives stemming from sponsorship selection and
strategy were found to influence leveraging activities that occurred during
sponsorship implementation. Congruence in terms of target market, mission,
values, functional, portfolio and image were all salient throughout these stages.
However, a lack of both sponsorship measurement and measurement of congruence
resulted in mainly anecdotal evaluation informing sponsors of sponsorship effects.
As such, it appeared to be difficult for sponsorship managers to effectively determine
whether the sponsorship had provided significant value to the organisation and
whether congruence was utilised successfully.
In light of findings and related discussions, a summary of congruence in
disability sport sponsorship will ensue in chapter five. Also found within the
following chapter are implications of the findings as well as theoretical and practical
recommendations, limitations and future research directions.
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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION As the final chapter of the current thesis, the focus of discussion revolves
around significant outcomes and key implications generated from the research. To
facilitate this, the chapter is divided into five sections and begins with a summary of
the two major research questions. Following these summaries and implications,
limitations related to the study will be highlighted along with a presentation of future
research opportunities before concluding remarks are provided.
5.1. FINDINGS
As a result of an extensive examination of major and sub-research questions in
chapter four, the purpose of considering the findings in a concise manner within this
chapter permits suggestions relating to theoretical and practical implications.
5.1.1. Findings for Research Question One
RQ1 focused on exploring and extending existing research on congruence in
disability sport sponsorship relationships. A summary of key congruence findings is
presented in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Summary of Congruence Findings for Research Question One
Macro-Dimensions Micro-Dimensions Sponsorship Relationship Type
Where Congruence Prominent
Marketing strategy
Geographical Financial Local attributes Financial
Portfolio Organisational, individual, financial
Promotional activities All types Target market or audience similarities Organisational, financial Visibility Organisational, financial
Logical connection / makes sense
Company duration Organisational, financial
Functional Organisational, individual, financial, product
Image Individual, financial, service, product
Time duration of sponsorship relationship Financial Stand for similar things
Culture, principles, or philosophies Organisational, financial Mission or goals Organisational, financial Values Individual, financial, product
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In conjunction with Table 5.1, summaries of key findings that address RQ1
are as follows:
1. When expressing overall congruence, the tendency of sponsors to utilise the
term fit suggested it was the most widely understood terminology. Moreover,
as congruence played a role in nine out of ten disability sport sponsorship
relationships, including one with philanthropic origins, it was crucial for these
relationships to establish how the sponsor and sponsee stand for similar
things.
2. Sponsors suggested the macro and micro-dimensions found in Table 5.1 are
more applicable to disability sport sponsorship relationships given the
relatively low visibility of Paralympians within society compared to able-
bodied counterparts.
3. Dimensions of congruence were not found to significantly differ in disability
sport sponsorship relationships when compared with existing literature.
Rather, findings uncovered a shift in how dimensions are emphasised within
these relationships.
4. Findings indicated that disability sport sponsorship relationships incorporated,
on average, less dimensions when compared with able-bodied sport sponsees.
5. Findings suggested financial relationships place importance upon time
duration of sponsorship relationships and company longevity (i.e.
duration) to ensure associations and schemas are formed in the minds of
stakeholders. As such, sponsors referenced schema theory and the associative
networks principle (Koo et al., 2006; Rogers, 2003).
6. The salience of shared values in product sponsorship relationships indicated
that sponsors considered authenticity to be important, which thereby
facilitated effective third-party advocacy endorsements by the sponsees.
7. Target market congruence in organisational relationships occurred in a
twofold manner through either audience similarities across the dyad or saw
sponsees relating specifically to target markets of the sponsor.
8. Findings indicated support for Poon and Prendergast (2006) to broaden the
current restrictive definition associated with functional congruence.
9. Portfolio congruence was deemed to be necessary to protect and promote
brand reputations due to current environments where CSR, equal opportunity,
and diversity all hold sway within our politically correct society.
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5.1.2. Findings for Research Question Two
RQ2 considered congruence across each stage of the sponsorship management
framework. Beginning with sponsorship selection, organisational sponsorships
sought sponsees where target market, geographical, portfolio, image, mission and
goal congruence could be established. As such, these dimensions allowed for
alignment with company strategy and objectives, given incorporation of portfolio
congruence, thereby impacting specific leveraging activities.
Contrastingly, individual relationships were selected and integrated into
sponsorship strategy mainly based on personality congruence given shared values
existed between the sponsee and the sponsor or brand. However, findings uncovered
local attributes as a deciding selection factor in one philanthropically oriented
individual relationship. Similarly, value alignment, along with image and functional
congruence, played a role in product sponsorship selection, strategy and objectives,
with the intent of aiding subsequent leveraging activities. This is compared with the
service sponsorship relationship where selection was grounded in overall brand
congruence to enable a brand ambassador strategy. Notably, congruence in
sponsorship strategy and objectives did not play a major role in philanthropically
orientated sponsorships thereby highlighting the importance of establishing the type
of sponsorship using tools such as Austin’s (2000) CCI continuum.
Although measurement of congruence has been achieved in research domains
(Olson & Thjømøe, 2011), the case reported here demonstrated a lack of congruence
and formal sponsorship measurement. As such, it is suggested that perceptions of
congruence are still firmly rooted in the relatively more intangible overall congruence
construct and related objectives. This was despite congruence dimensions
emphasised across all previous stages of the framework.
A summary of macro and micro-congruence dimensions associated with each
stage of the framework, in relation to organisational and individual sponsorships, is
found in Table 5.2. Financial and product sponsorship relationships can be viewed
through combining both individual and organisational relationships. Moreover, as the
service sponsorship relationship simply demonstrated overall congruence through a
brand ambassador strategy, it was not included in Table 5.2.
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Table 5.2: Summary of Main Congruence Findings for Research Question Two
Macro-Dimensions Micro-Dimensions Stage of Sponsorship Management Framework Where Congruence
Dimension is Prominent
Organisations Individuals
Marketing strategy
Alignment with company strategy Strategy Alignment with company objectives Strategy Geographical Selection Local attributes Selection, strategy, implementation Selection Portfolio Selection, strategy, objectives Promotional activities Implementation Strategy, implementation
Target market or audience similarities Selection, strategy, objectives, implementation
Visibility Implied in measurement Logical connection /
makes sense Functional Objectives, implementation Image Selection, objectives, implementation Selection, objectives, implementation
Stand for similar things
Culture, principles, or philosophies Selection, strategy, objectives
Mission or goals Selection, strategy, objectives, implementation
Values Objectives, implementation Selection, strategy, objectives,
implementation
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Given the dimensions found in Table 5.2, findings uncovered major objectives and
leveraging activities of disability sport sponsorship relationships. As such, Table 5.3
is of practical assistance to the management of disability sport sponsorship
relationships and was deemed an appropriate inclusion.
Table 5.3: Major Objectives and Leveraging Activities for Disability Sport Sponsors
Type of Sponsorship Relationship
Major Objectives Major Leveraging Activities
Organisational
Community involvement, engage/motivate staff, brand
awareness & health, corporate image
Wheelchair basketball/ rugby, naming rights, logo/brand
utilisation, third-party advocacy
Individual Community involvement, engage/motivate staff
Athlete interaction with staff, clients, customers through talks, blogs, social media.
Third-party advocacy
Financial Community involvement, engage/motivate staff
See organisational and individual
Service Brand awareness & health Athlete appearances, use of logo
Product Brand awareness & health, corporate image
Use of product, promotion/third-party
advocacy of product, social media
As a result of findings, the conceptual framework established in chapter two
was found to reflect and encompass the concepts and constructs discussed.
Consequently, research contributions stemming from the findings will now be
presented and is followed by future research directions.
5.2. RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS
5.2.1. Theoretical Implications
As a result of the research findings and discussions, a wide array of theoretical
contributions has been demonstrated. Firstly, the current study has simultaneously
extended existing contexts of congruence into a new domain as well as demonstrated
the presence of congruence across multiple types of disability sport sponsorship
relationships. This was facilitated through Austin’s (2000) CCI continuum, which
was deemed to be an appropriate vehicle to generate research outcomes, despite the
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fact it was not expressly part of the research questions. Significantly, findings
suggested the importance of congruence in these sponsorship relationships regardless
of firmly entrenched population schemas relating to notions such as wheelchairs.
Further, the research has provided external validity for previously identified
dimensions of congruence previously developed through homogenous student
populations. Findings also demonstrated support for calls to modify the current
definition of functional congruence (for definition see Appendix A). As Poon and
Prendergast (2006) suggested, the functional congruence definitions need to
incorporate situations where the sponsor's product is not used during the event but
either facilitates or contributes to sporting outcomes (Poon & Prendergast, 2006).
While company duration has been alluded to in literature (Apostolopoulou &
Papadimitriou, 2004), findings identified company duration as a specific dimension
of congruence. Consequently, not only have specific dimensions undergone external
validation but findings also suggested potential dimensions further requiring internal
validation.
Lastly, findings have significantly contributed to the operationilisation of
congruence through identifying the role of the construct across each stage of the
sponsorship management framework. It is recognised that overall, macro, and micro-
dimensions of congruence, as well as the sponsorship framework are not new
concepts and firmly grounded in existing literature. However, the examination of the
construct across each framework stage, along with the specific distributions of
congruence dimensions, was unique to this study. As such, the research was able to
provide a holistic view of how congruence can be leveraged and understood within
dyadic sponsorship relationships thereby resulting in key practical implications for
sponsors, sponsees and disability sport sponsorship relationships.
5.2.2. Practical Implications and Recommendations
When leveraging a disability sport sponsorship relationship, findings
supported the notion that sponsors are open to the approach of placing the sponsee
brand first to ensure that perceptions of image, and overall congruence, are created.
As such, a clash of brands and egoistic sponsorship motivations perceptions are
potentially minimised. However, unless the sponsor operates in niche sport markets
where an irreverent brand image may be appropriate, the requirement for a spotless
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image is required for sponsees looking to engage and maintain sponsorship
relationships, in line with remarks made by Thwaites et al. (1999).
In individual sponsorship relationships, the significance of the sponsee
embodying value congruence with the sponsor’s brand, as well as sponsor managers
themselves, was clearly evident within findings relating to RQ1 and RQ2.
Consequently, congruent values not only aided selection of the sponsee but also
facilitated internal organisational connections. These internal connections were the
result of individuals being able to relate to the sponsee and coming to conclusions that
having a disability is almost a non-barrier. Ironically, to ensure the delivery of
objectives such as motivating employees, the sponsee simultaneously needed to be
perceived as inspirational through their athletic feats and overcoming adversity.
Consequently, demonstrating an ability to triumph in the face of hardships still
appears to be a unique leveraging opportunity for sponsees to solicit sponsorship
agreements. Sponsors suggested sponsees achieved this through highlighting how
their pursuits and stories of achievement were greater than Olympians because of
what they have had to overcome. Further, approaching sponsorship relationships in
an upfront manner regarding disabilities to ‘get the elephant out of the room’,
highlights how authenticity value congruence can be created by the sponsee in order
to build relationships with sponsors.
Visibility congruence, as reflected from the sponsor, holds implications in
financial sponsorship relationships where the price had to be right and fit the sponsee.
This was in light of comparing Paralympic athletes with their counterparts on the
Olympic team; Paralympic athletes were under-indexed in terms of their relevance
and awareness to the general population. However, through understanding that
disability sponsees offer sponsors the opportunity to demonstrate their understanding
of diversity, sponsors are able to leverage this ability and establish perceptions of
CSR in the minds of consumers. This was seen to be advantageous, particularly in
larger organisations that focus on equal opportunity within their CSR activities.
Moreover, major companies need to take advantage of congruence between human
resource objectives, brand values, and Paralympic sponsees, as generally they reflect
and are parallel to what the Paralympics stands for.
The perceived lack of disability sport sponsorship relationships provide for a
unique sponsorship ground for organisations. This opportunity is present as the
landscape is relatively uncluttered compared with other sponsorship domains, such as
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the Olympics, which is beginning to experience the constraints and liabilities of a
cluttered environment (Seguin et al., 2008; Tripodi, 2001). As such, disability sport
sponsorships represent an effective communication tool for sponsors given
congruence can be established. In this light, when sponsees are approaching
sponsors, they need to highlight how they will be congruent with the sponsor instead
of approaching sponsorship managers with generic proposals.
It is suggested that sponsorship selection, strategy, objectives, and
implementation be based upon congruence dimensions found in Table 5.2. Given
these dimensions, Table 5.3 enables sponsors and sponsees to identify pertinent
objectives and unique leveraging activities in disability sport sponsorship
relationships. However, these findings are by no means exhaustive. Rather, the
findings should be viewed as a guide for disability sport sponsorship relationships.
As a result of the research, and importance of congruence in determining
sponsorship effectiveness (Cornwell et al., 2006), it is suggested sponsees promote
both congruence and the sponsor at every opportunity. Moreover, sponsorship
managers need to utilise existing knowledge of congruence dimensions (e.g.,
Zdravkovic et al., 2010) to facilitate an ability to efficiently manage sponsorship
relationships.
5.3. LIMITATIONS
While the appropriateness of employing a case study methodology was
established in chapter three, findings and implications associated with the research
need to be considered in light of a few limitations. The qualitative case study
methodology and small sample size restricts broader generalisability of findings
(Farrelly et al., 2006; Stake, 1995), both within and beyond a disability sport
sponsorship context. Moreover, the short ranking tools were not measurement sound
in terms of context, pilot testing, item randomisation, or generalisability, thereby
potentially producing bias. Nevertheless, the breadth and depth created through
consistent themes, data triangulation, ranking tools grounded in literature with the aim
of purely reinforcing findings, as well as sponsors representing a myriad of different
relationships, made the case study methodology ideal to help uncover relevant and
applicable findings. As such, the treatment of findings as exemplars as opposed to
generalisations has been the approach taken by this thesis.
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A further limitation to the study was the timeframe of the honours research
project. The completion of the thesis within a seven-month period constricted the
depth and number of case studies to ten sponsorship relationships. Consequently, the
sample was based geographically on sponsorship relationships found in Sydney and
Melbourne thereby resulting in selection bias that excluded other states or territories.
Moreover, the sample did not include a pure commercial sponsorship relationship
where sponsors are motivated by sales, promotion and advertising, and expect mainly
tangible rewards (Austin, 2000). This may have influenced findings of congruence
within disability sport sponsorship relationships, particularly within the stage of
sponsorship measurement. Given a potential increase in sponsorship spend, it is
possible that perceptions of value creation achieved through evaluation techniques
would be worth the commitment needed to measure sponsorship effectiveness and
congruence. However, the sponsorship relationships investigated demonstrated
elements of commercial sponsorships due to the nature of Austin’s (2000) continuum.
Moreover, sponsors represented local, state, and national disability sport sponsorship
agreements, thereby ensuring that a comprehensive picture of the Australian disability
sport sponsorship landscape was incorporated into the current thesis.
Similarly, time constraints dictated that discrepancies between qualitative and
quantitative data could not be investigated. It is also appropriate to note that the
possibility of participant and researcher bias existed thereby limiting findings and
views opined by sponsors. However, as detailed in chapter three, the data collection
method of interviews, locations chosen by participants, short-ranking tools, in
conjunction with document analysis, all acted to minimise bias contained when
research findings were presented. Consequently, the study has explored and detailed
congruence within disability sport sponsorship relationships but requires further
quantitative research to confirm the findings thereby allowing a capacity to make
predictions with a high degree of confidence.
5.4. DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Given the scarcity of literature relating to disability sport and disability sport
sponsorship, the necessity and applicability of a qualitative exploratory study is
naturally apparent. It also suggests the untapped potential for numerous future
research directions, a belief that is reflected by Burton (2010). First, while findings
provided external validity for existing congruence dimensions, further validation of
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these dimensions within the disability sport sponsorship context in a quantitative
manner is suggested. Quantitative research should also include the proposed
additional congruence dimensions of culture, goals, company duration and values.
Second, it is recommended that this occur not only from a sponsor perspective but
also from a consumer and sponsee viewpoint to triangulate the research further. As
Turner et al. (2010) highlighted, simultaneous research taken from these dyadic
relationships, with possible extension to a triadic perspective, that compares opinions
of congruence in sponsorship relationships would add value to the current
understanding of sport sponsorship. This would shed light on the discrepancies and
trends found within the existing study as well as broaden research into commercially
orientated sport sponsorship relationships, as suggested by Cornwell (2008).
Value for disability sport sponsees would also be created through modeling
congruence, with the impact of congruence as a moderator or mediator, and
differentially represented across the sponsorship management framework. Given the
ease of use and understanding of the framework, future researchers could test
empirically the distributions of congruence presented in this thesis. Moreover, it
would be worthwhile investigating whether congruence, and associated dimensions, is
an antecedent to the willingness of sponsorship managers’ to enter into sponsorship
relationships. Additionally, this avenue could also include sponsorship managers’
willingness to continue the sponsorship relationship during the stage of sponsorship
renewal. Results would illuminate how congruence aids brand equity, given this is
built over time (Aaker, 2004).
The scope of the research and honours timeframe delimited this thesis to
congruence and disability sport sponsorships. As such, comments made by sponsors
during data collection indicated congruence was employed for different purposes in
able-bodied sport sponsorships compared with disability sport sponsorships. Potential
exists for future researchers to explore this subject directly when sponsors incorporate
both disability and able-bodied sport sponsees in their portfolio thereby permitting
further comparisons and contrast to occur.
100
5.5. CONCLUSION
This study has explored the theoretical concept of congruence across disability
sport sponsorship relationships. A framework developed though the literature review,
highlighted relevant aspects of the construct needed to explore both the concept itself
as well as management of sponsorships. Subsequently, the adoption of a case study
methodology bound by sponsor perceptions of disability sport sponsorships saw a
focus upon individual and organisational sponsorships, as well as various financial,
product, and service relationships. Triangulation and reinforcement of qualitative
findings occurred through three short ranking tools and document analysis.
While findings regarding both overall congruence and congruence dimensions
were reflected by literature, unique value and contributions were created through
operationalisation of the construct across each stage of the sponsorship management
framework. Moreover, the significance of including individual sport sponsorship
relationships needs to be noted due to the tendency of research to focus upon
congruence in an organisational sponsorship relationship setting.
In the disability sport sponsorship case reported here, findings illustrated
specific relevance of certain congruence dimensions to different relationship types
and how these dimensions link together selection, strategy, objectives and
implementation. Overall, nine out of ten sponsors emphasised the importance of the
construct within their respective relationships and clearly identified that congruence
does indeed play a role in disability sport sponsorship relationships. Additional
research contributions were achieved using the CCI continuum, which enabled the
role and importance of congruence to be further distinguished across organisations
involved in the case study. While all relationships were termed ‘sponsorships’, the
variation in motivations and expectations resulted in differing roles of congruence in
philanthropic, socio-sponsorships, and sponsorships with commercial elements.
Overall, findings and recommendations will aid disability sport sponsees to
attract and maintain corporate support. Similarly, outcomes provide sponsorship
managers with a greater ability to efficiently select and manage disability sport
sponsees in alignment with respective sponsorship strategies and objectives.
However, the need for these relationships to establish measures for both congruence
and overall sponsorship is pivotal due to the severe scrutiny placed upon sport
sponsorships in the current era of financial uncertainty.
101
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: MACRO AND MICRO DIMENSIONS OF CONGRUENCE
Macro-
Dimensions Micro-Dimensions Definition Example Author Additional Authors
Logical Connection There is a logical connection between
the sponsor and sponsee. It is logical that Ripcurl sponsor surfing.
Olson, 2010; Olson & Thjømøe, 2011; Simmons & Becker-Olsen, 2006; Speed & Thompson, 2000
Stand for Similar Things The sponsor and sponsee stand for
similar things.
The Australian Olympic Committee and the Australian Sports Commission both stand for delivering sporting excellence.
Makes Sense It makes sense that the sponsee is sponsored by the sponsor.
It makes sense that the Australian Wallabies are sponsored by Qantas.
Expectancy
“The degree to which an item or information falls into a pre-determined schema or a structure evoked by the theme” (Fleck & Quester. 2007, pg. 976).
It was predictable that Shell sponsored the Formula 1 racing.
Fleck & Quester, 2007
Similar to 'time duration' found in Olson & Thjømøe (2011)
Relevancy
“The degree to which the information contained in the stimulus favours (or hinders) the identification of the theme or message being communicated” (Fleck & Quester, 2007, pg. 976).
That Speedo sponsors Swimming Australia tells me something about the company.
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Macro-Dimensions Micro-Dimensions Definition Example Author Additional Authors
Prominence
Visibility of Relationship
The extent to which the promotion prominently features support for the sponsee.
A small ribbon in the corner of the ad vs. a large ribbon in the middle of the ad.
Zdravkovic et al., 2010
Relationship Explicitness
The extent to which the nature of the partnership (degree of support) is spelled out to consumers in the ad.
Mount Franklin will donate $290,000 to McGrath Foundation.
Zdravkovic et al., 2010
Local Attributes The extent to which the sponsee is affiliated with the local market.
Local IGA supporting local sporting club.
Zdravkovic et al., 2010
Active Involvement The extent to which support of the sponsee is determined by the actions of the consumer.
Yoplait yogurt “Save lids to save lives” campaign.
Zdravkovic et al., 2010
Visual/Colour
The extent to which the visual presentation and colours of the sponsor and the sponsee overlap with each other.
M&M using pink candies and packaging marked with pink ribbons when supporting McGrath Foundation.
Zdravkovic et al., 2010
Marketing Strategy
Target market or audience similarity
The extent to which the sponsor’s and the sponsee’s target markets overlap.
Gatorade and the Australian Institute of Sport (both targeting active individuals).
Olson & Thjømøe, 2011; Zdravkovic et al., 2010
Similar to suggestions by Cornwell et al. (2006), Howard & Crompton (2004)
Promotional activities
The extent to which the sponsor’s promotional activities also encourage support for the sponsee.
Asics promoting Melbourne Marathon (Melbourne marathon event supports two different charities).
Zdravkovic et al., 2010
Geographical The extent to which the sponsor and the sponsee have ties to the same geographic area.
Metlink sponsoring Melbourne Heart Football Club.
Olson & Thjømøe, 2011; Zdravkovic et al., 2010
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Marketing Strategy
Micro-Dimensions Definition Example Author Additional Authors
Slogan The extent to which the promotional slogan simultaneously supports the sponsor and the sponsee.
“Support the girls” – slogan by bra company supporting a female fun run.
Zdravkovic et al., 2010
Mission The extent to which the overall mission of the sponsor is aligned with the mission of the sponsee.
Lean Cuisine and Dieticians of Australia both have healthy living as their mission.
Zdravkovic et al., 2010
Prominence of Sponsor and Sponsee
Organisation Size
The sponsee and sponsor are both prominent or not prominent.
McDonalds and the International Olympic Committee are international companies found all around the world.
Olson & Thjømøe, 2011
Similar to prominence heuristic tested by Johar & Pham (1999)
Organisation Importance
Rolex and Golf can have far more market influence than their market share would suggest due to aspects such as status or innovation.
Olson & Thjømøe, 2011
Functional (use of sponsor product by participants)
Use of sponsor’s products during a game either directly or indirectly.
Athletes’ use of athletic shoes or sports drink during the event. Gwinner, 1997;
Gwinner & Eaton, 1999; Howard & Crompton, 2004; Olson & Thjømøe, 2011
Similar to 'natural fit' found in Simmons & Becker-Olsen (2002) and 'direct' product relevance found in McDaniel (1991)
Functional (use by sponsor product by audience)
Use of sponsor’s products during a game either directly or indirectly.
Spectators drinking beer while watching game.
Macro-Dimensions
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Macro-Dimensions Micro-Dimensions Definition Example Author Additional Authors
Image
Similar meaning or image of both the sponsor and sponsee; “perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory... An image link may be formed through brand/product experiences, brand/product attributes, price information, positioning in promotional communications, packaging, user imagery, or usage occasion” (Keller, 1993, p. 3-4).
Pal dog foods and the Humane Society.
Gwinner, 1997; Gwinner & Eaton, 1999; Howard & Crompton, 2004; Olson & Thjømøe, 2011; Speed & Thompson, 2000
Same as 'indirect' product relevance found in McDaniel (1991)
Time Duration of Sponsorship
Duration of the actual sponsorship relationship.
Unhealthy' beer brands fit well with 'healthy' sports because of their long time sponsorship link with the object.
Olson & Thjømøe, 2011
Similar to 'expectancy' found in Fleck & Quester (2007)
Portfolio Relatedness
Categorical relatedness between sponsorships within a sponsor's portfolio.
Inclusion of sponsees across sport, music, arts, indigenous, and disability.
Chien et al. (2011)
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APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW GUIDE
STAGE ONE –PROFILE AND BACKGROUND (APPROX 5-10 MINS) Introduction Introduce study, reinforce confidentiality, brief overview of interview. Participant profile Position, title, length of time working in current position. Participant background Brief overview of how participant came to be working in current position.
STAGE TWO – BROAD INITIAL QUESTIONS (APPROX 10-20 MINS) Role of sponsorship within organisation What role does sponsorship play at your organisation? OR How do you perceive the sponsorship culture at your organisation? In your opinion, what differentiates sponsorship from other marketing tools? Can you specifically relate this to the sponsee? Sponsorship management approach What is your approach to the management of sponsorship relationships? Can you please describe your organisation’s relationship with the sponsee? Word Association Tool What are five words you would use to describe your organisation? Why have you chosen these specific words? What are five words you would use to describe the sponsee? Why have you chosen these specific words?
STAGE THREE – CONGRUENCE WITHIN SPONSORSHIP MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK (APPROX 20-30 MINS)
Sponsorship selection and associated reasons In your perspective, what were the motivators for entering into a sponsorship relationship with the sponsee? Why did you select the particular sponsee? [Completion of short ranking tool one by participant] In your perspective, what objectives do you look to achieve as a result of the sponsorship relationship with the sponsee? [Completion of short ranking tool two by participant] Do you leverage the sponsorship relationship in any way? Is there any evaluation techniques used to determine the effectiveness of the sponsorship relationship? Why or why not? Is this an important part of your approach to sponsorship management?
STAGE FOUR – IMPINGEMENT FACTORS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS (APPROX 15-20 MINS)
Impingement factors Are there any factors that impinge or impede your relationship with the sponsee? Future directions In what direction do you feel the sponsorship relationship will head in the future? Other comments Is there anything else you feel would add value to this conversation? If congruence has not been mentioned, prompt with: Do you feel fit plays a role within the sponsorship relationship with the sponsee? [Completion of short ranking tool three by participant] Thank participant for time and contributions; welcome opportunity for participant to receive an overview of the research findings.
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APPENDIX C: SAMPLE LETTER OF INTRODUCTION
<Date> Dear <Name>, RE: Honours Research Project – An exploratory case study on congruence in disability
sport sponsorship relationships. I am an Honours student in the Sport Management Program at Deakin University and the above issue is the basis of my research thesis. I am particularly interested in understanding disability sport properties including sponsors approaches to sponsorship management. My research will involve a series of interviews with sponsorship decision makers involved in disability sport sponsorship relationships. As such, I invite you to participate in this process. In order to do this, I ask if you could reply to me through the email address found below. We can then arrange a time at your convenience to discuss the research and your potential involvement in more detail. If you were to participate, it would be necessary to conduct an interview for around forty-five to ninety minutes. This will help ensure that expert, relevant opinions are collected in regard to disability sport sponsorships. Specifically, it will be the sponsorship relationship with the sponsee that will be explored and discussed. Confidentiality is assured throughout the research process and is governed by the strict guidelines of Deakin University. This ensures the privacy of individuals, the organisation and any specific details will be maintained in the presentation of any findings. You are also welcome to withdraw from the process at any stage at which time all data collected as part of your participation will be removed from the research study. I hope my findings will make a contribution to forming a view of the important role played by disability sport sponsorships and create an understanding of these critical partnerships found within Australian society. During and at the conclusion of the project, I welcome the opportunity to present you with a copy of my final findings. I thank you for your time so far. I will follow up with you by phone in approximately a week to ensure that you have received the invitation to participate in the study and discuss your potential involvement. Yours sincerely, <Signed> Hannah Macdougall Honours Student Bowater School of Management and Marketing Deakin University 221 Burwood Highway Burwood, VIC [email protected] Supervisors Details Dr Sheila Nguyen Lecturer Deakin University [email protected]
Adam Karg Lecturer Deakin University [email protected]
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APPENDIX D: SPONSORSHIP PROFILES
Sponsor Type of Sponsorship
Sponsee Sponsor Business Size*
Title of Interviewee
Length of Relationship
Contract and Term
Continuous
Sponsor 1
Product then financial
Organisation Small Manager: Business Dev. & Marketing
In 7th year Formal, written 3 year agreement
Yes
Sponsor 2
Financial Organisation Large Marketing Manager
In 5th year Formal, written, annual agreement
Yes
Sponsor 3
Financial Individual Large Strategy Manager
1 year Formal, written, annual agreement
No – acquisition of company
Sponsor 4
Financial Organisation Large National Sponsorship Manager
8 years Formal, written agreement
No – athlete retirement
Sponsor 5
Financial Organisation Medium Director In 4th year Formal, written, annual agreement
Yes
Sponsor 6
Financial Organisation Large Executive Manager
In 2nd year Formal, written, annual agreement
Yes
Sponsor 7
Service Individual Large Brand Manager
In 3rd year Agreement as part of a wider sponsorship
Yes
Sponsor 8
Financial Individual Small/Medium Managing Director
4 years Initial written agreement, progressed to email agreement
No – company downsizing, possibility of athlete retirement
Sponsor 9
Product Individual Medium Marketing Manager
In 1st year Formal, written annual agreement
Yes
Sponsor 10
Product Individual Large Marketing Manager
In 3rd year Handshake agreement
Yes
* Based on ABS (2002) classification where Small < 20 people; 20 < Medium < 200; Large > 200 people
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APPENDIX E: PLAIN LANGUAGE STATEMENT
DEAKIN UNIVERSITY PLAIN LANGUAGE STATEMENT TO:
Plain Language Statement
Date:
Full Project Title: ‘Game, set, match’. An exploratory case study on congruence in disability sport sponsorship relationships.
Principle Researchers: Dr Sheila Nguyen and Adam Karg
Student Researcher: Hannah Macdougall
You are invited to take part in this research project. Participation in any research project is voluntary. If you do not wish to take part you are not obliged to. Deciding not to participate will not affect your relationship to the researchers or to Deakin University. Once you have read this form and agree to participate, please sign the attached consent form. You may keep this copy of the Plain Language Statement. The purpose of this research is to explore how disability sport sponsorships are managed. Specifically, the research seeks to gain insight into the potential role of congruence between disability sporting properties and the respective sponsors. The collated views of participants will be published in an honours thesis, journal papers and academic journals. No individual will be able to be identified in any publication. The possible benefits of the study include developing further understanding of sponsorship management within disability sporting organisations. With your consent, your participation in the project will involve an interview of approximately 45 to 90 minutes. You may of course decide to stop the interview at any point. You may also ask up to the time of publication that any information collected at your interview be destroyed and not used for the research. The following are two example interview questions that may be asked within the interview: 1: What role does sponsorship play in your organisation? 2: Please explain to me how the sponsorship relationship is managed? We wish to voice record the interview and take handwritten notes. If you do not wish this to occur, we will only take handwritten notes of the interview. All data will be stored securely for a period of a minimum of six years after final publication. It will then be destroyed.
127
Once the research project is completed your organisation will be provided the opportunity to receive a copy of the honours thesis resulting from the study or an overview of the findings (with an option to receive further publications if you wish). Approval to undertake this research project has been given by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Deakin University. If you have any complaints about any aspect of the project, the way it is being conducted or any questions about your rights as a research participant, then you may contact: The Manager, Office of Research Integrity, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood Victoria 3125, Telephone: 9251 7129, Facsimile: 9244 6581; [email protected] If you require further information or if you have any problems concerning this project, you can contact either of the principal researchers. The researchers responsible for this project are:
Student Researcher: Hannah Macdougall Honours student Deakin University [email protected] Co-Supervisor: Dr Sheila Nguyen Lecturer Deakin University [email protected]
Co-Supervisor: Adam Karg Lecturer Deakin University [email protected]
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APPENDIX F: PART A - CONSENT FORM
DEAKIN UNIVERSITY INDIVIDUAL CONSENT FORM TO:
Consent Form - Individual
Date:
Full Project Title: ‘Game, set, match’. An exploratory case study on congruence in disability sport sponsorship relationships.
I have read and understand the attached Plain Language Statement.
I freely agree to participate in this project according to the conditions in the Plain Language Statement.
I give my permission for the interview to be audio taped.
I have been given a copy of the Plain Language Statement and Consent Form to keep.
The researcher has agreed not to reveal my identity and personal details, including when information about this project is published, or presented in any public form.
Participant’s Name (printed) …………………………………………………………………
Signature ……………………………………………………… Date …………
Researchers Details Hannah Macdougall Honours Student Deakin University [email protected]
Dr Sheila Nguyen Lecturer Deakin University
Adam Karg Lecturer Deakin University [email protected]
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PART B - REVOCATION OF CONSENT FORM
DEAKIN UNIVERSITY REVOCATION OF CONSENT FORM TO:
Revocation of Consent Form
(To be used for participants who wish to withdraw from the project)
Date:
Full Project Title: ‘Game, set, match’. An exploratory case study on congruence in disability sport sponsorship relationships.
I hereby wish to WITHDRAW my consent to participate in the above research project and understand that such withdrawal WILL NOT jeopardise my relationship with Deakin University. Participant’s Name (printed) ……………………………………………………. Signature ……………………………………………. Date …………………… Please mail this form to: Adam Karg School of Management and Marketing, Deakin University 221 Burwood Highway Burwood VIC 3125 +61 3 924 46934 [email protected]
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APPENDIX G: COPY OF BLANK PROMO FORMA TEMPLATE
THE ROLE OF CONGRUENCE
Does it play a role? What is the importance of the role? How does it play a role? Has the role changed over time? Specific terminology used by sponsor:
OVERALL, MACRO AND MICRO CONGRUENCE
Use by sponsee Use by audience Organisation size Organisation importance Target market Geographical Image Visibility Explicitness Local attributes Visual/colour Explicitness Promotional activities Mission Time duration of sponsorship Portfolio Overall congruence: Logical connection Stand for similar things Makes sense Other (e.g. symbolic):
ADDITIONAL CONGRUENCE INFORMATION
Incongruence / lack of congruence Congruence in able-bodied relationships
CONGRUENCE ACROSS SPONSORSHIP MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK
Strategy and planning Objective setting Selection Implementation Measurement and evaluation
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APPENDIX H: SHORT RANKING TOOL ONE – MOTIVATORS OF THE SPONSORSHIP RELATIONSHIP
Please rate the importance of the motivators below in terms of the sponsorship
relationship with the sponsored sponsee.
(e.g., this motivator played an important role in the sponsorship relationship)
MOTIVATORS (1=not very important, 7=very important
Sponsorship aligns with company strategy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sponsorship aligns with corporate objectives
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Tangible benefits (e.g., increased sales, financial gains, advertising space)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Intangible benefits (e.g., image, awareness, reputation, networks, brand equity, competitive advantage, socially responsible)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Other:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Other:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(Adapted from: Amis et al., 1999; Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriou, 2004; Berrett & Slack, 1999; Farrelly, Quester & Burton, 1997; Irwin & Amisakopoulos, 1992 Seitanidi & Ryan, 2007)
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APPENDIX I: SHORT RANKING TOOL TWO – OBJECTIVES OF THE SPONSORSHIP RELATIONSHIP
Rate the importance of the objectives below in terms of the sponsorship relationship
with the sponsored sponsee
(e.g., this objective played a big role in the sponsorship relationship)
OBJECTIVES (1=not very important, 7=very important
Establish/increase brand awareness 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Improve brand health/perception 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Increase sales/market share 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Communicate with specific target
markets
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Gain media exposure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Engage and motivate employees 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Enhance client relations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Enhance corporate image/leverage
corporate reputation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Community involvement/promote
corporate citizenship
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Other: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Other: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(Adapted from: Copeland et al., 1996; Cordeiro et al., 2005; Cornwell, 1995; Desbordes et al., 2004; Irwin & Asimakopoulos, 1992; Javalgi et al., 1994; Meenaghan, 1983; Seitanidi & Ryan, 2007; Stotlar, 2004)
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APPENDIX J: SHORT RANKING TOOL THREE – ELEMENTS OF SPONSORSHIP RELATIONSHIP
Rate the importance of the elements below in terms of the sponsorship relationship
(e.g., to what extent do you think there was an alignment between the sponsor and
sponsee regarding the following?)
ELEMENT (1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree)
Target Market of sponsor and sponsee 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Image of sponsor and sponsee 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Use of sponsor product / service by
sponsee 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Culture of sponsor and sponsee 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Visibility of sponsor and sponsee 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Geographic locations of sponsor and
sponsee
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Company mission of sponsor and
sponsee 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Promotional activities of sponsor and
sponsee 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Other: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(Adapted from Arthur et al., 1998; Chien et al., 2011; Cordeiro et al., 2005; Cornwell, 1995; Fahy et al., 2004; Gwinner, 1997; Gwinner & Eaton, 1999; Howard & Crompton, 2004; Keller, 1993; Meenaghan, 1983; Olson & Thjømøe, 2011; Speed & Thompson, 2000; Zdravkovic et al., 2010)
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APPENDIX K: NVIVO CODES USED IN DATA ANALYSIS
First Stage Coding
Second Stage Coding
Congruence Existence of congruence in disability sport sponsorship Overall congruence Dimensions of congruence Additional dimensions Incongruence Congruence in able-bodied sponsorship compared with disability sport sponsorships
Sport Sponsorship Management Framework
Sponsee selection and associated reasons Sponsorship strategies Sponsorship objectives Leveraging activities Measurement activities Dissolution of sponsorships
General Findings and Context
Exchange nature of sponsorship The CCI continuum Emotional experience Impingement factors Sponsor champion Unique aspects Other comments or contrasts with other sponsorship relationships
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APPENDIX L: SPONSORSHIP SELECTION - BEGINNINGS AND ASSOCIATED REASONS
Sponsor and Type Sponsor 1 (O + P/F)
Sponsor 2 (O + F)
Sponsor 3 (I + F)
Sponsor 4 (I + F)
Sponsor 5 (O + F)
Sponsor 6 (O + F)
Sponsor 7 (I + S)
Sponsor 8 (I + F)
Sponsor 9 (I + P)
Sponsor 10 (I + P)
Beginnings of Sponsorship Relationship
Approached by sponsee. Resulted in sponsee receiving sponsor product at no cost.
Internal connection prompted logical link with product.
Became aware of sponsee through employee in business.
Sponsorship of Olympic Team resulted in a desire to support Paralympians as well.
Past client, who is now a coach at the sponsee, convinced the sponsor.
Previous sponsor stepped out.
Needed an ambassador for broader sponsorship relationship.
Approached by manager of sponsee.
Came along by chance - sponsee liked product of sponsor.
Sponsee recommended by an existing sponsee.
Reasons
Someone that knew Someone Yes Yes Yes - Yes Yes - - - Yes
Personal Connection with Specific Sport
Yes - - - - Yes - - - -
Understanding of Disabilities
Yes - family involvement. -
Yes - demonstrate understanding of Olympic movement = able bodied & disabled.
Yes - equal opportunity employer / sponsor.
Yes – has seen the power sport has for PWD.
- -
Yes - attended Sydney Paralympics but not Olympics.
- -
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Prominence of Congruence as an Overall, Macro or Micro Dimensional Concept
Greater prominence in reselection - target market, values & goals.
Portfolio & geographical (local attribute).
Values. Overall & philosophy.
Mission & target market.
Mission & philosophy.
Brand congruence.
Local attributes.
Overall & values. Image.
Community Responsibility Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
AWD's / Sponsee inspirational
Yes - Yes Yes Yes - - - - -
Low Cost Yes - - - - Yes - - Yes Yes Ambassador NA NA Yes Yes NA NA Yes - Yes Previous and Favourable Impression of Sponsee
- - - - - Yes Yes - - Yes
Sponsor and Type Sponsor 1 (O + P/F)
Sponsor 2 (O + F)
Sponsor 3 (I + F)
Sponsor 4 (I + F)
Sponsor 5 (O + F)
Sponsor 6 (O + F)
Sponsor 7 (I + S)
Sponsor 8 (I + F)
Sponsor 9 (I + P)
Sponsor 10 (I + P)