Pulse Pressure= Systolic Pressure - Diastolic PressureHeart Rate= Number of heart beats per minuteStroke Volume= Amount of Blood pumped out of the heart in one beat. Also calculated by- End Diastolic Volume - End Systolic VolumeCardiac Output= Amount of Blood pumped out of the heart in one minute. Calculated by Heart Rate x Stroke VolumeMean Arterial Pressure (MAP) = 2/3(Diastolic Pressure) * 1/3(Systolic Pressure)Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) = 2/3(Diastolic Pressure) * (Pulse Pressure)

THE HEART-All about the heart, including chambers, parts of the heart, and blood flow through the heart.

a. Main PARTS OF THE HEART IN ORDER OF BLOOD FLOW(also includes vessels leading in and out of the heart ): Superior Vena Cava/Inferior Vena Cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary artery, pulmonary capillary bed(lungs), pulmonary veins, left atrium, bicuspid(mitrial valve), left ventricle, aortic valve, aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, Superior vena cava/inferior vena cava.-MAIN FUNCTIONS of PARTS OF THE HEARTa. The Atrium. The atrium's function is to transport blood to the ventricles. The right atrium's job is to receive oxygenated lacking blood from the body. The Left Atrium's function is to receive oxygenated blood from the lungs.(NOTE: if you are looking at a diagram of the heart, the right atrium would be on the left side, and the left atrium would be on the right side because you are looking in front of the heart.)b. Ventricles. The ventricles job is to receives blood from the atrium and then pump it to a location. The right ventricle is suppose to pump oxygen lacking blood from the right atrium to the lungs/pulmonary capillary beds to be filled with oxygen, released of carbon dioxide and it is brought back to the heart to the left ventricles, which pump the blood to all parts of the body.c. Valves. The valves in the heart are suppose to stop blood from going into the wrong place at the wrong time. For example, the triscupid's job is to stop blood from the right atrium from going to the right ventricles at the wrong time. Main valves in the heart include the tricuspid valve, the pulmonary valve, the bicuspid valve, and the aortic valve.BLOOD VESSEL All three types, arteries, veins, capillaries, and also arterioles and venules. You will need to know their structure, their functions, and how they are alike and different. There are three layers to all vessels except for capillaries, which have one epithelial cell thick walls to let nutrients and other materials to go through.

a. Arteries and Arterioles. These blood vessels carry blood away from the heart. For the most part, they carry oxygen rich, "red" blood, but there is one exception. The pulmonary arteries carry oxygen poor, "blue" blood away from the heart to the lungs. These vessels have very thick muscle cell layers, since they need to pump the blood. Arteries are the vessels that lead immediately from the heart and other that lead from those. Arterioles are basically very small versions of arteries, with much less muscle cells. They feed to the capillaries.b. Veins and venules. These blood vessels carry blood back to the heart from the rest of the body. For the most part, they carry oxygen poor, "blue" blood, but there is one exception. The pulmonary veins carry oxygen rich, "red" blood back to the heart from the lungs. These vessels have very small muscle layers, and have valves. Venules are very small versions of veins. They directly take blood from the capillaries.c. Capillaries. Capillaries are the smallest types of blood vessels. It is in the capillaries that oxygen exchange and other exchanges of nutrients and wastes take place. It is so because capillaries only have a cell thick wall made of epithelial cells, and materials can easily pass through. Arterioles feed into capillaries and venules take used blood from it.BLOOD Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)- these blood cells are formed in the red bone marrow and are formed in the process of hematopoiesis (or more specifically, erythropoiesis). These cell lack a nucleus and are used to carry oxygen to the cells throughout the body. Each erythrocyte has a life span of about 120 days, and at the end of their life span they are filtered out of the blood in the spleen. Erythrocytes also cannot reproduce. These cells contain hemoglobin- a protein that is used to allow the erythrocyte to carry oxygen.

Platelets (Thrombocytes)- These blood cells are also formed in the red bone marrow and are formed in the process of hematopoiesis. These cells also do not contain a nucleus. These cells are produced from fragmentation of a larger precursor cell- the megakaryocyte. These cells help allow the blood to clot. Therefore this cell is necessary in the process of hemostasis- the process by which bleeding stops.White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)- These blood cells are also formed in the red bone marrow and are formed in the process of hematopoiesis. Leukocytes help aid in the immune system. there are many different kinds of leukocytes, including: lymphocytes, basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils, monocyte, macrophage.

Types of White Blood CellsGranulocytes- Granulocytes are white blood cells that have differently stained granules when viewed under a microscope. Granulocytes are Basophils, Neutrophils, and Eosinophils.Basophils- Basophils are a type of White Blood Cell, and more specifically a granulocyte. It is actually the least common white blood cell in the body. They are thought to be associated with allergies , as they can secrete a substance known as histamine.

Hematopoiesis is the process by which all blood cells (erythrocytes, thrombocytes, and leukocytes) are made. All the blood cells start out as a stem cell. Then the stem cell specializes to eventually become one of the types of blood cells.

Functions

The major functions of the integumentary system are:1. Protection. The integumentary system's main focus is to protect your body from injury and pathogens.

For example, the stratum germinativum repairs minor injuries. Additionally, the skin acts as a barrier to protect from pathogens. Keratin and glycolipids in the skin help waterproof it and the continuity of the skin protects from bacterial invasion. There are also chemical barriers such as skin secretions of sebum, human defensins, and cathelicidins . The acid mantle of the skin causes the skin to have a low pH which slows bacterial growth on the skin's surface. Melanin protects the body from UV damage. Additionally, Langerhans' cells and dermal macrophages are located in the skin and activate the immune system. The structure of DNA in the skin allows its electrons to absorb UV radiation and convert it into heat.

2. Temperature maintenance. The integumentary system also regulates heat exchange with environment and keeps body at an average of 98.6 degrees F or 36.0 degrees C. Sweat, secreted by sudoriferous glands, helps cool the body. Dilation and constriction of blood vessels in the skin also helps to regulate the body temperature.

3. Synthesis and storage of nutrients. Synthesizes Vitamin D3 and stores lipids in adipose (fat) tissue.4. Sensory reception. There are touch, pressure, pain, and temperature receptors in the skin which interact

with the nervous system. Meissner's corpuscles and Merkel disks sense light touch while Pacinian receptors, located deeper in the dermis, detect deep pressure. Hair follicle receptors sense movement of hairs. Nocireceptors and bare nerve endings sense pain. Thermoreceptors sense heat and cold.

5. Excretion and secretion. The skin excretes salt water and organic wastes. In postpubescent females, modified glands called mammary glands secrete milk. Sudoriferous (sweat) glands are identified into two types- apocrine and eccrine. Eccrine sweat glands secrete cooling sweat and apocrine sweat glands secrete during emotional stress or excitement. Ceruminous glands are modified sweat glands that produce ear wax.

6. Protects the body from dehydration.Cutaneous Membrane

EpidermisMade up of stratified squamous epithelium.The thick skin has five layers and is found in the palms of hands and the soles of feet (.5mm-thickness of a paper towel) Up to 6 mm thick. Thick skin has more skin receptors and sudoriferous glands and fewer sebaceous glands. Skin ridges (e.g., fingerprints) are found due to well-developed dermal papillae. Skin ridges aid in grip and object manipulation.The thin skin is found everywhere else and covers the rest of the body(.08mm-thickness of one side of a plastic sandwich bag) Usually 1-2 mm thick. Thin skin has fewer skin receptors and sudoriferous glands and more sebaceous glands.The epidermis is organized into strata (singular stratum) or layers. From the basement membrane to the surface, they are the stratum germinativum (or the stratum basale), the stratum spinosum, the stratum granulosum, the stratum lucidum (found in thick skin, only), and the stratum corneum.Stratum GerminativumStratum germinativum is the deepest epidermal layer. It can also be called stratum basale.The stratum germinativum is also known as the "growing layer of the skin" or the "base of it" (hence its other name, stratum basale).It is attached by hemidesmosomes, which are special disc-shaped proteins, to the basement membrane, which is a network of protein fibers separating the epidermis from the dermis below.The Stratum Germinativum, as pictured above, descends into the dermis in what are called Epidermal ridges. The areas where the dermis projects upward are called "'dermal papillae'". These are required because there are no blood vessels in the epidermis, so all nutrients must be obtained through diffusion from the dermis.These ridges are what cause the elaborate patterns in the epidermis of areas with thick skin, such as fingertips.In this layer, there are

-germinative cells, which are large stem cells that replace shed cells in the surface.-melanocytes, which are the cells that produce melanin, a brownish-yellow pigment. These melanocytes have processes which extend throughout this layer in order to distribute the melanin.-nervous receptors, which provide information about the outside world to the brain.

Stratum SpinosumAfter the germinative cells divide, the daughter cells progress to the Stratum Spinosum. Here the cells divide rapidly.

Stratum GranulosumAfter the cells cease mitosis, they progress to the stratum granulosum, where they begin to produce large amounts of the protein "'keratin'", which is both flexible and durable. This protein also makes up our hair and nails.Stratum LucidumThis layer is found only in thick skin like the palms and soles of feet. It consists of flattened, densely packed cells that are filled with keratin (3-5 layers).Stratum CorneumAfter the cells of the stratum granulosum or of the stratum lucidum die, which is a total of around 2-4 weeks after they are born in the stratum germinativum, they are pushed up to the most superficial layer, the stratum corneum. This consists of 15-30 layers of densely packed, flattened dead cells that have accrued large amounts of keratin. They are considered keratinized or cornified cells. This is useful because keratin is very strong, and it protects the deeper and more vulnerable dermis. They are very tightly attached to each other by desmosomes, which are special proteins that join two cells and are very difficult to break. These desmosomes are why one's skin peels off in sheets after a bad sunburn instead of in individual cells.Cells usually spend an extra two weeks in the stratum corneum before finally sloughing off to be replaced by the layer beneath them.

Keratin is coiled like a rope which is what makes it so strongSkin ColorPigmentationPigmentation is one of the two major methods of skin colorationThere are two major pigments which can influence skin color: carotene, which is orangey yellow and found in carrots and squashes, and melanin, which is brown, yellow brown, or black and produced by melanocytes. Two types of melanin are eumelanin and pheomelanin. Eumelanin is brownish-black and pheomelanin is reddish-yellow. The number of melanocytes are about the same for all races, and in albinism, melanocytes are present but experience interference with melanin production.Carotene can be synthesized into Vitamin A, which is needed for the maintenance of epithelial cells. Eating large amounts of carotene can also cause the skin of light-skinned individuals to turn orange.Melanin is transferred into the stratum germinativum and stratum spinosum by intracellular vesicles arising from melanocytes. Melanocytes are typically in a 1:20-1:4 ratio with basal stem cells depending on the area. Because cells rise through the strata, this colors the entire epidermis. When exposed to sunlight, melanocytes will gradually increase their production of melanin with the maximum occurring about 10 days after the initial exposure. Freckles appear due to increased melanocyte activity in an area. They occur mostly on surfaces exposed it the sun, such as the face.UV radiation, while beneficial in small amounts to the synthesis of Vitamin D3, can cause serious damage in large doses. Melanin protects the body by absorbing the UV rays, and it clusters around the nuclei of epidermal cells to protect the DNA. Unfortunately, melanin cannot protect us from 100% of the UV light and some is bound to get through. Long periods of exposure can cause premature wrinkling and skin cancer even in dark-skinned individuals. A minimum of SPF 15 is recommended in sunscreen, and for fair skinned individuals, it is better to have a 20-30 SPF sunscreen.Dermal CirculationThe other major method of skin coloration is dermal circulation.In times of vasoconstriction, such as fright, the skin will pale and in some cases turn blue. If the skin turns blue, it is called cyanosis.In times of vasodilation, such as embarrassment, the skin will turn red.Vitamin D3 SynthesisOne of the main functions of the integumentary system is the synthesis of Vitamin D3 from a cholesterol-based steroid, which is required for the uptake of calcium into our bones. This function is carried out by the two deepest layers, the stratum germinativum and the stratum spinosum. A low amount of UV radiation is required for this process.The DermisThe dermis, which is beneath the Epidermis, consists of two layers. Collagen fibers make up 70% of the dermis and give structural toughness and strength. From most superficial to deepest, they are the papillary layer and the reticular layer.Papillary LayerThe papillary layer is named after the dermal papillae. It is a very loose connective tissue whose purpose is to supply the epidermis with nutrients. It is filled with capillaries and nerves to reach this end.Reticular LayerThe reticular layer is made up of very dense irregular connective tissue. It is filled with densely packed elastin fibers, which give the skin its elasticity. This layer is also filled with collagen fibers, which resist that elasticity, in order to keep the skin rigid. One of the major causes of wrinkles is the degradation of collagen fibers due to UV light.Nails

Nails are made of tightly packed keratin. The nails help us grip things with our fingers.The main parts of the nail are the hyponychium, eponychium (the cuticle), nail matrix, lunula, nail plate, nail root, free margin, and the paronychium. Glands

The two main types of glands in the integumentary system are sebaceous glands, which produce oil, and sudoriferous glands, which produce sweat. There are more sebaceous glands and less sudoriferous glands in thin skin. In thick skin there are more sudoriferous glands and less sebaceous glands. Acne is caused by the inflammation of sebaceous (oil producing) gland ducts.Sebaceous GlandsSebaceous glands secrete sebum, an oily substance which lubricates hair and skin. Sebaceous glands are present everywhere except for areas with thick skin, i.e. the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Sebaceous glands are located in the dermis layer, and are generally connected to hair follicles, except for in hairless areas such as the eyelids.Sudoriferous GlandsSudoriferous glands typically secrete sweat. Sudoriferous glands are found anywhere on the body without thick skin. There are two types of sudoriferous glands: apocrine and eccrine.Apocrine GlandsApocrine glands develop during puberty. These glands are located in the ear canal, around the eyes and nose, under the arms, on the areola of the breasts, and in the pubic regions. Mammary (milk) glands are one type of modified apocrine gland. Earwax, or cerumen, is secreted by ceruminous glands, the other type of modified apocrine gland. The appearance of cerumen can differ depnding on genetic factors. Typical apocrine glands secrete sweat.Eccrine GlandsEccrine glands are found everywhere without thick skin. Eccrine glands are present at birth and continue to secrete sweat from then on. The sweat secretion produced by eccrine glands is made of water and sodium chloride.Diseases of the Integument

BurnsBurns are disorders of the integument caused by exposure to intense heat, radiation, electricity, or friction. Burn appearance and treatment varies greatly depending on how deeply the skin was burned. Burns are classified into degrees.First Degree BurnsThese burns are the most superficial. First degree burns affect the epidermis to the papillary layer of the dermis. First degree burns give the skin a dry red appearance, sometimes with small white blisters.Second Degree BurnsThese burns destroy most or all of the epidermis, and involve all layers of the dermis. Second degree burns are pink or red, and cause the involved skin to look shiny and wet. The sensation in tissue with a second-degree burn is weakened.Third Degree BurnsThese burns involve all of the layers of the skin. Third-degree burns permanently damage tissue. These burns have a charred black or brown appearance. The tissue involved in a third degree burn often must be amputated.Allergies and AllergensAn allergen is an antigen which produces a rapid response from the immune system when introduced to the skin.InfectionsAn infection is an invasion of dermal tissue by disease-causing agents.Skin CancerSkin cancer is the most common type of cancer in the US. The three major types of skin cancer are basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma. Skin cancer occurs when DNA of epithelial cells is damages, causing the cells to grow out of control. The most common cause of skin cancer is excessive exposure to sunlight.Basal Cell CarcinomaBasal cell carcinoma is the most common type of skin cancer. It is curable if found early, especially because it rarely metastasizes (spreads to other organs). BCCs look like smooth, pearly bumps which are mostly found on the face, neck, and back.

Squamous Cell CarcinomaSquamous cell carcinoma occurs on parts exposed to the sun. SCC often develops on areas with actinic keratoses, which are crusty red sores caused by UV exposure. SCC looks like firm red bumps susceptible to bleeding and crusting.MelanomaMelanoma is deadly if not found early because it metastasizes quickly. It is most common in the southern hemisphere where the ozone layer is thin. Melanoma looks like irregular dark spots with a different appearance than a patient's moles.ABCD TestYou can separate skin cancer with other skin disorders by using the ABCD of skin cancers.Asymmetry- the area is not symmetricalBorders- the borders are not evenColor- different shades and varieties can signal skin cancerDiameter- if the diameter is larger than 1/4 inch or 6 mm, it is likely it is melanoma.There are 3 levels of the immune system. The first two are nonspecific (or innate), meaning they defend against all kinds of pathogens. The third is specific (or adaptive, or acquired), because it identifies and targets certain pathogens.First Line of DefenseThe first line of defense is made up primarily of the skin, mucous membranes, and their secretions. They protect against external pathogens from entering the body. Here are some examples.

The skin is a physical barrier made of dead cells. It secretes oily and acidic secretions from sweat glands,

which inhibit bacterial growth.

Sebum (unsaturated fatty acids) provides a protective film on the skin and inhibits growth

Secretions from mucous membranes (saliva, tears, sweat, etc.) contain antimicrobial proteins such

as lysozyme, which breaks down bacterial cell walls.

Vibrissae (nose hair) filters microbes, dust, and pollutants within air.

Cilia that line the lungs traps and moves foreign substances out from the lungs towards the throat with a

sweeping motion.

Gastric juice, which is highly acidic, kills microbes in the stomach.

Symbiotic bacteria in the digestive tract and vagina out-compete other potentially harmful organisms.

Urine flushes microbes from the urethra.

Defecation and vomiting also expel microorganisms.

Second Line of DefenseThe second line of defense deals with pathogens that have entered the body. It involves several nonspecific mechanisms.

Phagocytes are white blood cells (leukocytes) which engulf pathogens by extending pseudopods to

surround it. This process is called phagocytosis. Leukocytes are formed in stem cells in bone marrow through the process of hematopoiesis (this term refers to all blood cells).

o Macrophages are larger, long-living versions of monocytes. Monocytes circulate through the

blood stream, and are known as macrophages when they mature. Macrophages move throughout blood, lymph, and body tissues. They are specialized in the removal of dying or dead cells and cellular debris as well as pathogens. Macrophages also play an important role in chronic inflammation.

o Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell. They are normally present in the

blood stream, but quickly enter tissues to phagocytize pathogens, primarily bacteria, in acute inflammation. They respond within minutes to the site of injury.

o MAST Cells also secrete histamine, as well as seratonin. They help cause inflammation and

respond to wound injuries.

o Dendritic Cells are the messengers between the innate and adaptive immune systems.

Dendritic cells acquire and present antigens to lymphocytes to activate them.

Basophils and Eosinophils are also white blood cells, but are not phagocytes. Basophils secrete

chemicals such as histamine. Histamine triggers vasodilation, causing more phagocytes to be brought into the area. Histamine is also known as being responsible for the symptoms of allergies and the common cold. Eosinophils are short-lived and have a wide range of functions, including attacking parasites and helping with allergic responses. The proteins they make can be harmful to the body's own tissues as well as pathogens.

Natural Killer Cells (NK cells) attack abnormal or pathogen-infected body cells, such as tumors, by

releasing toxic granules to kill the cells.

The Complement System is a group of about 30 proteins which assist defense reactions. They help by

enhancing the process of phagocytosis, attracting phagocytes to foreign cells, and promoting cell lysis. They are generally synthesized by the liver.

Interferons are secreted by cells invaded by a virus. They stimulate neighboring cells to produce

proteins that will help defend against the viruses.

Chemokines guide the movement of cells. Cells respond to certain chemokines by moving towards

areas of higher concentrations of chemokines. In the immune system, they create a chemical gradient to attract neutrophils and other leucocytes to the wound site.

Fevers are an increase in body temperature. Substances that induce fevers are called pyrogens. The

increased temperature inhibits bacterial growth and increases the rate of tissue repair during an infection. It may also help certain types of immune cells function more efficiently.

The Inflammatory ResponseThe inflammatory response is the biological response to harmful stimuli, such as burns, chemical irritants, frostbite, physical injury, or pathogen infection. (Given this is the Immune System page, this section will focus on the inflammatory response to pathogen infection.) It is characterized by swelling, pain, redness, warmth, and dysfunction of organs involved (tumor, dolor, rubor, calor, and functio laesa, respectively). Its purpose is to increase blood supply to the area to bring nutrients, proteins, and white blood cells to the affected tissues. Note that the epithelium and the capillaries are separated by interstitial fluid rather than being located right next to each other. In the example a splinter, the following events occur as part of the inflammatory response:

1. Damaged cells release chemokines.

2. MAST cells, responding to chemokines, direct contact with the splinter, or bacteria,

release histamine.

3. Histamine causes capillary endothelial cells to enlargen and move outwards, creating a swell in the

capillary which encourages fluid collection. The capillary walls also become more porous. This process is called vasodilation. Vasodilation causes redness, temperature increase and swelling. The increase in temperature causes an increased metabolic rate in cells. Activated capillary endothelial cells also display adhesion molecules called selectins on the inner capillary surface.

4. Phagocytes, namely neutrophils, are attraccted to, slowed down by, and roll along the wall due to the

selectins. Chemicals in the bloodstream activate integrins, adhesion receptors on neutrophils. The integrins then bind to adhesion receptor molecules on the capillary endothelial cell surfaces. The accumulation and adhesion of leukocytes to the blood vessel walls is calledmargination or pavementing.

5. Leukocytes squeeze through openings in the capillary walls (extravasation, emigration, or more

specifically diapedesis). Exudation, or the entering of fluid from the bloodstream into the interstitial fluid, also occurs. This fluid, mainly plasma, contains proteins and antibodies. Fluid buildup due to exudation is called an edema and is visible as a swelling (tumor). The plasma also help activate the complement, kinin (generates proteins that sustain physical inflammatory effects, namely vasodilation), coagulation (clotting), and fibrinolysis (counter-balances the coagulation effect) systems.

6. Neutrophils and other phagocytes attack invading bacteria that have entered due to the

splinter. Complement helps phagocytes engulf foreign cells, and stimulates additional histamine secretion by basophils.

The inflammatory response (and the immune system in general) often consists of reactions to certain stimuli which in turn cause more reactions. Signaling pathways like this can be referred to asbiochemical cascades.The Immune ResponseThe Immune response is the third line of defense. It is a specific defense system, meaning it targets specific antigens. Antigens are molecules, usually proteins or polysaccharides, that are identified as foreign to the body. These molecules could be toxins, part of a viral protein cote, or molecules unique to certain bacteria, protozoa, pollen, or other foreign cells.MHCThe major histocompatibility complex, or MHC, is the mechanism the immune system uses to differentiate between self and foreign cells. It is a collection of glycoproteins that exist on all body cell membranes. Each individual has a highly unique (but not always, especially in the case of identical twins) set of MHC molecules.Lymphocytes and their ComponentsLymphocytes are white blood cells that concentrate in lymphatic tissues such as the lymph nodes, thymus gland, and the spleen. They are the primary agents of the immune response.

B cells originate and mature in bone marrow (think: "B" for bone). They respond to antigens using

specialized proteins called antibodies on their plasma membrane surface.

o Plasma cells: release speciic antibodies which circulate through the body, binding to antigens

o Memory cells: long-living B cells that do not release antibodies but circulate through the body

and respond to subsequent invasions. Memory B cells provide immunity, as their response is much more quick and powerful than the first occurrence.

The antibodies, or immunoglobulins of B cells are antigen receptors only to a particular antigen.

Antibodies inactivate antigens by binding to them, stimulating complement proteins to promote macrophage phagocytosis. There are 5 classes of antibodies, each a variation of the basic Y-shaped protein with variable regions which give them specificity to antigens. The 5 classes are as follows:

o IgA: second most common, major class of Ig in secretions like mucus

o IgD: not very common, mainly found on B cell surfaces

o IgE: least common, involved in allergic reactions, helpful in diagnosing parasites

o IgG: most common and versatile, only class transferred across placenta, is

an opsonin (enhances phagocytosis)

o IgM: third most common, first made by fetus, good at clumping microorganisms in preparation

for excretions

T cells originate in the bone marrow but mature in the thymus gland (think: "T" for thymus). They have

antigen receptors which are not antibodies but recognition sites for molecules displayed by nonself cells. Nonself cells, such as invaded body cells, cancer cells and tissue transplant cells, display different markers than self cells. When T cells encounter a nonself cell, they divide and produce two kinds of cells:

o Cytotoxic T cells or killer T cells destroys nonself cells by causing them to lyse.

o Helper T cells stimulate proliferation of B cells and cytotoxic T cells.

Clonal SelectionWhen an antigen binds to a B cell or a nonself cell binds to a T cell, the B or T cell divides to produce many identical copies. This results in an increased number of the B or T cell that can respond to the specific antigen.Cell-Mediated ResponseThe cell-mediated response occurs as a response to nonself cells, and involves mainly T cells.

1. In a celluar infection, antigens are broken down by the cell and presented at the cell surface by class I

MHC proteins.

2. T cells bind to the MHC detect antigens and undergo clonal selection, initiating the production of

cytoxic T cells and helper T cells.

3. Helper T cells bind to macrophages which are displaying marker combinations which signal with marks

that they have engulfed a pathogen.

4. Helper T cells produce interleukins, communication chemicals, to stimulate T cell and B cell

proliferation. This initiates a posive-feedback cycle, increasing the concentratin of leukocytes in the rea.

Humoral ResponseThe humoral response, or antibody-mediated response occurs as a response to antigens or pathogens circulating in the blood or lymph.

1. An antigen is engulfed by a phagocyte. It displays the antigen on its surface using a class II MHC

protein.

1. B cells recognize the antigen and produce plasma cells, which release antibodies that bind with

antigens or antigen-carrying pathogens.

2. B cells produce memory cells, providing future immunity.

3. Macrophages and helper T cells stimulate B cell production through cell-mediated response.

The Lymph System

The lymph system assists the immune system and may be also be considered part of the circulatory system, particularly because of its work with lymphocytes. Its main purpose is to transport white blood cells and remove interstitial fluid. It consists of a network of lymphatic vessels, nodes and organs.

The spleen filters and stores blood. It is located above the left kidney and commonly purple and fist-

shaped. The spleen also stores white blood cells and platelets, recycles red blood cells, and fights some types of bacteria, including meningitis and pneumonia.

The thymus stores immature lymphocytes and is the site of T cell maturation. It is located at the

sternum.

The tonsils are part of the body's first line of defense, and also help produce T cells. However, they do

not have a significant function and are often removed due to inflammation. They are located in the pharynx.

Lymph Nodes are oval-shaped filters placed throughout the lymphatic vessels.

A fluid called lymph circulates the lymphatic system. It is derived from interstitial fluid and carries

bacteria to the lymph nodes, where they are destroyed by leukocytes. The lymph also transports fats coming from the organs in the digestive system. Its name comes from the Roman deity of freshwater, Lympha.

Disorders

'Asthma'Asthma is a chronic long term disease that effects your airways. It is a lung disease that causes your airways to swell up narrowing it (inflammation). It effects people of all ages and can cause wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath, and coughing. Coughing usually happens early in the morning or at night. When the airways are swollen there is less space for air to pass through causing moderate or extreme discomfort. Usually the inflammation of the airways are cause from certain inhaled substances. When the airways react to the substance, the muscles tighten. Cells in the airways may make more mucus than usual. Asthma symptoms may be mild and treatable with an inhaler or other asthma medicines. These symptoms should be treated immediately to prevent them from worsening and becoming an asthma. These symptoms will go away after using asthma medicine. Sometimes extreme inflammation of the airways may happen. This is called an Asthma attack or a flareup or an exacerbation (eg-zas-er-BA-shun). Asthma attacks may require medical attention and support. The disease has no cure and you live with it. Thanks to today's medical technology, people can live a happy, active, and normal life even if they have asthma.Ataxia telangiectasia Autoimmune polyglandular syndromeBurkitt lymphomaDiabetes, type 1 DiGeorge syndrome Familial Mediterranean fever Immunodeficiency with hyper-IgM Leukemia, chronic myeloidSevere combined immunodeficiencyOrgan Transplants and Rejection

The immune system may reject an organ from a donor if the organ does not match your body exactly. Antirejection medicines (immunosuppressants) may be used, but they can weaken the immune system.There are three types of organ rejection; hyperacute, acute, and chronic.

o Hyperacute rejection occurs a few minutes after the transplant when the antigens are

completely unmatched. The tissue must be removed right away so the recipient does not die. This type of rejection is seen when a recipient is given the wrong type of blood. For example, a person given type A blood when he or she is type B.

o Acute rejection may occur any time from the first week after the transplant to 3 months

afterward. All recipients have some amount of acute rejection.

o Chronic rejection can take place over many years. The body's constant immune response against

the new organ slowly damages the transplanted tissues or organ.

Disease Name

Cause Symptoms Treatment Prevention Effect on the Body

Atherosclerosis/

Arteriosclerosis

Smoking, High Blood Cholesterol, Hypertension, Build up of plaque in the arteries

Normally asymptomatic, if in the coronary arteries- angina, shortness of breath, arrhythmia

Lifestyle changes- quit smoking, eat healthier, exercise, lose weight, reduce stress. Angioplasty, Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting

Control risk factors, know family history of atherosclerosis

Hardening of arteries due to the build up of plaque in the arteries

Hypertension

Risk factors, age, medical problems, bad diet, obesity, gender, smoking

Usually asymptomatic, headaches if serious, people learn after complications start

Lifestyle changes, Medicines- diuretics, beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, Alpha blockers

Control risk factors, medicines

High blood pressure, damage to internal organs

High Blood Cholesterol

Diet, weight, activity, heredity, age/sex

Asymptomatic

Control risk factors/ make lifestyle changes, medications- statins, bile acid sequestrants, fibrates

Control Risk factors

Too much cholesterol in blood. Cholesterol is in plaque. Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) is the "bad" cholesterol, and High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) is the "good" cholesterol

Stroke

Obstructed blood flow to brain, 2 types- ischemic- too little blood, Hemorrhagic stroke- too much blood in skull

Trouble walking, speaking. Paralysis/numbness on 1 side of body, trouble seeing, headache, a Transient Ischemic Attack (a temporary lack of blood to the brain)

Control risk factors, restore blood flow, aspirin, Tissue plasminogen activator, angioplasty

Control risk factors, anti-platelet drugs, anticoagulants

Blood flow blocked to brain, death of brain tissue

Heart Attack (Myocardial Infarction)

Build up of plaque in coronary arteries, blocking of blood flow to heart, spasm

Chest pain- pressure/squeezing/fullness, arm/jaw/back pain, shortness of breath

Aspirin, Nitroglycerin, Thrombolytic Meds, Beta Blockers, ACE Inhibitors, Anticoagulants, Angioplasty, Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting

Control Risk Factors for heart disease

Blood flow obstructed to heart, death of heart tissue

Cardiogenic Shock

Heart attack, other heart conditions

Confusion, lack of alertness, loss of consciousness, rapid heart beat, seating, weak pulse, cold at touch

Emergency life support, medicines to help the heart, angioplasty/stents, Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting, other surgeries

Control risk factors for heart disease, get help immediately if you have a heart attack

The weakened heart isn’t able to pump enough blood to the body

Lymphoma Not knownSwollen lymph nodes, fatigue, weakness, weight loss, fevers

Radiation, Chemotherapy

Stop smoking, not much you can do to control

Cancer of the immune system- lymphocytes

Kawasaki's Disease

Thought to be a response to a virus

Swollen lymph nodes, rash, red lips, red palms, redness of eyes, joint pain

Aspirin, prevent from getting to coronary vessels, surgical treatment rare

No preventionInflammation of blood vessels- can effect any vessels

Atrial Fibrillation

Electrical signals in heart are abnormal

Palpitations, Shortness of breath, weakness, chest pain, fatigue

Prevent clots, aspirin, Rhythm Control

Healthy LifestyleAbnormal heart electrical conduction, can cause complications

Congestive Heart Failure

Coronary Artery Disease, hypertension, arrhythmias, heart muscle diseases

Shortness of breath, swelling in ankles, feet, abdomen, legs, fatigue

Treat underlying cause, lifestyle management, medicines- ACE inhibitors, beta blockers, diuretics

Artificial pacemaker, implanted defibrillator, heart transplant

Control risk factors for heart diseases

When the body cannot pump enough blood to the rest of the body.