Anton Minkov

Emergence and Development of Balkan Nationalism

Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention

in the Ottoman Empire-Class 4

Anton Minkov

Outline• Early Balkan National Awareness• Greece• Serbia• Bulgaria• The Macedonian Question • Development of Albanian nationalism• The Balkan wars

Anton Minkov

Early National Awareness among Balkan peoples

• The Ottoman-Habsburg military border system– The Croats and the Illyrian Movement

• 1699, Slavonia-Voyvodina border zone established– Settled predominantly by Serbs who fled the Ottoman

empire– Autonomy of the Serbian Orthodox church – 1713– Border Serbs religious autonomy played well with their

former Ottoman millet traditions and reinforced the old millet sense of group identity

– Exposure to emerging national and ethnic concepts– Linking of autonomous church organization with growing

sense of ethnic awareness– Orthodox church connection with Russia - patronage – 1794, first Serbian modern history – Jovan Rajic– Dositei Obradovic – created exclusively Serbian literary

language (artificial), fought against Church domination in cultural life

Anton Minkov

Early National Awareness in the Ottoman Balkans

• No conditions for evolution similar to Western Europe – No privileged zimmi noble class with claims to “nation” status– No parallel to Western Europe’s political, intellectual and

cultural development of Balkan zimmi urban middle class– No political partnership with Ottoman sultans– No secular education

• Romantic ethno-national awareness – foreign import• Sense of group belonging beyond the local in the millet• Centuries of millet existence established religion as the

Ottoman zimmis’ primary criterion for group identity• Ottomans build a political partnership with the

ecclesiastical millet leaders and not the urban middle class

Anton Minkov

Greek ethnic awareness • Phanariote Greeks

– Controlled the Orthodox millet hierarchy– Positioned to serve as the privileged elite in shaping

group identities– Had a sense of continuity with their pre-Ottoman,

Byzantine past that no other group possessed

• By the middle of 18th c. Greek merchant colonies operate in Central European trade centers, Mediterranean and Russian Black Sea commercial ports

• Contacts with Europe brought about a split – Those adhering to preserving millet leadership and

dominance within the Ottoman Empire– Those espousing ethno-national political aspiration,

rejecting Ottoman sovereignty – Evgenious Voulgaris of Corfu

Anton Minkov

• Revolutionary activity under the influence of France– 1814, Society of Friends in Odessa– Secret revolutionary societies in Greek colonies in Europe

• Sought support from Russia– John Capodistrias – Russia’s foreign minister

• Traditional Phanariot leadership rejected revolutionary aspects of nationalism, embraced cultural-linguistic ones

• Enforced their existing sense of Greek cultural superiority– However, led to deeply rooted anti-Greek ethnic reaction – Evolved into outright national hostility once ethno-national

concept espoused

Anton Minkov

Independent Greece• 18th c., Greek communities established outside the

Ottoman Empire, secular schools opened, nationalism• Ottoman Greek society divided between Phanariotes

and peasants, traditionalists and secularists• Secularists supported by the peasants – receptive to

ethno-national revolutionary ideas• After 1817, Society of Friends aimed at national

revolution and creation of independent Greek state– Initial support from Russia (Orthodox cultural affinity)

• 1821, Ottomans destructed in Anatolia, Ali Pasha of Ioannina, radicals call for action – Alexander Ypsilantis – Ypsilantis invades Moldova, Russian refuses support, defeated

Anton Minkov

• Nevertheless, rebellion in Peloponnese– Initially, nothing more than a widespread bandit movement– Many uncoordinated, mutually antagonistic leaders, no

concept of national ideas

• 1825, Ottomans called in Egyptian troops – strong reaction in Europe

• Mahmud continues to suppress the rebellion, Russia declares war

• 1829, the treaty of Edirne – Russia withdraws from the Balkans, occupies Romanian Principalities

• 1830, the London Protocol – independent Greek monarchical state under the protection of the Powers– Very small territory, rejected by the Greeks– Greek Ottoman subjects lost privileged status– John Capodistrias proclaimed Greek republic –

assassinated – The Great Powers impose foreign monarchs – Prince Otto– Nationalist agenda overriding factor in Greek affairs, the

“Great Idea”

Anton Minkov

Ottoman Serbs• Two centuries of almost separate millet status under

the Ohrid and Pec Patriarchates– Serbian speaking clerics – modicum of independent

representative administration, direct diplomatic relations– 1766-67, patriarchates eliminated

• Ethnic awareness disseminated to the Ottoman Serbs by Habsburg border Serbs and through the monasteries in Mount Athos

• 1804, uprising of Ottoman Serbs • 1814, collection of Serbian folk songs and tales - Vuk

Karadzic• By 1824, Serbian literary language based on

vernacular– Based on Karadzic’s Herzegovinian dialect – bridge between

Serbian and Croatian, thus, modern Serbo-Croatian language

Anton Minkov

Serbia• 18th c., Serb-inhabited Ottoman regions –

battlegrounds• Formation of predominantly Serb province of Belgrade• 1718-39, Habsburg occupation, self-government• Selim III, initially permitted self-government to fight

the ayans (Pazvanoglu)• Napoleonic wars, reversal – 1798, many Serb leaders

executed, the Janissaries reinstalled in Belgrade• 1802, Karageorge joins sipahi uprising against the

Janissaries• 1804, Serbian uprising – janissaries confined to

Belgrade– Goal – to overthrow oppressive Janissary regime and restore

stable provincial administration– Habsburg border Serbs transformed it into a struggle for

independence, asked Russia for help - refused

Anton Minkov

• 1806, Karageorge takes Belgrade, Selim allies with Napoleon, Russia and Britain declare war

• 1807, Karageorge controls all fortresses, signs treaty with Russia, rebellion becomes tied to Great Powers

• 1812, Russia signs treaty with France, Serbs abandoned

• 1813, Ottomans reoccupy all rebellion Serb territory• 1815, uprising by Milosh Obrenovich

– diplomatic skills – bribed Ottoman officials

• 1816, Mahmud II recognized virtually autonomous Serbian province

• 1828, Treaty of Edirne, Serbia recognized as autonomous principality, Milosh as hereditary prince

• 1830, formal Ottoman recognition; 1860, independence

• Serbian state – autocratic rule, no infrastructure, no difference in the life of

peasants, only the government acquired Serbian ethnic identity

Anton Minkov

Bulgarians• Same sociopolitical fate as the Serbs – membership in the

Orthodox millet, controlled by Greeks• Lack of traditional native leadership class• Additional challenges

– At the very heart of the Ottoman Balkans – far from borders– on the way of all important military, administrative and

communication lines, Proximity to Ottoman capital– Cut off from the world outside the Ottoman Empire

• Patriarchate of Ohrid preserves the title “Bulgarian”– However, all high clerics Greeks – anti-Greek sentiment

• Thus, grassroots of Bulgarian ethnic self-awareness • 17th c. - new Bulgarian literary language• 1762, the monk Paisii - modern Bulgarian history• Sofronii Vratchanski – conducting literary and nationalist

activities

Anton Minkov

The impact of Tanzimat on the Balkans

• Hatti Humayun of 1856 – beginning of direct impact

• Millet reorganization – only the original three– 1857, Abdulmecid ordered general council of the

Orthodox church – took place in 1860-62

• Rapid emergence of Bulgarian national movement– 1860, Bulgarian merchants declared that they would

not recognize the authority of the Greek patriarch-name substitution

– Effectively the Bulgarian middle class demanded that the sultan recognize a new millet – on ethnic basis

– Otherwise the middle class satisfied with new found prosperity

Anton Minkov

The “Bulgarian Church question”• Nationalist dispute – no doctrinal positions involved

– Bulgarians - a church which would define, in millet terms, the geographical extend of Bulgarian ethno-national territory

– Greeks – threat to Hellenism and the future of enlarged Greece

• Bulgarians involved French Catholic and American Protestant missionaries– To play on Russia’s Orthodox and imperialist fears

• 1870, count Ignatiev convinced the sultan – Abdulaziz to recognize independent Bulgarian church over Bulgaria, Thrace, Macedonia (option to enlarge)

• Greek Patriarchate declared schism within Orthodoxy• 1872, first Bulgarian bishop elected • Revolutionary nationalists sought complete

independence

Anton Minkov

The Balkan crisis of 1875-76• The Bosnia-Herzegovina rebellion

– Non-Muslim peasants against Muslim landowner beys– Aided by Russian and Habsburgs but avoided intervention

• 1876, Serbia declares war and invades Bosnia, Montenegro invades Herzegovina

• Serbs defeated, Ottoman forces invade Serbia • Russian ultimatum for ceasefire

– Agreement between Russia and Austria to divide the Balkans

• Bulgarian uprising of 1876– Series of poorly conceived, unsupported uprisings in the 1850s– Spring of 1876 uprising to take advantage of situation in

Bosnia-Herzegovina– Crushed within a month by irregulars (bashibozuks)– Irregulars inflicted destruction and pillage at Bulgarian

villages – As many as 15,000 casualties

Anton Minkov

• Ottoman massacres in Bulgarian uprising– Britain succumbs to popular pressure, withdraws Ottoman

support

• The Istanbul Conference of 1876– United autonomous Bosnia-Herzegovina– Two autonomous Bulgarian provinces– Montenegro keeps war gains, Serbia regains its prewar

borders

• Abdulhamid rejects conference terms, proclaims constitution– The Great Powers forced to shelve plans to impose solution

• 1977, the Budapest Convention – Russia secures Austria’s neutrality in case of conflict with

the Ottomans in return for right to occupy Bosnia-Herzegovina

• March 1877, London convention– rejected by Abdulhamid

Anton Minkov

Bulgarian independence• April 1877, Russia declares war, signs treaty with

Romania– Free passage through Romania for recognition of independence

• Russians stopped at the strategic fortress of Pleven• Advance resumed in January 1878

– Russian troops, Bulgarian volunteers decimate Muslim population– 260,000 Muslims perished, 500,000 fled

• February, Russians in sight of Istanbul, Britain demonstration of power

• The Treaty of San Stefano– Serbia, Montenegro, Romania granted complete independence– Russia receives territories in eastern Anatolia– Creation of autonomous Bulgarian principality – the single largest

Balkan state so far (intended as a Russian puppet)

Anton Minkov

The Berlin Treaty• All Great Powers and Balkan states rejected San

Stefano’s terms– Western European powers - virtual Russian control of the

Straits– Romania – Russian annexation of Bessarabia– Serbia and Montenegro–not all territories occupied during

the war– Greece – left out, Bulgaria received Macedonia

• June 1878, Berlin Treaty – only Great Powers’ interests considered, Balkan states,

Ottomans ignored– Independence of Sebia, Montenegro, Romania recognized– Russia retains Eastern Anatolia and Bessarabia– Greece actually lost territory (Cyprus handed to Britain)– Bosnia-Herzegovina + sanjak of Novi Pazar to Austria– Bulgaria sliced into four peaces

Anton Minkov

Effects of the Berlin Treaty • “Old diplomacy" - ill-suited for dealing with

crises in the Balkans– Unable to deal with mass movements and secret

activities– expected small states to obey orders, but the new

Balkan governments often refused– even if they agreed, state apparatus too weak to

overcome popular nationalism and secret conspiracies

• Western European imposed terms at Berlin – the fundamental motivation for the Balkans subsequent divisive events– Bulgaria- stubborn resolution to win back what was lost– Serbia – saw Bulgaria as rival in respect to Macedonia– Greece – national ambitions neglected, resolved every

effort to win their “rightful” borders in the north

• Radicalized Balkan nationalism• Berlin Treaty – the first step to the World War I

Anton Minkov

The nature of Balkan nationalism

• Large multiethnic empire– Ethnically foreign masters– Cultural traditions did not include democracy – Western European political culture meant national liberation

• Millet traditions– Religious affiliation—crucial component of ethnic identity– The Ottoman empire perceived as completely alien

• Ottoman Islamic society—the enemy par excellence– Dealings no between parties with common civilizational

values, atrocities

• Berlin - nation-state status but no national unification – Emotionally charged atmosphere – radicalization of

nationalism– Militant ethnonational nation-state unification approach

• Political structure, economy, education – to enhance military capabilities

Anton Minkov

The “Macedonian Question”• Includes the districts of Thessaloniki, Bitola, Kossovo• Ethnic composition – “ethnological salad”

“The Christian population of this Pashalic is composed of four different races who all profess the Greek Orthodox faith;... the Bulgarians... the Wallachs... the Albanians... and the Greeks”

Charles Calvert, British Consul in Monastir, 1867

– periphery– Albanians, Bulgarians, Greeks, Serbs, Vlachs, Jews– Core regions – Slavic speaking, illiterate, no ethnic

identification

• Balkan nationalism- ignored the difference between a nation, an ethnic group, and race– Macedonia – not a melting pot, it is only one group to form the

majority of the population – tracing the national identity of the Slavic-speaking group –the

issue of paramount importance – definition of that identity would justify irredentist claims

Anton Minkov

The Claims• Bulgaria

– Medieval Slavs in Macedonia were absorbed by the Bulgarians

• Integral part of medieval Bulgaria• Strong linguistic affinity• The seat of the first independent Bulgarian Patriarchate• The birthplace of Bulgarian Cyrillic literary language

– Despite allegiance to the Greek dominated Patriarchate, Slav-speaking Macedonians were a separate Bulgarian ethnic group

• Greece– Ancient Macedonians were ethnic Greeks– Medieval Slavs and Bulgarians were culturally converted

to Byzantine Hellenism and were ethnically assimilated– Considering Slavic-speaking Macedonians loyalty to the

Patriarch, they were ethnically Greeks beyond doubt

Anton Minkov

• Serbia– Some common folk-culture traditions, language affinity– Serbs dominated Macedonia after the Bulgarians in the 14th

century; thus, they could not have been assimilated by the latter

– Macedonian Slavs were not identified as Bulgarians until the mid 19th century

• Romania– Claimed Latin-speaking semi-nomadic Vlachs as Romanians– Goal - to leverage claim in other territorial disputes -

Dobrudja

• Albania– Albanian-speaking population– Joined the clashes in Macedonia opposing both the Ottomans

and the other nationalist groups

Anton Minkov

The Bulgarian Exarchate and escalation of Balkan nationalism

• Right to expand religious jurisdiction by vote of population– Bulgarian national revival extends to Macedonia– Macedonian intellectuals join Bulgarian national movement– Orthodox Macedonians express desire to join the Exarchate

• Clashes between pro-Exarchates and pro-Patriarchates

• Victory for the Exarchate• 1885-6, Bulgarian unification, Serbs defeated, enter

into nationalist propaganda in Macedonia– Increase terror on Macedonian Slavs, who immigrate to

Bulgaria– Émigrés become powerful political factor in Bulgarian

politics, demand state intervention in Macedonia

• 1893, beginning of Macedonian national movement – IMRO – first European political terrorist organization

Anton Minkov

The Illinden Uprising• The fundamental factor of the “Macedonian

question” – Ottoman possession still continued• 1903, IMRO stages uprising

– Ill prepared, Bulgaria not ready for war– Crushed with usual violence by the Ottomans for three

months

• Great Power enact reform program– Foreign inspectors attached to Ottoman administration– Ottoman Macedonian gendarmerie placed under foreign

command– Judicial reorganization, financial assistance for refugees– Future administrative reform along ethnic lines

• Failure of Ottoman reforms– For too many players, reform required too much work.  As

a result, revolution remained the driving force in Balkan affairs

Anton Minkov

Rise of Albanian nationalism• Last to adopt national ideas

– Religious diversity – 70% Muslim, 20% Orthodox, 10% Catholic

– Religious tolerance – the Bektashi order– Extensive local autonomy, positions open for all faiths– the backbone of Ottoman European forces– Linguistic split between North and South– Schools – Turkish in Muslim and Greek in Orthodox– Traditional clan and tribal identities – difficult ground for

nationalism– Nationalist activities of Albanians in Italy of little impact

• 1878, Albanian-populated land given to new Balkan states– the Albanian League – Abdul Frasheri– 1908, Latin based Albanian alphabet, secular schools

Anton Minkov

The effects of the Young Turks’ Revolution

• Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina– Blow to Serbian nationalism (Yugoslavism)

• Bulgaria declares complete independence• Ottoman Crete declares unification with Greece• Young Turks –centralization and Turkish hegemony

– counter the spirit of the constitution– Albanian national development intensifies– National awakening among Armenians and Arabs

• Young Turks’ repressive nationalist policies permitted to overcome Balkan states’ mutual national animosities and form an anti-ottoman military alliance

• Resulted of loss of most of Ottoman Balkan possessions

Anton Minkov

The Balkan wars 1912-13• 1911, Ottomans in war with Italy over Tripoli• 1912, treaty between Bulgaria and Serbia

– Sanjak of Novi Pazar, Kossovo, northern Macedonia to Serbia– Western Trace to Bulgaria, bulk of Macedonia to be

autonomous

• 1912, Greek-Bulgarian military alliance – no territorial issues defined

• Balkan League formation - strategy on the part of the underdogs – Greece and Serbia- in the Macedonian question to eliminate the advantages of Bulgaria

• May 1912, Albanians rebel against Young Turks policies

• Montenegro joins the alliance – first declares war• Great Powers alliance system

– difficult to take effective action without first consulting allies and enemies and agree on the acceptable action

Anton Minkov

First Balkan war • Fought to decide Macedonia’s faith• Bulgarians face the main Ottoman army in Thrace

– Take Edirne after a long siege, stopped before Istanbul

• Greeks and Serbians face weak Ottoman troops in Macedonia– Greece occupies Thessaloniki and southern Macedonia– Serbia takes Kossovo and 2/3 of Macedonia– Montenegro invades Albania

• May 1913, Treaty of London– Autonomous Albania- includes parts originally promised

to Serbia– Serbia takes more of Macedonia in compensation– Bulgaria and Greece quarrel over Thessaloniki– Romania demands Bulgarian piece of Dobrudja

Anton Minkov

Second Balkan war• June 1913, Serbia and Greece sign anti-Bulgarian

alliance to defend their newly acquired territories• Bulgarian nationalist emotions result in assault on

Serbian and Greek positions in Macedonia• Romania, Montenegro and Ottomans join Serbia

and Greece• Bulgaria striped from all war gains

– Ottomans retake eastern Thrace and Edirne– Romania takes Dobrudja– Western Thrace and Kavala given to Greece– Macedonia divided between Greece and Serbia

• Serbians gain overconfident sense of nationalism– Intensify nationalist activities in Bosnia-Herzegovina

leading to WWI