AP Language and Composition/PIB English Literature Course Information

Mr. S. Bradley, 2018-19

Course Objectives

To develop students' analytical abilities: o The student knows and understands the material and the techniques specific to

each mode studied (literary, poetic, rhetorical, filmic) in depth, responds insightfully to the main implications as well as the subtleties of the literature, makes meaningful and relevant connections between works, and appreciates the cultural relevance of literature.

To develop students’ argumentative and critical techniques: o The student crafts focused, well-developed, and persuasive arguments, organizes

arguments purposefully, shows careful consideration of ideas, and thinks independently. The student makes highly relevant, precise, and effective references to the literature, and addresses literary and rhetorical techniques effectively and purposefully.

To enhance students’ writing and communication skills: o The student constructs well-developed and effective paragraphs, makes no

significant lapses in grammar, spelling, or sentence construction, uses a wide vocabulary with precision, and conveys a varied and appropriate idiom and style. The student’s verbal skills will enable arguments to be persuasively spoken, coherently delivered, and logically structured.

Syllabus

Semester I o The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald

Roots of Literary Analysis and Synthesis o Essays, Letters, Memoir, various sources

Voice, Argument, and Rhetorical Analysis o Film and Visual Modes, various sources

Visual Literacy and Analysis

Semester II: Literary Genres – Prose: Novel and Short Story (Part III) o Poetry, various sources

Device and Effect o Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Siddhartha

Structure and Archetype o TBD

Various Writing Modes, Research and Speaking

Assessment

The following assessments are used to generate grades:

Formal critical essays and commentaries, literary forums, other forms (timelines, comparative charts, etc.)

Oral presentation (both individual and group)

Outside reading and research

Dialectical, Film, and Poetry journals and other informal writings

Reading quizzes and text/vocabulary-based tests Report cards - every nine weeks Class Grades will be posted and updated constantly via Focus Classroom agendas, assignments and essential files/links will be posted on class website

Make-up and Late Work

If a student is absent, the arrangements for make-up work are the student’s responsibility. In-class make-up work may be scheduled at the teacher’s convenience during or after school. Students will normally have the number of days absent to make up work except in extenuating circumstances. When in doubt, come see me. Assignments must be completed prior to the class for which they are due for full credit. Each day (day, NOT session) that an assignment is late, one letter grade is deducted. After two late days, a zero is given. This policy is strictly enforced. Late work should be placed on my desk with no disruption to the class in progress.

Classroom Supplies

assigned literature book or resource materials

1 inch binder with pockets and 5 - 10 dividers

composition notebook

loose-leaf notebook paper

pens with blue or black ink (work done in other colors will not be accepted)

highlighters and/or colored pencils (for marking texts and commentaries)

a red pen (for feedback and evaluation purposes)

#2 pencils

a computer disk or portable USB drive for backing up and transporting typed assignments o Note: I highly recommend that my students sign up for a free cloud-based storage

service such as iCloud, Google Drive, OneDrive or Dropbox. These are highly useful and accessible and help to guard against accidental data losses due to computer failures and the like.

Plagiarism and Cheating

Educational malpractice is addressed in the IB Honor Code (which you all have signed) as follows: “The International Baccalaureate Organization defines malpractice as “behavior that results in, or may result in, the candidate or any other candidate gaining an unfair advantage…” and includes:

Plagiarism – the representation of the ideas or work of another person as the candidate’s own

Collusion – the supporting of malpractice by another candidate, as allowing one’s work to be copied or submitted for another

Duplication of work – the presentation of the same work for different assignments

Other – includes o taking unauthorized materials into an exam, test, quiz or other assessment situation o engaging in misconduct during an exam, test, quiz or any other assignment

o falsifying any records o copying, paraphrasing, reusing or submitting another’s work without acknowledging

the source, including information from the Internet o receiving or giving of any unauthorized assistance on any form of academic work

The IB faculty is opposed to malpractice and cheating for several reasons:

Cheating does not level the playing field. Cheating may result in a student receiving the same or a better grade than students who have honestly earned the grade. Such dishonesty could result in the cheater’s grade point average and class rank to be unfairly inflated and thus negatively affecting other students’ class rank.

Cheating misrepresents to parents, colleges and teachers a student’s mastery of the subject.

The time taken to monitor students for cheating causes a reduction in the time a teacher has to use for academic instruction.

Students who are mature enough to select and qualify for a rigorous academic program should also be mature and committed enough to work for and accept the grades they earn.

Students who have questions regarding whether or not something constitutes plagiarism have a responsibility to consult with the teacher prior to submitting the work/assignment.”

Violations of the Honor Code “will also result in disciplinary or academic probation and ultimately may cause a student to be removed from the program.”

So don’t do it.

Final Note Academic success can more easily be achieved through the cooperative efforts of teacher, student, and parent. As such, I encourage open communication. One of the surest ways to reach me personally is through email (see address below.) If necessary, please feel free to request a conference through the guidance office at 669-1131, extension 1173.

Email and Class Website Email: bradleysc@pcsb.org Class Website: bradleysmp.weebly.com

Pinellas County Schools Advanced Placement Exam Acknowledgement Form 2018-19

Congratulations on rising to the challenge of taking an Advanced Placement (AP course). By taking an AP course you are setting your path to college and you have an opportunity to earn college credit at no expense. We know you will work hard and, as a result, you have the potential to be very successful in this course! Students who take an AP course should be aware of several important pieces of information as outlined below:

1. Students are required to take the Semester 1 exam for a yearlong AP course.

2. Students are required to sit for the AP exam and do not take a teacher created final exam.

3. School Board policy requires that students who do not sit for the AP exam are assigned an F as their final exam

grade.

4. Beginning with the 2018-19 school year the AP Exam Fee structure is changing. These changes cannot be found

on the AP Central site because they are unique to the schools involved in the AP Resources Pilot. These changes

will take effect worldwide in 2019-20 and will be posted on AP Central at that time. The exam fees are as

follows:

a. The cost of each AP Exam is $94, except for Capstone courses which are $142. Assuming a student

meets their requirement to sit for the AP exam, this expense is paid by Pinellas County Schools.

b. AP Exams ordering deadline is November 15, 2018. Orders cancelled after November 15, 2018 and

before March 1, 2019 will incur a $40 cancellation fee that must be paid by the student. This fee must

be paid before a student drops an AP class.

c. AP Exams cancellation deadline is March 1, 2019. After March 1, 2019, the full exam fee ($94 or $142)

will be charged to a student who does not sit for his/her AP exam.

It is important to us to know that you have received this information early in the school year. We want you to be committed to being successful in this course and to understand that your commitment includes taking the AP exam. Students who are invested from the beginning of the year have much higher success rates in these courses. Please complete the table and signature lines below and mark your calendar now for your exams in May to avoid any scheduling conflicts. Your completed form should be returned to Mr. Bradley, who will then submit it to your AP Exam Coordinator.

AP Course AP Exam Date AP Exam Time

English Language and Composition May 15, 2019 8:00 AM

Student Signature: _______ Student Name:

Parent Signature: ________ Date: _____________________

Dialectical Journals – Literary Analysis and Personal Interpretation Dialectic is defined as “the art or practice of arriving at the truth by using conversation involving question and answer.” This is a Socratic method for the obtainment of meaning from an unfamiliar and challenging work. For our purposes, a dialectical journal is a handwritten conversation the student will have with him or herself about our literature, a dialogue that centers on reflective, insightful questioning. The student should find an average of one quote for every two or three pages. Shorter works (essays, short stories) should produce one quote for every two to three pages, while longer works (novels, plays) may have one quote from every eight to ten. This is an average amount – some clumps of text are more adaptable for dialectical responses than others. Use your own individual judgment and discretion for this matter. Specific quote selection is up to the student. It may be a resonant image, an important motif, notable character development, something that galvanizes your attention. You need to question, observe, connect to their own experiences as well as other works you have studied. As a sample, consider this quote from Toni Morrison’s Beloved and the following sample of a possible dialectical response:

“…more alive, more pulsating than the baby blood that soaked her fingers like oil.” Oil stains in a seemingly indelible way, and such a stain is not necessarily apparent to others. When oil gets on your skin, you can feel it, even if you can’t see it. It’s tacky, somewhat unsettling, difficult to wash away. The oil seems to take up all of your attention until you can get rid of it somehow. This line strikes me not just as visual imagery (for her hands were indeed stained with blood on that terrible day), but tactile as well. The blood is a stain on the very skin of her conscience. Also consider that oil is often a salve (especially baby oil, perhaps implied in the context of this image), and this statement takes on the paradoxical cast of perversion and reversal.

Note that a certain degree of informality is permitted in this assignment, perhaps even necessary. However, your diction should be elevated and academic: IB-worthy, in essence. You need to think of the dialectical journal as an ongoing blog, a living document that evolves along with your understanding of the work.

Your responses should be handwritten legibly in a composition notebook, which you will bring to class every day. These will be checked on a random basis.

The Great Gatsby

Vocabulary List

Chp 1 supercilious

conscientious

incredulous

wan

intimation

divan

banter

peremptory

Chp. 2 contiguous

apathetic

languid

strident

Chp. 3 innuendo

impetuous

vacuous

corpulent

din

provincial

Chp. 4 prodigious

modish

elicit

somnambulatory

denizen

fluctuate

spectroscopic

Chp. 5 rout

recurrent

serf

obstinate

nebulous

Chp. 6 laudable

insidious

debauch

antecedent

perturb

dilatory

Chp. 7 portentous

irreverent

vicarious

rancor

Chp. 8 humidor

settee

divot

garrulous

laden

Chp. 9 pasquinade

surmise

superfluous

elocution

orgiastic

Keying the Text – Reading with Purpose

Active reading is just that: active. We don’t simply read our works, we dissect them in order to comprehend and

analyze them. In order to fully accomplish this task, one should look for the following items in the work’s

passages, words, or phrases in order to note, tag, and/or highlight them:

Character Development

o Underline words, actions, or descriptions that develop characterization for each character. You

may wish to use each character’s initials in the margins in order to keep organized.

Structure and Plot Development

o Underline words and phrases relating to time. Be alert to time changes, especially flashbacks,

and underline or code these.

o Underline initial conflicts. Watch for important developments in these conflicts: code or

underline these.

Thematic Development

o Underline or code statements that seem to be developing a major idea or theme in the novel.

Literary Elements

o Mark examples of interesting diction, figurative language, irony, motifs, symbols, and syntax.

Use a question mark to note things you didn’t understand. Bring these up in class discussion or use the ideas

below to help address these items.

When You Get Stuck…

Make a connection between the text and your life, your view of the world.

Make a prediction about the work: what will happen to a character, how a situation will evolve, how a

theme will expand, etc.

Stop and think about what you have already read.

Ask yourself a question about the work and try to answer it.

Reflect in writing on what you’ve read.

Visualize the situation, characters, setting, etc.

Retell what you’ve read.

When in doubt, reread.

Notice patterns in text structures.

Adjust your reading rate. Speed up or slow down as necessary.

If possible, change your reading environment. Find a secluded, quiet spot where you can focus on your

text.

Colormark, highlight, write in the margins, take notes in a reading journal, tag, underline, and tag again.

Illuminate your reading by adding your notes to the book itself. Do whatever you need to in order to dissect the

literature and enhance your own understanding.

–

Colormarking is not an end result, but rather a tool used for the purpose of literary analysis and commentary.

Although it can be used on a large scale, our purposes will usually be focused on writing an insightful

commentary which studies either a passage from a longer work or a poem. The technique itself is very simple,

yet adaptable; no two students will colormark a passage in quite the same way.

:

1.) Read the passage once, all the way through.

2.) Read the passage again. This time, look for any literary devices the author employs in his or her

writing of the passage. These include figurative language, irony, and imagery (writing that uses

vivid description to produce mental representations relating to the five senses). Also seek out

recurring motifs or symbols. Highlight anything that strikes you as being of significance. Examine

every word and its implications carefully.

3.) Highlight each type device you find in the passage in a different color. If a device has different

applications, indicate this as well. Some words and phrases may well be highlighted several times.

Chances are these are items of significance – pay close attention to them and annotate their

significance. By the time you are done with this phase, your paper should be a spectroscopic

jumble of lines, colors, and notes.

4.) Now you need to start assembling a cohesive response to the passage. On your, create a key

explaining your colors’ significance and related ideas and concepts. For example, you might write:

RED = related to color motif or some such. Continue until all colors and devices are covered.

5.) Consider your analysis so far. Now is the time to begin constructing your formal response, and

this begins with the creation of a strong assertion. Your assertion should answer the following

question: Overall, what does this one particular passage do for the novel as a whole? (Hint:

common assertions indicate that the passage helps with theme, characterization, plot, mood, tone,

or something similar, and tell specifically how the passage does this.)

6.) Now write a commentary analyzing this passage. You have already done the hard work. The

assertion you created for #5 is your topic sentence, of course. The highlighted portions in the text

are quotes you blend in for support. Write it out, remembering to keep your blended quotes short

and verbally seamless. As you work, help one another out, especially if you are familiar with this

process.

HOW TO WRITE AN OUTLINE

An outline breaks down the parts of your thesis in a clear, hierarchical manner. Most students find that writing

an outline before beginning the paper is helpful in organizing one's thoughts. If your outline is solid, your paper

should almost (but not quite) write itself.

The basic format for an outline uses an alternating series of numbers and letters, indented accordingly, to

indicate levels of importance. Here is an example of an outline on a literary compare and contrast paper:

OUTLINE NOTES

I. Thesis: Passion and conflict lie at the heart of both Romeo

and Juliet and Great Expectations, common thematic elements

which are depicted through differing narrative tones.

II. Youthful passion

A. Assertion

1. The fiery passion of youth motivates both sets of

protagonists and causes them to make poor

decisions.

B. Quotes

1. “I am what you have…tenderness upon

her!”(Dickens, 324)

2. “For was I not wavering…thing is always done?”

(Dickens, 129)

3. “What satisfaction canst thou have…wilt

perform the rite.”. (Shakespeare, 893)

III. Paternal Conflict

A. Assertion

1. The aforementioned effect of youthful passion,

along with other elements such as loss of innocence

and character conflicts, may complicate matters

between parent and child.

B. Quotes

1. Youthful passion

a. “Now, by Saint Peter’s…have done

with thee.” (Shakespeare 918-19)

2. Loss of innocence

a. “She made use…never take warning?”

(Dickens 320-21)

b. “O, I am fortune’s fool!” (Shakespeare 907)

IV. Narrative Tone

A. Assertion

1. The narrative tone of both novels contrasts;

while Shakespeare’s tragedy is justly filled

with great tension, blood, and conflict,

Dickens interjects moments of levity into his

tale of innocence lost.

B. Quotes

1. Romeo and Juliet – tension and conflict

a. “Doth she not give us…out on her,

hilding!” (Shakespeare 919)

b. “Wilt thou provoke me…there rust, and

let me die.” (Shakespeare 935-6)

2. Great Expectations – levity and humor

a. “I often…connubial missile”(Dickens 12)

b. “Halloa! Here’s a… Let’s get married.”

(Dickens 482-3)

V. Conclusion

The thesis is stated in the first section, which is the

introduction. The thesis should be a statement which

encompasses all three mini-assertions under its umbrella.

Your thesis should focus on how and why, and not be

dependent upon specific plot points.

The body follows the introduction, and breaks down the

points the writer wishes to make.

Note that the three subdivisions are comprised of mini-

assertions, which comprise the three sections of the body.

Quotes and support points are further divided along the way.

Do not assume that only one paragraph should be written for

each category. Some concepts will require more than one

paragraph to flesh out fully.

You may choose to add more detail to your outline, which is

your prerogative in accordance with your writing style.

This, however, is the bare minimum of what is needed.

Your conclusion should sum up your essay – think of it as

an observation of the larger importance and/or relevance of

your argument, the cherry topping the sundae. Mr. Tharin

calls this the “global and noble” idea, one which is often a

concept which exists outside the work itself.

Literary Tropes Glossary

Allegory narrative or description which has a second meaning beneath the surface one

Allusion a reference to something in previous history or literature

Antihero a protagonist lacking in one or more of the qualities of a traditional hero: they lack character

Catachresis a completely impossible figure of speech, e.g. “Mom had a cow when she found out.”

Character persons involved in a story; the moral qualities and traits of a character

Dynamic Character - a character who undergoes a change or achieves growth

Flat Character - Can be summed up in one or two traits

Foil Character - a minor character whose situations or actions parallel those of a

major character; through contrast, reader achieves a fuller understanding of main

character

Round Character - character is complex and many sided

Static Character - same at the beginning as at the end

Stock Character - a stereotyped character, one who is familiar as a type in other

works

Climax the turning point or high.point in a story; character makes a decision or comes to an understanding which

changes the rest of the course of the work

Comedy has a happy ending; emphasizes human limitations rather than greatness

Conflict a clash within a story; may be against another person, nature, society, or fate (external conflicts) or a

struggle within the character himself (internal conflict)

Connotation what a word suggests beyond its literal meaning; overtones of meaning

Denotation the dictionary meaning of a word

Diction word choice

Ennalage intentionally misusing grammar to characterize a speaker or to create a memorable phrase, e.g. “You pays

you money, and you takes your choice.”

Epiphany a moment of insight or understanding by which a characters attitudes or life are altered greatly

Fantasy a kind of fiction that pictures creatures or events beyond the boundaries of known reality

Figurative Language language that employs figures of speech; cannot be taken literally

Figure of Speech A way of saying something other than the ordinary way; an imaginative comparison

Hero protagonist of a story, usually possessing qualities of bravery, skill, idealism, or sense of purpose

Hyperbole overstatement for the purpose of emphasis

Imagery representation through language of sense experience

In medias res story begins in the middle of things with little exposition

Irony a situation or use of language involving some kind of incongruity or discrepancy

Verbal Irony - a figure of speech in which what is said is the opposite of what is meant

Dramatic Irony - an incongruity between what a character perceives and what the

author intends the reader to perceive

Situational Irony - a situation in which there is an incongruity between appearance

and reality, between expectation and fulfillment, or between the actual situation

and what would seem appropriate

Litotes understatement for effect, sometimes specifically used to refer to an ironically negative understatement,

e.g. “Einstein wasn’t a bad mathematician.”

Metaphor implicit comparison of two unlike things; can be named or implied

Metaplasmus misspelling a word to create a rhetorical effect, such as to capture dialect, e.g. spelling “dog” as “dawg.”

Mood the emotional atmosphere of a work, relating to the reader’s experience rather than the author’s attitude

Motivation incentives or goals which cause a character to act the way he does

Onomatopoeia a word whose syllables resemble the sound they signify, “gong,” “thud,” “itch,” “crackle,” “burp”

Oxymoron contradictory terms juxtaposed, e.g. “a cheerful pessimist.”

Paradox statement or situation which contains an apparently contradictory element; on further examination, often

yields some truth

Periphrasis substitution of a descriptive word or phrase for a name, “fickle mistress” for luck, “big man upstairs” for

God

Plot artistic arrangement of events in a story

Exposition - the opening portion of a story that sets the scene, introduces the

characters, tells what happened before the story began, and provides other

necessary background information to enable the reader to follow and understand

the story

Complication - introduces a conflict

Suspense - anxiety or tension which heightens the reader’s attention to the story

Protagonist - the principal character or hero of the story

Antagonist - character or force opposed to the protagonist

Foreshadowing - indications or hints of things to come

Crisis - a moment of high tension There may be several of these leading to the climax

Climax - the moment of greatest tension, when the rising action reverses and becomes falling action

Denouement - follows the climax and resolves or concludes the action; conclusion of falling action

Naturalism fiction of grim realism, in which the writer observes human characters like a scientist observing ants,

seeing them as the products and victims of environment and heredity

Point of View-The perspective from which a story is told

Omniscient Point of View - author writes in third person and is all-knowing; knows

what characters are thinking and planning and why

Objective Point of View - Presents the actions and thoughts of the characters but

does not judge them or insert opinions

Limited Omniscient - author writes from third person point of view, but limits himself to

Complete understanding of only one character

First Person Point of View - story is told by a character within the story; may be

either major or minor character

Observer - stands a little to the side, watching a story unfold that mainly involves

someone else

Innocent or Naive Narrator - story told from the point of view of a narrator who

does not fully understand the implications of the story; narrator could be a child

or an adult with the intellect of a child

Unreliable Narrator - Narrator who the reader perceives is deceptive, self-deceptive,

deluded, or deranged

Prose opposite of poetry; non-metrical

Rites of Passage a story of initiation into maturity or experience; also called story of initiation or loss of

innocence

Sarcasm bitter or cutting speech intended to injure

Satire literature which pokes fun at human folly with the intention of changing things or preventing future ills

Sentimentality a defect in writing when a writer seems to feel tremendous emotion and implies that the reader,

too, should feel it, but does not provide reader with enough reason to share such feelings

Setting time and place in a story

Style individual characteristics of a piece of writing; surprises in meaning, sentence structure, and sound

Suspense quality in a work which makes a reader want to continue to find out what happens; builds tension

Symbol something that means more than what it is; object, person, situation, or action that represents something

else in addition to its literal meaning

Tone emotional coloring of a work; the writer's or speaker's attitude toward his subject

Understatement deliberately represents something as less than it is for the purposes of ironic contrast

Rhetorical Schemes Glossary

Parallelism--similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses.

He tried to make the law clear, precise, and equitable.

We must now hope that Mr. Moynahan will devote his next decade to those four or five more novels which will

banish his vacillations and uncertainties, purge his unneeded influences, and perfect his native gifts for language,

landscape, and portraiture.

Isocolon (ahy-suh-koh-luh) --parallelism with same length (words, syllables).

His purpose was to impress the ignorant, to perplex the dubious, and to confound the scrupulous.

Antithesis (an-ti-thuh-sis) --juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structure.

Though studious, he was popular; though argumentative, he was modest; though inflexible, he was candid; and

though metaphysical, yet orthodox.

That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.

Our knowledge separates as well as it unites; our orders disintegrate as well as bind; our art brings us together

and sets us apart.

Parenthesis (puh-ren-thuh-sis) --insertion of some verbal unit in a position that interrupts the normal syntactical flow of

the sentence.

But wherein any man is bold--I am speaking foolishly--I also am bold.

Any theory of post-historical society--our sense of being "in history" is largely determined by the pressure of

political and social conflicts--will have to consider the dilemma of human motivations in the just city.

There is even, and it is the achievement of this book, a curious sense of happiness running through its paragraphs.

Apposition (ap-uh-zish-un)--placing side by side two co-ordinate elements, the second of which serves as an explanation

or modification of the first.

John Morgan, the president of the Sons of the Republic, could not be reached by phone.

Men of this kind--soldiers of fortune, pool-hall habitues, gigolos, beachcombers--expend their talents on

trivialites.

Asyndeton (uh-sin-di-ton) --deliberate omission of conjunctions between a series of related clauses.

I came, I saw, I conquered.

They may have it in well-doing, they may have it in learning, they may have it even in criticism.

Polysyndeton (pol-ee-sin-di-ton) --deliberate use of many conjunctions.

I said, "Who killed him?" and he said, "I don't know who killed him but he's dead all right," and it was dark and

there was water standing in the street and no lights and windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees

blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside

Mango Key and she was all right only she was full of water.

Anaphora (uh-naf-er-uh) --repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginnings of successive clauses.

We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing- grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets,

we shall fight in the hills.

It is a luxury, it is a privilege, it is an indulgence for those who are at their ease.

Climax--arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing importance.

Let a man acknowledge obligations to his family, his country, and his God.

I think we've reached a point of great decision, not just for our nation, not only for all humanity, but for life upon

the earth.

Antimetabole (an-ti-muh-tab-uh-lee) —repetition in reverse order

One should eat to live, not live to eat.

Winners never quit and quitters never win.

Aporia (uh-pohr-ee-uh) --talking about not being able to talk about something

I can’t tell you how nauseating it was to watch the matzo ball eating contest.

Aposiopesis (ap-uh-sahy-uh-pee-sis) —breaking off as if unable to continue

Oh, dread! Oh, dread! It swallowed my [slurp! gulp!]

Epistrophe (ih-pis-truh-fee)—the same word repeated at the end of successive phrases

If it looks like a duck, walks like a duck, sounds like a duck…

Diacope (dai-ak-uh-pee)—uninterrupted repetition, or repetition with only one or two words between each repeated word

or phrase

The horror, the horror.

Ellipsis (ih-lip-sis)—omitting a word implied by the previous clause

Kant, we may suppose, was more startled by Hume's apparent destruction of all basis for philosophical certainty;

Reid, by the remoter consequences to morality and theology.

Rape is the sexual sin of the mob, adultery of the bourgeoisie, and incest of the aristocracy.

Zeugma (zoog-muh) artfully using one verb with two or more different subjects or objects, changing the verb's meaning

with each

If we don’t hang together, we shall hang separately.

The queen of England sometimes takes advice in that chamber, and sometimes tea.

She exhausted both her audience and her repertoire.

Grammar and Parts of Speech

Subject: the noun which is the recipient of the verb’s action The teacher baffled her students. S Verb: the action which is attached to the subject (source/entirety of the predicate) The teacher baffled her students. V Modifier: words, phrases, or clauses which provide description The teacher baffled her students.

The dedicated teacher, who craved intergalactic justice, constantly and willfully baffled her exhausted and overworked students with her daily physical calisthenics and rigorous attention to grammar.

Adjectives modify nouns or noun phrases (dedicated, exhausted, overworked, daily, physical, rigorous)

Adverbs modify verbs or verb phrases (constantly, willfully) Clause: a group of words consisting of a subject and a predicate The teacher baffled her students. S P Independent Clause: a group of words consisting of a subject and a predicate which expresses a complete thought

If isolated, an independent clause is a simple sentence… The teacher baffled her students.

S P …or it can be part of a larger construction:

The teacher baffled her students whenever she spoke Klingon. S P

Dependent or Subordinate Clause: a group of words consisting of a subject and a predicate which does not express a complete thought

The teacher baffled her students whenever she spoke Klingon. S V DO SC

Phrase: a group of words without the clause’s subject/verb requirement Noun phrases: the teacher’s brand-new bat’leth

the baffled students’ stunned expressions Verb phrases: would have been studying

must run faster

Direct Object: a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause following a verb: it receives the action The teacher purchased Klingon-to-English dictionaries. DO Indirect Object: a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause which “gets” the direct object The teacher purchased her students Klingon-to-English dictionaries. IO DO Appositive: a noun or noun phrase which renames another adjoining noun or noun phrase The teacher, a brave warrior, battled both ignorance and the Romulan Empire.

The fearful, the apathetic, the sleep-deprived – all trembled at her iron voice. (collective nouns) Conjunction: a word connecting other words, phrases, clauses, or sentences (from conjoin: to join or unite) Coordinating (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) Subordinating (though, unless, after, which, whom) Correlative (just as…so, if…then) Conjunctive Adverbs (also, besides, however, instead, thus) Participle: a verb form which plays a similar role to an adverb or adjective… (The sleeping students, a sharpened pencil) …or a noun (gerunds) (Cooking is a universal endeavor…all the gagging made study impossible.) Preposition, Prepositional Phrases: words or phrases which indicate physical location… The teacher is in the starfighter Her armor is beside the console. …or location in time:

The teacher baffled her students whenever she spoke Klingon. While I studied, I resolved to pursue a career in the sciences.