APES FINAL REVIEW

About the Exam

• 100 multiple choice -pen-90 min 60%– If you don’t know guess (won’t lose points for wrong answers)

• 4 Free response –pencil-90 min 40%– 1 Math (no calculators), you get 1 point for setting it up correctly– 2 analyzing data questions– Take 15-20 minutes per question– If you have extra time, you can go back and add more– Complete sentences, no bullets– They only score first two pros/cons or Environmental concerns

and methods to reverse or slow down problems

Before

• Sunday – review hardest topic

• Eat a big dinner• Glance over simple

topic for you• Get a good night sleep

• Monday- eat good breakfeast

• Eat some fruit • If coffee- black• Arrive early

Possible Free response topics

• Tsunami’s and geological plate movements• Fracking• Oil spills• Tar sands• Global Warming/Carbon Dioxide (graph

reading)• Renewable energy vs. Non-renewable• Sustainability vs. gasoline

Topics to review

• Tragedy of the commons • a dilemma arising from the situation in which

multiple individuals, acting independently and rationally consulting their own self-interest, will ultimately deplete a shared limited resource

Air pollution

• sulfur dioxide- comes from burning fossil fuels with high sulfur content, is an important precursor to acid rain

• carbon monoxide- has a stronger affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen has

• radon- comes from rocks below house foundations and has been implicated as the cause of as much as 15 percent of lung cancer cases.

• Methane- a greenhouse gas, that is flammable and produced by landfills

• Carbon Dioxide- the major contributor to greenhouse effect, regulated by the Kyoto conference

• ozone- stratospheric importance in protecting us from UV radiation. Destroyed by chlorofluorocarbons. Causes lung damage and damage to plant tissue in the troposphere. It is formed by photochemical reactions– Main environmental effects of ozone depletion are:

lower food-crop productiondisruption of marine food chainsincreased incidence of skin cancerreduction of primary productivity in the ocean

• CFC's- chlorofluorocarbons give off a chlorine in the stratosphere and the Cl attaches to free oxygen to deplete the ozone layer

Global Warming

• Greenhouse gases- methane(CH4), CFC's, carbon dioxide, Nitrous oxide(NOX, N2O)Most data indicate that the mean global annual temperature has increased by .5 degrees C

• In the models of global warming, the most important factor contributing to an increase in sea level is the thermal expansion of the oceans

• Effects of global warming are:loss of fertile delta regions for agriculturechange in global patterns of precipitationextinction of some species that have narrow temperature requirementsincreased frequencies of hurricanes

Location where the greatest number of people would be directly affected by global warming-coastlines, esp. under sea level and small islands.

• Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxides, CFC'sThe greenhouse effect- infrared radiation from the earth's surface is absorbed by gases in the atmosphere.

• The graph above shows how carbon dioxide levels have increased since 1956. The increased consumption of fossil fuel seem to contribute to the increase in the amount of Carbon Dioxide in the atmosphere. The yearly fluctuations in the curve indicate seasonal fluctuations in photosynthetic activity.

• Technology advances that have reduced particulates bag filterselectrostatic precipitators

• Something people don’t realize

• It’s not the ice melting in the ocean that will raise sea levels

• It’s the Giant ice sheets and glaciers on Greenland and Antarctica that will raise sea levels

• Greenland’s ice would raise levels up to 6 meters

• Antarctica’s ice could raise sea levels up to 40-50 meters

Environmental effects of Acid rain

• acidification of lakes and soilserosion of limestone structure,damage to plant foliage, respiratory irritationRising number of cars have lead to increases in NOX formationCatalytic converters do remove NOX's and remove CO

Sources of sulfur dioxides:

• coal burning power plantsindustrial processes that burn coal and oil

• Reactions2SO2 + O2 ->2SO3

SO3 + H20 H2SO4

H2SO4 + 2H20->2H30+ + SO4

-2

• Remediation and reduction• add lime to acidified lakes

reduce fossil fuel useburn lower sulfur fuelinstall air pollution devise electrostatic precipitator or flue gas desulfurization (scrubbers)develop alternative energy sourcesburn coal more cleanly and efficiently using fluidized bed combustion

Sources of Nitrous Oxides

• automobile exhauststationary sources of fuel combustion

Oxides of nitrogen includeNO, NO2, N2OHNO3 +H20---------> H3O+ + NO3

-

Reduction and remediation methods include

• reduction in the use of motor vehiclesincrease in the efficiency of motor vehiclesinstall catalytic converterreduce use of nitrogen fertilizeruse alternative energy sourcesburn coal more cleanly and efficiently using fluidized bed combustionadd lime to acidified lakes

Carbon Monoxides

• carbon monoxide reduction technology include catalytic converters oxygenating fuel additives

• carbon monoxide reduces the blood's ability to transport oxygen to tissues

Chemical, Physiological and Ecological factors that are altered by acid rain in and around aquatic habitats

• Heavy or toxic metals such as Al, Pb, Cd, Cu, Fe are released into solution at lower pH levelschemical elements are dissolved and kept in solution at lower pH and leave the lake via outflows.Increased nitrogen levels from nitric acid stimulate plant growth resulting in an algal bloom and depletion of other soil nutrientsIncreased nitrogen levels from nitric acid stimulate plant growth resulting in an algal bloom and a decrease in DO levels to a point out of the range of toleranceincreased death and decomposition result in lower DO levelsreduced photosynthesis leads to reduced DO levelsreproduction rates are reduceddisruption of the food web results from the decline or loss of pH sensitive organisms at various trophic levelssurvival of eggs, young, fry or fingerlings is reducedinterferes with respiration, damages gills, and prevents oxygen uptakecauses bone decalcificationdisrupts muscle contractioninterferes with enzyme activitycauses tissue damage

Causes of lake acidification• sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere reacts with atmospheric gases to

produce sulfuric acidNOX in atmosphere react with atmospheric gases to produce nitric acidsulfuric acid and toxic metals leach from minesHydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid industrial wastes are discharged into the watershedorganic acids enter the lake as a result of the logging processorganic acids and metallic cations in leachate flow into the lake from leaking sanitary landfills

• Chemicals such as DDT and PCB's that are used in one region of the Earth can circulate in the biosphere and affect organisms in a distant region

Toxic metal pollutants

• cadmium- heavy metal that is toxic found in incinerator ash, released when coal is burned chromium- toxic heavy metallead- toxic metal pollutant that is a neurotoxin that comes from air pollution from burning of leaded gasoline or indoors from lead based paintsmercury- toxic metal pollutant that is a neurotoxin

• 3.Acid deposition can be reduced by reducing the use of fossil fuels

• Heavy metals in the municipal sewage sludge would be the strongest reason not to use it as a fertilizer

Sources of Pollution

•Point sources (e.g., factories, sewage treatment plants, mines, oil wells, oil tankers)

•Nonpoint sources (e.g., acid deposition, substances picked up in runoff, seepage into groundwater)

•Agriculture is largest source of water pollution in the U.S. (64% of pollutants into streams and 57% of pollutants entering lakes)

Types of Pollution

• Disease-causing Agents – pathogens

• Oxygen Demanding Agents – organic waste: manure

• Water-soluble Inorganic Chemicals – acids, toxic metals

• Inorganic Plant Nutrients – nitrogen and phosphorus

• Organic Chemicals – oil, pesticides, detergents

• Sediment or Suspended Material – erosion, soil

• Water-soluble Radioactive Isotopes – radon uranium

• Heat – electric and nuclear power plants

E. coli outbreak in Walkerton

• In May 2000 the small community of Walkerton, Ontario was laid waste by a toxic strain of E. coli:0157. – The contamination came from the public water supply. – Six people died in the first week including a two year

old daughter of a local medical doctor. – Four new cases surfaced in late July, all very young

children. – Over a thousand innocent people were infected.

• Escherichia coli Hepatitis A virus

Indicator Tests

Total coliform[Endo agar]

Fecal coliform[m-FC agar]

Fecal streptococci[M-enterococcus]

Prescott et al., MicrobiologyBarbara E. Moore, Ph.D., Department of Biology, University of Texas at San Antonio

Case Study on Eradicating Dracunculiasis

Water and Sanitation – Critical Elements in Development - Mike Lee CSU @ Hayward

Guinea Worm Disease• People have suffered from Guinea Worms for

centuries – the “fiery serpent” was mentioned in the bible

• People are infected by drinking water that contain the larvae in a tiny freshwater crustacean called Cyclops

• A year later, larvae mature into 3 feet worms that emerge through skin blisters

• This is such a painful process that men and women can’t work, children can’t attend school

Water and Sanitation – Critical Elements in Development - Mike Lee CSU @ Hayward

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)• BOD: Oxygen is removed from water when organic

matter is consumed by bacteria. • Low oxygen conditions may kill fish and other organisms.

Sources of organic matter • Natural inputs-- bogs, swamps, leaf fall, and vegetation

aligning waterways. • Human inputs-- pulp and paper mills, meat-packing

plants, food processing industries, and wastewater treatment plants.

• Nonpoint inputs-- runoff from urban areas, agricultural areas, and feedlots.

Fish Die

Wet and Dry Acid Rain

• Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow.

• Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and particles.

Measuring Acid Rain

• Acid rain is measured using a "pH" scale.– The lower a substance's pH, the more

acidic it is. • Pure water has a pH of 7.0.–Normal rain is slightly acidic and has a pH

of about 5.5. • As of the year 2000, the most acidic

rain falling in the US has a pH of about 4.3.

Effects on Wildlife• Generally, the young of most species are

more sensitive to environmental conditions than adults

• At pH 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch• At lower pH levels, some adult fish die• Some acid lakes have no fish

Main Types of Ocean Pollution• Petroleum (oil)• Sewage sludge• DDT and PCBs• Mercury• Point source: clearly discernable in terms of

origin (municipal sewage outfall, oil tanker spills, offshore oil well blowouts)

• Non-point-source pollution: ill-defined or diffused sources, runoff (harbors and marinas, TBT, powerboat pollution, invasive species, agriculture, forestry, urban runoff, ocean debris, air pollution, noise pollution, dredging

bss.sfsu.edu/ehines/geog600/ Freshwater%20and%20ocean%20Pollution.ppt

•Volatile Organics Compounds immediately kill many of the aquatic organisms (especially plankton and larvae) and contaminate fish

•Floating oil coats birds and ocean mammal; destroys natural insulation and buoyancy and causes deaths

•Heavy oil sinks to ocean bottom and washes into estuaries where it contaminates crabs, oysters, mussels, clams, etc.

•Oil slicks on beaches harm intertidal life and cause economic losses to tourism and fishing industries

Effects of Oil Spills

© Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Water Resources and Water Pollution by Paul Rich

OBJ 22.8

Sewage TreatmentWastewater or sewage treatment is a

multistep process:

1. Primary Treatment (Physical Process) – Removal of large objects using grates and

screens– Settling to remove suspended solids (primary

sludge) • flocculating chemicals are added to enhance

sedimentation

• Sludges from the primary and secondary treatment settling tanks are pumped into an anaerobic digester

• Sludges contain cellulose, proteins, lipid and other insoluble polymers

• Anaerobic bacteria digest the sludge to methane and carbon dioxide

Anaerobic Digestion of Sludge

REDUCING ENERGY WASTE AND IMPROVING ENERGY EFFICIENCY

• Four widely used devices waste large amounts of energy:– Incandescent light bulb: 95% is lost as heat.– Internal combustion engine: 94% of the energy in its

fuel is wasted.– Nuclear power plant: 92% of energy is wasted

through nuclear fuel and energy needed for waste management.

– Coal-burning power plant: 66% of the energy released by burning coal is lost.

Fig. 17-3, p. 386

Solutions

Reducing Energy Waste

Prolongs fossil fuel supplies

Reduces oil imports

Very high net energy

Low cost

Reduces pollution and environmental degradation

Buys time to phase in renewable energy

Less need for military protection of Middle East oil resources

Creates local jobs

WAYS TO IMPROVE ENERGY EFFICIENCY

• Industry can save energy and money by producing both heat and electricity from one energy source and by using more energy-efficient electric motors and lighting.– Industry accounts for about 42% of U.S. energy

consumption.• We can save energy in transportation by

increasing fuel efficiency and making vehicles from lighter and stronger materials.

Fig. 17-15, p. 397

Trade-Offs

Solar Energy for High-Temperature Heat and Electricity

Advantages Disadvantages

Moderate net energy

Low efficiency

High costsModerate environmental impact

Needs backup or storage system

No CO2 emissions Need access to sun most of the timeFast construction (1–2

years)High land use

Costs reduced with natural gas turbine backup

May disturb desert areas

Fig. 17-20, p. 400

Trade-OffsLarge-Scale Hydropower

Advantages Disadvantages

Moderate to high net energy High construction costs

Large untapped potential

High environmental impact from flooding land to form a reservoir

High efficiency (80%)

High CO2 emissions from biomass decay in shallow tropical reservoirs

Low-cost electricity

Long life span

No CO2 emissions during operation in temperate areas

Floods natural areas behind dam

May provide flood control below dam

Converts land habitat to lake habitat

Danger of collapse

Provides water for year-round irrigation of cropland

Uproots people

Decreases fish harvest below dam

Reservoir is useful for fishing and recreation

Decreases flow of natural fertilizer (silt) to land below dam

Fig. 17-22, p. 403

Trade-Offs

Wind Power

Advantages Disadvantages

Moderate to high net energy Steady winds needed

Backup systems needed when winds are low

High efficiency

Moderate capital cost

Low electricity cost (and falling)High land use for wind farm

Very low environmental impact

No CO2 emissions Visual pollution

Quick constructionNoise when located near populated areasEasily expanded

Can be located at sea

Land below turbines can be used to grow crops or graze livestock

May interfere in flights of migratory birds and kill birds of prey

Fig. 17-25, p. 405

Trade-Offs

Solid Biomass

Advantages Disadvantages

Large potential supply in some areas

Nonrenewable if harvested unsustainably

Moderate costsModerate to high environmental impact

No net CO2 increase if harvested and burned sustainably

CO2 emissions if harvested and burned unsustainably

Low photosynthetic efficiencyPlantation can be located on semiarid land not needed for crops Soil erosion, water pollution, and

loss of wildlife habitat

Plantation can help restore degraded lands

Plantations could compete with cropland

Often burned in inefficient and polluting open fires and stovesCan make use of agricultural, timber, and

urban wastes

Fig. 17-27, p. 407

Trade-Offs

Ethanol Fuel

Advantages Disadvantages

High octane Large fuel tank needed

Some reduction in CO2 emissions

Lower driving range

Low net energy (corn)

High net energy (bagasse and switchgrass)

Much higher cost

Corn supply limited

Reduced CO emissions May compete with growing food on cropland

Can be sold as gasoholHigher NO emissions

Corrosive

Potentially renewable Hard to start in cold weather

Fig. 17-27, p. 407

Trade-Offs

Ethanol Fuel

Advantages Disadvantages

High octane Large fuel tank needed

Some reduction in CO2 emissions

Lower driving range

Low net energy (corn)

High net energy (bagasse and switchgrass)

Much higher cost

Corn supply limited

Reduced CO emissions May compete with growing food on cropland

Can be sold as gasoholHigher NO emissions

Corrosive

Potentially renewable Hard to start in cold weather

Fig. 17-32, p. 410

Trade-Offs

Geothermal Energy

Advantages Disadvantages

Very high efficiency Scarcity of suitable sites

Moderate net energy at accessible sites

Depleted if used too rapidly

Lower CO2 emissions than fossil fuels

Moderate to high local air pollutionLow cost at favorable

sites

CO2 emissions

Noise and odor (H2S)Low land use

Low land disturbance Cost too high

except at the most concentrated and accessible sources

Moderate environmental impact

Fig. 17-33, p. 412

Trade-OffsHydrogen

Advantages Disadvantages

Not found in nature

Energy is needed to produce fuel

Negative net energyRenewable if from renewable resources

CO2 emissions if produced from carbon-containing compounds

No CO2 emissions if produced from water Nonrenewable if generated by fossil fuels

or nuclear powerGood substitute for oil

Competitive price if environmental & social costs are included in cost comparisons

High costs (but may eventually come down)

Will take 25 to 50 years to phase in

Easier to store than electricity Short driving range for current fuel-cell cars

Safer than gasoline and natural gasNo fuel distribution system in place

Nontoxic

High efficiency (45–65%) in fuel cells

Excessive H2 leaks may deplete ozone in the atmosphere

Can be produced from plentiful water

Low environmental impact

Fig. 17-34, p. 413

WoodCoal

Natural gas

Oil

Hydrogen Solar

Nuclear

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, El Niño, accompanies high air surface pressure in the western Pacific, while the cold phase, La Niña, accompanies low air surface pressure in the western Pacific

El Nino La Nina