Applied Linguistics

Applied LinguisticsApplied Linguistics

An Introduction to Applied An Introduction to Applied LinguisticsLinguistics

Chapter 10Chapter 10

Focus on the Language Learner: Focus on the Language Learner: Motivation, Styles and Strategies.Motivation, Styles and Strategies.

Focus on the Language Learner: Focus on the Language Learner: Motivation, Styles and Strategies.Motivation, Styles and Strategies.

Summarized by:Summarized by: Narmeen AbdulrahmanNarmeen AbdulrahmanAsma AbbasAsma AbbasJwana IsmaelJwana IsmaelHawzheen RahmanHawzheen RahmanKawa QadirKawa Qadir To be presented by:To be presented by: Kawa QadirKawa Qadir

Factors of Success in L2Factors of Success in L2Success in learning a foreign or second Success in learning a foreign or second

language depends on a variety of factors language depends on a variety of factors such assuch as

1. the 1. the DurationDuration and the and the IntensityIntensity of the of the language course.language course.

2. The characteristics and abilities of the 2. The characteristics and abilities of the teacher.teacher.

3. The appropriateness of the teaching 3. The appropriateness of the teaching methodology.methodology.

Factors of Success in L2Factors of Success in L2

4. 4. The quality of the textbook.The quality of the textbook.5. The size and composition of the learner 5. The size and composition of the learner

group.group.6. The amount of natural L2 practice 6. The amount of natural L2 practice

opportunities.opportunities.7. The characteristics of the language 7. The characteristics of the language

learner.learner.

Learner CharacteristicsLearner Characteristics

There are three learner characteristics (as There are three learner characteristics (as researchers call {Individual Differences}) researchers call {Individual Differences}) which are largely beyond the teacher’s which are largely beyond the teacher’s control such as:control such as:

AgeAgeGenderGenderLanguage AptitudeLanguage Aptitude

AgeAgeAge has been the subject of a great deal Age has been the subject of a great deal

of research over the last 40 years. The of research over the last 40 years. The traditional view has been that the younger traditional view has been that the younger we start to learn a second language, the we start to learn a second language, the better chance of success we have.better chance of success we have.

Previously, this advantage was explained Previously, this advantage was explained in terms of a ‘Critical Period’, (learning a in terms of a ‘Critical Period’, (learning a L2 after the age puberty will be difficult)L2 after the age puberty will be difficult)

AgeAge However, recent research shows that “the However, recent research shows that “the

younger the better” principle is only valid in younger the better” principle is only valid in environments where there is constant and environments where there is constant and natural exposure to the L2 (for example, learning natural exposure to the L2 (for example, learning French in France).French in France).

In typical classroom environments where the In typical classroom environments where the amount of exposure is relatively small, older amount of exposure is relatively small, older learners seem to have the advantage over their learners seem to have the advantage over their younger peers, that is, here, older is better.younger peers, that is, here, older is better.

GenderGender

The learners’ gender is important The learners’ gender is important because research has consistently because research has consistently found girls to outdo their male peers found girls to outdo their male peers when it comes to language learning.when it comes to language learning.

Language AptitudeLanguage Aptitude It is the best-known individual difference It is the best-known individual difference

variable in language learning.variable in language learning.This factor has been referred to under This factor has been referred to under

different names, e.g., different names, e.g., Special abilitySpecial abilitySpecial giftSpecial giftSpecial KnackSpecial KnackSpecial feelSpecial feelSpecial flair for languages.Special flair for languages.

Language AptitudeLanguage AptitudeEverybody – learners, teachers and Everybody – learners, teachers and

researchers alike – will agree that it is a researchers alike – will agree that it is a very important attribute of learning very important attribute of learning effectiveness.effectiveness.

Language aptitude is best seen as the Language aptitude is best seen as the language-related aspect of intelligence.language-related aspect of intelligence.

It determines the rate of learning and the It determines the rate of learning and the amnt of energy the process is likely to amnt of energy the process is likely to require of the learner.require of the learner.

Language AptitudeLanguage Aptitude

Someone with a high aptitude will pick Someone with a high aptitude will pick up the L2 relatively easily, whereas for up the L2 relatively easily, whereas for another person the same level of another person the same level of proficiency can only be achieved by proficiency can only be achieved by means of hard work and persistence.means of hard work and persistence.

It is important to note that language It is important to note that language aptitude does not determine whether aptitude does not determine whether or not someone can learn a language.or not someone can learn a language.

Factors of increasing the effectiveFactors of increasing the effectiveof instructionof instruction

Factors that teachers can actively Factors that teachers can actively address to increase the address to increase the effectiveness of instruction include:effectiveness of instruction include:

MotivationMotivationLearning stylesLearning stylesLearner strategiesLearner strategies..

1. Motivation1. Motivation

Motivation is the key learner variable Motivation is the key learner variable because without it, nothing can much because without it, nothing can much happen.happen.

Motivation can be promoted Motivation can be promoted consciously, which is good news for L2 consciously, which is good news for L2 teachers; it means that by employing teachers; it means that by employing certain methods it is possible to certain methods it is possible to change learners’ motivation in a change learners’ motivation in a positive direction.positive direction.

The Social Nature of L2 motivationThe Social Nature of L2 motivation

Motivation to learn a L2 is very different Motivation to learn a L2 is very different from the motivation to learn any other from the motivation to learn any other school subject. This is because an L2 is school subject. This is because an L2 is not only a communication code, but also a not only a communication code, but also a representative of the L2 culture where it is representative of the L2 culture where it is spoken.spoken.

As a consequence, L2 motivation will As a consequence, L2 motivation will always have a strong Sociocultural always have a strong Sociocultural component.component.

The Social Nature of L2 motivationThe Social Nature of L2 motivation

Learners may well be reluctant to set Learners may well be reluctant to set about learning the language of a cultural about learning the language of a cultural group towards which they have truly group towards which they have truly negative feelings.negative feelings.

Similarly, having favorable attitudes Similarly, having favorable attitudes towards a language community may well towards a language community may well increase the motivation to learn their increase the motivation to learn their language.language.

Motivation as a Dynamic processMotivation as a Dynamic process

AA second important aspect of L2 second important aspect of L2 motivation is that it is not stable and motivation is that it is not stable and static but is rather in a continuous static but is rather in a continuous process of change.process of change.

Motivation undergoes a cycle that has Motivation undergoes a cycle that has at least three distinct phases:at least three distinct phases:


First,First, motivation needs to be generated motivation needs to be generated according to the selection of the goal. according to the selection of the goal. (choice motivation)(choice motivation)

Second,Second, the generated motivation needs to the generated motivation needs to be actively be actively maintainedmaintained and and protected protected while the particular action lasts. (executive while the particular action lasts. (executive motivation)motivation)


Finally,Finally, the third phase follows the the third phase follows the completioncompletion of the action is termed of the action is termed “motivational retrospection”“motivational retrospection”

It concerns learners’ retrospective It concerns learners’ retrospective evaluation of how things went.evaluation of how things went.

Motivating LearnersMotivating LearnersThe most obvious way to help The most obvious way to help

classroom practitioners is by classroom practitioners is by providing a list of practical providing a list of practical motivational techniques that teachers motivational techniques that teachers can apply.can apply.

Dornyei four principal aspects of Dornyei four principal aspects of motivational teaching practice:motivational teaching practice:

Motivating LearnersMotivating Learners

1.1. Creating the basic motivational Creating the basic motivational conditions, like:conditions, like:

- Establishing rapport with the Establishing rapport with the studentsstudents

- Fostering a pleasant and supportive Fostering a pleasant and supportive classroom atmosphere.classroom atmosphere.

- Developing a cohesive learner Developing a cohesive learner group with appropriate group norms.group with appropriate group norms.


2. 2. Generating initial student motivation, Generating initial student motivation, like:like:

- Increasing the learners expectancy Increasing the learners expectancy of successof success

- Making teaching materials relevant Making teaching materials relevant to the learners.to the learners.

- Creating realistic learner beliefsCreating realistic learner beliefs


3. 3. Maintaining and Protecting Maintaining and Protecting motivation, like:motivation, like:

- Making learning stimulatingMaking learning stimulating- Setting specific learner goalsSetting specific learner goals- Presenting tasks in a motivating wayPresenting tasks in a motivating way

2. Learning Styles2. Learning StylesResearchers both in educational Researchers both in educational

psychology and the L2 field have observed psychology and the L2 field have observed that that various learners approach learning in various learners approach learning in a significantly different manner, and the a significantly different manner, and the concept of ‘Learning Styles’ has been concept of ‘Learning Styles’ has been used to refer to these differences.used to refer to these differences.

Indeed, we learn in different ways and Indeed, we learn in different ways and what suits one learner may be inadequate what suits one learner may be inadequate for another.for another.

2. Learning Styles2. Learning StylesLearning Styles seem to be relatively Learning Styles seem to be relatively

stable, and that is why teachers may have stable, and that is why teachers may have not such a direct influence on this learner not such a direct influence on this learner variable as with motivation.variable as with motivation.

teachers can modify the learning tasks teachers can modify the learning tasks they use in their classes in a way that may they use in their classes in a way that may bring the best out of particular learners bring the best out of particular learners with particular learning style preferences.with particular learning style preferences.

2. Learning Styles2. Learning Styles

It is also possible that learners over It is also possible that learners over time can be encouraged to engage in time can be encouraged to engage in ‘style-stretching’ so as to incorporate ‘style-stretching’ so as to incorporate approaches to learning they were approaches to learning they were resisting in the past. resisting in the past.

Style PreferencesStyle PreferencesThe following style preferences are The following style preferences are

considered particularly relevant and useful considered particularly relevant and useful to understanding the process of language to understanding the process of language learning: learning:

1. Being more visual, auditory or hands-on.1. Being more visual, auditory or hands-on.2. Being more global vs more particular.2. Being more global vs more particular.3. Being more synthesizer vs being more 3. Being more synthesizer vs being more

analytic.analytic.4. Being more extroverted vs introverted.4. Being more extroverted vs introverted.

Style PreferencesStyle Preferences

5. 5. Being more abstract and intuitive vs Being more abstract and intuitive vs more concrete and thinking in step-more concrete and thinking in step-by-step sequence.by-step sequence.

6. Preferring to keep all options open 6. Preferring to keep all options open vs being closure-oriented.vs being closure-oriented.

3. Learner Strategies3. Learner Strategies

Second-language researchers first Second-language researchers first noticed the importance of various noticed the importance of various learning strategies when they were learning strategies when they were examining the ‘good language examining the ‘good language learner’ in the 1970s.learner’ in the 1970s.


The results indicated that it is not The results indicated that it is not merely a high degree of language merely a high degree of language aptitude and motivation that caused aptitude and motivation that caused some learners to excel, but also the some learners to excel, but also the students’ own active and creative students’ own active and creative participation in the learning process participation in the learning process through the application of through the application of individualized learner strategies.individualized learner strategies.


Research has found that the ‘good Research has found that the ‘good language learner’ is in command of a language learner’ is in command of a rich and sufficiently personalized rich and sufficiently personalized repertoire of such strategies.repertoire of such strategies.

Categories of Learner StrategiesCategories of Learner Strategies

Learner strategies have been Learner strategies have been categorized in numerous ways, but categorized in numerous ways, but one helpful distinction is between:one helpful distinction is between:

1.1. Language learning StrategiesLanguage learning Strategies2.2. Language Use strategiesLanguage Use strategies

1. Language Learning strategies1. Language Learning strategies

LLS s refer to the conscious and LLS s refer to the conscious and semi conscious thoughts and semi conscious thoughts and behaviors used by behaviors used by learners with learners with the explicit goal of improving their the explicit goal of improving their knowledge and understanding of knowledge and understanding of a target language.a target language.

2. Language Use Strategies2. Language Use Strategies

LUSs refer LUSs refer to strategies for using to strategies for using the language that has been the language that has been learned.learned.

This category includes four sub-This category includes four sub-sets of strategies:sets of strategies:

Language Use StrategiesLanguage Use Strategies

1. 1. ‘Retrieval Strategies’‘Retrieval Strategies’ strategies strategies used to call up language material used to call up language material from storage, for example, calling up from storage, for example, calling up the correct verb in its appropriate the correct verb in its appropriate tense.tense.

2. ‘2. ‘Rehearsal strategies’Rehearsal strategies’ strategies for strategies for practising target language structurespractising target language structures..


3. 3. ‘Communication strategies’‘Communication strategies’ strategies used to convey a message strategies used to convey a message that is both meaningful and that is both meaningful and informative for the listener or reader, informative for the listener or reader, for example, when we want to explain for example, when we want to explain technical information for which we do technical information for which we do not have the specialized vocabulary.not have the specialized vocabulary.


4. 4. Cover strategies’Cover strategies’ strategies for strategies for creating an appearance of language creating an appearance of language ability so as not to look unprepared, ability so as not to look unprepared, foolish or even stupid, for example, foolish or even stupid, for example, using a memorized and partially using a memorized and partially understood phrase in a classroom understood phrase in a classroom drill in order to keep the action going, drill in order to keep the action going, or laughing at a joke that you did not or laughing at a joke that you did not understand at all..understand at all..

3. Self-motivating strategies3. Self-motivating strategies

Along with the two general strategy types, Along with the two general strategy types, LLS & LUS s there is one another type LLS & LUS s there is one another type which is “Self-motivating Strategies” which which is “Self-motivating Strategies” which learners can use to increase or protect learners can use to increase or protect their existing motivation.their existing motivation.

Communication strategiesCommunication strategies Communication strategies are used as Communication strategies are used as

(verba / non-verbal) first aid devices to (verba / non-verbal) first aid devices to deal with problems or break-downs in deal with problems or break-downs in communication.communication.

These devices enable learners to stay These devices enable learners to stay active partners in communication even active partners in communication even when things do not go well.when things do not go well.

They may use these to steer the They may use these to steer the conversation away from problematic conversation away from problematic areas, to express their meaning in creative areas, to express their meaning in creative ways (e.g. paraphrazing a word / concept)ways (e.g. paraphrazing a word / concept)

Some common communication Some common communication strategiesstrategies

1.1. Avoidance strategies, e.g. leaving a Avoidance strategies, e.g. leaving a message unfinished because of some message unfinished because of some language difficulty.language difficulty.

2.2. Compensatory strategies, e.g. describing Compensatory strategies, e.g. describing the target word you can not remember.the target word you can not remember.

3.3. Time-gaining strategies, e.g. using filling Time-gaining strategies, e.g. using filling words to fill pauses and to gain time to words to fill pauses and to gain time to think (e.g. well, now let me see etc.)think (e.g. well, now let me see etc.)

Some common communication Some common communication strategiesstrategies

4. 4. Interactional Strategies, e.g. Interactional Strategies, e.g. requesting repetition when not requesting repetition when not hearing or understanding sth hearing or understanding sth properlyproperly..

Learner strategiesLearner strategies

There are two notable approaches There are two notable approaches classify LS into two different categories.classify LS into two different categories.

1.1. Cognitive, Metacognitive, Affective and Cognitive, Metacognitive, Affective and social strategies.social strategies.

2.2. Skill area StrategiesSkill area Strategies

1. Cognitive, Metacognitive, 1. Cognitive, Metacognitive, Affective and Social strategiesAffective and Social strategies

1. 1. Cognitive StrategiesCognitive Strategies: : encompass the encompass the language learning strategies of language learning strategies of identificationidentification, , groupinggrouping, , retentionretention and and storagestorage of language material, as well as of language material, as well as the language use strategies of the language use strategies of retrievalretrieval, , rehearsalrehearsal and and comprehensioncomprehension or or productionproduction of words, phrases and other of words, phrases and other elements of the L2.elements of the L2.


2. 2. Meta-cognitive StrategiesMeta-cognitive Strategies: : are those are those processes which learners consciously use processes which learners consciously use in order to supervise or manage their in order to supervise or manage their language learning. language learning.

Such strategies allow learners to control Such strategies allow learners to control their own cognition by planning what they their own cognition by planning what they will do, checking how it is going and then will do, checking how it is going and then evaluating how it went.evaluating how it went.


3. 3. Affective StrategiesAffective Strategies: : serve to regulate serve to regulate emotions, motivation and attitudes (for emotions, motivation and attitudes (for example, strategies for reduction of example, strategies for reduction of anxiety and for self-encouragement).anxiety and for self-encouragement).

4. 4. Social StrategiesSocial Strategies: : Include the actions Include the actions which learners choose to take in order to which learners choose to take in order to interact with other learners and with native interact with other learners and with native speakers, e.g. asking questions to clarify speakers, e.g. asking questions to clarify social roles & relation ships.social roles & relation ships.

2. Strategies according to Skill Area2. Strategies according to Skill Area

The The ReceptiveReceptive skills, listening and skills, listening and reading, and the reading, and the ProductiveProductive skills, skills, speaking and writing, are the four basic speaking and writing, are the four basic skill categories.skill categories.

There are, of course, others such There are, of course, others such Vocabulary Learning StrategiesVocabulary Learning Strategies


1.1. Listening StrategiesListening Strategies, , listening to talk listening to talk show on the radio.show on the radio.

2.2. Reading StrategiesReading Strategies, , planning how read planning how read a text, monitor to see how the reading is a text, monitor to see how the reading is going & then check to see how much of it going & then check to see how much of it was understood.was understood.

3.3. Speaking strategiesSpeaking strategies, , Looking for a Looking for a different way to express the ideadifferent way to express the idea..


4. 4. Writing strategiesWriting strategies, , postponing editing of postponing editing of the writing until all the ideas are written the writing until all the ideas are written down.down.

5. 5. Vocabulary strategiesVocabulary strategies, , using words just using words just learned in order to see if they work.learned in order to see if they work.

Self-Monitoring strategiesSelf-Monitoring strategiesUnder adverse conditions in certain Under adverse conditions in certain

classrooms and without any teacher classrooms and without any teacher assistance, some learners are more assistance, some learners are more successful at staying committed to successful at staying committed to the goals they have set for the goals they have set for themselves than others are.themselves than others are.

How do they do it?How do they do it?In short, they motivate In short, they motivate

themselves.themselves.

Self-motivating strategiesSelf-motivating strategies Self-motivating strategies are made up of Self-motivating strategies are made up of

five main classes:five main classes:1.1. ‘‘Commitment control strategies’Commitment control strategies’ for for

helping to preserve or increase the helping to preserve or increase the learners’ original goal commitment.learners’ original goal commitment.

2.2. ‘‘Meta-cognitive control strategies’Meta-cognitive control strategies’ for for monitoring and controlling concentrationmonitoring and controlling concentration..

3.3. ‘‘Satiation control strategies’Satiation control strategies’ for for eliminating boredom.eliminating boredom.

Self-motivating strategiesSelf-motivating strategies

4. 4. ‘Emotion control strategies’‘Emotion control strategies’ for for managing disruptive emotional states or managing disruptive emotional states or moods.moods.

5. 5. ‘Environmental Control Strategies’‘Environmental Control Strategies’ for for eliminating negative environmental eliminating negative environmental influences.influences.

Pedagogical ImplicationsPedagogical ImplicationsResearch has found that it is possible to Research has found that it is possible to

teach learners to enhance their strategy teach learners to enhance their strategy use, that is, to help them to be more use, that is, to help them to be more conscious and systematic about the conscious and systematic about the strategies that they already use.strategies that they already use.

And That’s AllAnd That’s All

Take CareTake Care

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Applied Linguistics