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Research Methods AS Psychology – PSYA1

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Introduction

We will be working through this booklet in lesson time, it can also be used as a revision aid nearer to the exam. Inside this booklet are resources that have been designed to help you to understand and revise research methods.

The booklet contains activities to complete that will assess your knowledge and understanding. The booklet also contains a list of the specification requirements which you can use as a checklist to monitor your progress. Past exam questions have also been included so you know what to expect, some of these will be completed during lesson time.

These are useful sites which may help you with your revision, some of them have been used within the booklet.

3 http://www.simplypsychology.org/research-methods.html 4 http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/psychology/research-methods 5 http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/subjects/specifications/alevel/AQA-

2180-W-SP-14.PDF 6 http://www.gerardkeegan.co.uk/links.htm 4 http://www.psychlotron.org.uk/newResources/

researchMethods.html

The following textbooks have been used: Cardwell, M. & Flanagan, C. (2012) Psychology AS: The Complete

Companion. (3rd Edition) Oxford University Press. Eysenck, M. W. (2005) Psychology for AS Level. 3rd edition. Hove,

Sussex: Psychology Press. Johnston, J. (2004) AS Psychology Research Methods Workbook. Marshall, M. (2005) AQA (A) AS Psychology student workbook.

Lawrence and Co Ltd.

PSYA1 Assessment

Unit 1

1½ hour exam in May 50% of the total AS marks 25 % of the total A Level marks

You will answer structured compulsory questions based on Cognitive Psychology, Developmental Psychology and Research Methods.

Questions include short answer, stimulus material and one 12 mark question requiring extended writing in which QWC will be assessed.

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Key Term Glossary

Using information from the lessons, you will need to fill in the following table over this half of the term with

definitions for the following:

Key Term Definition

Aims

Experimental hypothesisDirectional hypothesisNon-directional hypothesisExperimental designParticipant variablesRepeated measuresIndependent groups

Matched pairs

OperationalisationIndependent variableDependant variableExtraneous variable

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Confounding variable

Pilot study

Counter balancing

Internal reliability

External reliability

Internal validity

External validity

Random sampling

Opportunity samplingVolunteer samplingDemand characteristicsExperimenter bias

Interviewer bias

Quantitative data

Qualitative data

Measures of central tendency

Mean

4

Mode

Median

Measures of dispersion

Range

Standard deviationPositive/Negative correlationCorrelation coefficient

Line graph

Bar chart

Self report study

Scattergram

Lab experiment

Questionnaire

Field experiment

Natural experiment

Observation

Interview

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Assessment ObjectivesKnowledge and understanding of science and of how science worksCandidates should be able to:• recognise, recall and show understanding of scientific knowledge• select, organise and communicate relevant information in a variety of forms.Application of knowledge and understanding of science and of how science worksCandidates should be able to:• analyse and evaluate scientific knowledge and processes• apply scientific knowledge and processes to unfamiliar situations including those related to

issues assess the validity, reliability and credibility of scientific information.How science worksCandidates should be able to:• demonstrate and describe ethical, safe and skilful practical techniques and processes,

selecting appropriate qualitative and quantitative methods• make, record and communicate reliable and valid observations and measurements with

appropriate precision and accuracy• analyse, interpret, explain and evaluate the methodology, results and impact of their own

and others’ experimental and investigative activities in a variety of ways.

This is why you need that C in GCSE maths…

Candidates should be able to:

Arithmetic and numerical computation

recognise and use expressions in decimal and standard form use ratios, fractions and percentages make estimates of the results of calculations (without using a

calculator)

Handling data

• use an appropriate number of significant figures• find arithmetic means• construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar

charts and histograms• have sufficient understanding of probability, e.g. to

understand how genetic ratios arise• understand the principles of sampling as applied to scientific

data• understand the importance of chance when interpreting data• understand the terms mean, median and mode• use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation between two

variables• use a simple statistical test• make order of magnitude calculations

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Algebra

• understand and use the symbols:=, <, <<, >>, >, ∝, ~• substitute numerical values into algebraic equations using

appropriate units for physical quantities

Graphs• translate information between graphical,

numerical and algebraic forms• plot two variables from experimental or

other dataAims and Hypotheses

All research studies have to start with an aim. An aim is a general statement of why the study is being carried out. The aim of the study then leads onto the hypothesis.

A hypothesis is a: Clear statement A prediction Testable Formulated at the beginning of research

Psychologists start off with a theory which is a general idea about behaviour and then develop a hypothesis so they can test those ideas. For example in the psychology taster session we staged an experiment. Hypothesis: The participant’s level of fear (measured on a scale of 1-5) will increase the closer the crazy old woman approaches with the rolling pin.

With the person next to you try writing a hypothesis using the following key words.

Students, revision, music

Alcohol, reaction time, driving

Drivers, responses, lights

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Exam results, Xbox, students

Tennis, time, Wimbledon

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Directional and Non-Directional Hypotheses

A hypothesis can be directional or non-directional depending on the direction we think the outcome of the research will be. • A non-directional hypothesis (otherwise known as a ‘two-

tailed’ test) proposes that there will be a difference in the relationship but it doesn’t state the direction. E.g. There will be a difference between the number of times the target word is repeated by the participant in condition 1 (positive reinforcement) and condition 2 (negative reinforcement). Just think – a cat with two tails is non-directional.

• A directional hypothesis states what the difference will be. E.g. Participants will repeat the target word more in condition one (positive reinforcing) than in condition 2 (negative reinforcement).

Decide whether the hypotheses are directional or non-directional:

1. Students studying AS Psychology are happier than those studying AS Chemistry.

2. There will be a significant difference between the number of times male and female drivers fail to stop at a pedestrian crossing.

3. People who take vitamin B supplements are more intelligent than people who don’t take vitamin B.

4. Participants will react slower when playing Pac Man after consuming alcohol.

5. Smokers will cough more times when asked to sit in silence, than non-smokers

OperationaliseIn order to make a hypothesis testable we need to operationalise the DV

and the IV, this means to make them measurable. For example in statement 3 - People who take vitamin B supplements are

more intelligent than people who don’t take vitamin B, what do we

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mean by more intelligent? We need to specify this behaviour further in order to measure it.

Using an IQ test would help us to quantify intelligence thus making it measurable.

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Dependent and Independent Variables

• Independent variable = The deliberate difference between two groups. E.g. In an operant conditioning task the participant in the first condition will be rewarded, in the second condition they will be punished. The IV is manipulated (changed) by the researcher.

• Dependent variable = The thing that is counted or measured at the end of an experiment. E.g. the number of times the target word is read out. The DV is measured by the researcher.

TASK: Identify the IV and DV in the following...

Children that go to nursery before the age of 1 speak earlier than children that don’t. IV = DV =

Children who watch violent cartoons will get into more fights at school. IV= DV=

Adolescents are more likely to take part in risky behaviour when in a group than when they are alone. IV= DV=

New drivers have more accidents than people that have been driving for more than two years. IV= DV=

People that care for elderly relatives are more likely to have a low immune system. IV= DV=

Students that are rewarded for positive behaviour behave better than those that are not rewarded. IV= DV=

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Experimental Design

Design Description When should

it be used? Advantages Disadvantages Controls

Repe

ated

mea

sure

s de

sign

When there is only a small number of

participants, so you use all

of the participants in

both conditions.

Order effects can be controlled through

counterbalancing (all conditions are

experienced first and second – ABBA).

Single blind techniques can be used to overcome

demand characteristics.

Inde

pend

ent g

roup

s des

ign If a small

sample is used then there is the risk that

any differences

between the conditions are

due to individual

differences of the

participants.

Participants are randomly allocated

to the different conditions.

Mat

ched

pai

rs

desig

n

When you have a lot of time, money

and participants as they need to be carefully matched.

Identical (monozygotic) twins

are useful for researchers when

matching participant variables.

Task: For the following: Identify the IV and the DV Identify the two or more conditions in the experiment, highlighting which

condition is the control (if there is one) Identify whether they are independent groups, matched pairs, or repeated

measures design.a) A scientist has developed a drug which he believes will increase IQ. He has

two groups of participants; one group he gives the drug to, and the other he gives a placebo to. After two weeks, he tests their IQ. To try and avoid any participant variables, he ensures that he has an equal number of men and women in each group, and that the participants are of similar ages, intelligence and social background.

b) A psychologist is investigating the effect of music on concentration. A group of participants are given a series of crossword puzzles to solve, first in a silent room, then when classical music is played, and then when rock music is played. The time taken to solve each puzzle is recorded.

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c) A researcher is interested in whether alcohol has an effect on memory. One group of participants are given a list of words to learn and then given an alcoholic drink. The other group is given the same list of words, and a glass of water. The number of words they can remember is recorded.

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Experimental and non experimental researchExperimental methods allows you to study cause and effect. It involves the manipulation of one variable.

Lab experiment Field experiment Natural experiments

Non-experimental methods there is no independent variable involved. As a result no cause-effect conclusions can be drawn when using a non-experimental method of research.

Observational techniques Self report Correlational analysis Case studies

Laboratory Experiments

What is a lab experiment?

Use these key words: IV DV Controlled Cause and Effect Validity Mundane Realism

You will recreate a lab experiment by Loftus and Palmer (1974). Summarise the experiment below:

Procedure:

Findings:

Conclusions:

Field Experiment

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Strengths of lab experiments Weaknesses of lab experiments

A field experiment is where the experiment is conducted in a more natural setting than a laboratory, e.g. the work place, school, the street etc.  Basically the same rules apply:

An independent variable is manipulated to see how it affects a dependent variable. 

Confounding variables can still get in the way, and cause and effect can still be determined. 

However, the setting is more natural.  Participants are not necessarily randomly allocated to conditions.

Carry out some research into a field study by Bahrick et al. (1975)Procedure:

Findings:

Conclusion:

Example exam question: Dave, a middle-aged male researcher, approached an adult in a busy street. He asked the adult for directions to the train station. He repeated this with 29 other adults. Each of the 30 adults was then approached by a second researcher, called Sam, who showed each of them 10 photographs of different middle-aged men, including a photograph of Dave. Sam asked the 30 adults to choose the photograph of the person who had asked them for directions to the train station. Sam estimated the age of each of the 30 adults and recorded whether each one had correctly chosen the photograph of Dave.

A. Identify one aim of this experiment.B. Suggest one reason why the researchers decided to use a field experiment

rather than a laboratory experiment. (2)

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Strengths of field experiments Weaknesses of field experiments

Example exam question: A psychologist assessed the aggressive behaviour of 100 five-year-old children who were starting school. The children had attended day care for at least 20 hours a week. Fifty of the children had attended day nurseries. The other fifty children had been looked after by childminders. The children who attended the day nurseries were more aggressive than the children who had been looked after by childminders.

A. Explain why this is an example of a natural experiment. (2)

Natural ExperimentWhat is a natural experiment?Use these key words:

IV DV Controlled Cause and Effect Validity Causal Extraneous Variables

Hodges and Tizard carried out a natural experiment into privation (failing to form attachment as a child to a caregiver). Outline the research below:Aim:

Procedure:

Findings:

Conclusions:

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Strengths of natural experiments Weaknesses of natural experiments

Case Studies

What is a case study?

Conduct some research into a case study of your choice. There are some interesting cases listed below that you could choose, or you could find one of your own. You must summarise the case study in the space given.

Phineas Gage Genie Clive Wearing

KF HM

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Advantages of Case Studies Disadvantages of Case Studies Rich and meaningingful qualitative

data. High ecological validity and it true to

real life. Can challenge current thinking and

lead to new insights.

Difficult to replicate therefore reliability is hard to establish.

It is difficult to generalise as it is based on one individual or group.

Low population validity. Research bias is higher which

questions its scientific credibility.

Example exam question: Case studies are a commonly used method of investigating abnormality.

A. What is meant by a case study? (2)B. Outline one weakness of using a case study as a method of investigation. (2)

Observational techniques

What is an observational study?An observational study collects data from participants by watching them and recording their behaviour.

Complete the table below about the types of observation:Controlled observation Naturalistic observation

Observational techniques include: Participant vs. non-participant observation

o Participant = the researcher joins the group being studied.o Non-participant = observations are made outside of the group.

Disclosed and undisclosed observationo Disclosed = participants are aware they are being watched

(overt).o Undisclosed = participants are not aware they are being

watched (covert). Structured and unstructured observation

o Structured = the researcher knows what behaviours to look for and uses a checklist to record the frequency of behaviour.

o Unstructured = the researcher watches the behaviour, with no system, possibly due to unpredictable behaviour.

Briefly outline the method of an observation study using a ‘bobo doll’

below:

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Designing behavioural observations

Scenario: You are interested in studying the relationship between aggression and amount of time spent in day care.

Design 3 simple methods to record the ratings of aggression in two types of day care (e.g. nursery, childminders, nannies etc).

Behavioural checklists

Coding systems

Rating systems

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Advantages of observational research Disadvantages of observational research

What people say they do could be different to what they actually do – so using an observation increases the validity compared to questionnaires and interviews.

Is higher in ecological validity as it gives a more realistic picture of human behaviour.

Is ideal for preliminary investigation that can then be investigated further.

Little or no control over extraneous variables which means that something unknown to the observer may be affecting the behaviour being observed.

The observer may see what they want to see – this is called ‘observer bias’ and can lower the inter-rater reliability.

There are ethical issues if participants do not know that they are being watched. But if they do know they might change their behaviour.

Correlational AnalysisA correlation is the relationship between two variables. There are three types of correlation, positive correlation, negative correlation, and zero correlation. A correlation can be illustrated using a scattergram. The scatter of dots indicates the correlation between the variables. A statistical test is used to determine the correlation coefficient (a number).

When carrying out a correlational analysis a correlational hypothesis is created; this is the expected relationship between two co-variables, e.g. “age and beauty are positively correlated” (positive correlation), or “age and beauty are correlated” (non directional). Sometimes there are curvilinear correlations. This is when the ‘line of best fit’ is curved rather than straight; but there is still a relationship.

Task: Sketch the three types of correlation below:Positive correlation Negative correlation No correlation

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Strengths of correlational analysis Weaknesses of correlational analysis

Example exam question: A psychologist is using the observational method to look at verbal aggression in a group of children with behavioural difficulties. Pairs of observers watch a single child in the class for a period of one hour and note the number of verbally aggressive acts within ten-minute time intervals. After seeing the first set of ratings, the psychologist becomes concerned about the quality of inter-rater reliability. The tally chart for the two observers is shown in the table below.Table: Observation of one child – number of verbally aggressive acts in ten-minute time intervals

Time slots 0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60Observer

A 2 5 0 6 4 3Observer

B 4 3 2 1 6 5

Self-report methods

QuestionnairesWhat is a questionnaire?

How do you design a good questionnaire?

InterviewsWhat is an interview? What is a structured interview? What is an unstructured interview?

How do you design/plan a good interview?

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Strengths of Questionnaires Weaknesses of Questionnaire Can question a large number of people quickly. Used to collect large amounts of data about

what people think, as well as do. Does not need the researcher to be present. Reduces investigator effects.

Social desirability bias – you want to present yourself in the most favourable way and so change your responses. This threatens the validity.

People may give untruthful responses with sensitive issues, e.g. smoking.

Postal surveys may give low response rates. Questions may be misinterpreted.

Strengths of Interviews Weaknesses of Interviews Detailed qualitative data can be collected. The interviewer can clarify the meaning and

significance of the information provided. Allows the participants to express themselves

freely. Unstructured interviews may lead to honest

answers and new lines of enquiry.

Statistical analysis is difficult if unstructured interviews are used and qualitative data is collected.

It is more time consuming than a questionnaire. Greater chance of interpersonal variables

affecting the responses (i.e. increased investigator effects)

Other research methods and techniquesUse page 120-121 to complete this final grid. Some has already been done for you.

Method What it is Advantages Disadvantages

Investigations

When something is not an experiment, an interview, a questionnaire or case study. It is simply an investigation.

Multi-method approach

A combination of many techniques. For example the use of an observation followed up by an interview.

Meta-analysis

A research team may combine the results of many studies with similar aims/hypotheses. This can be used to see an overall trend in how the IV affects the DV.

Cross-cultural studies

Psychologists compare the behavior of people in many cultures to see if culture effects behavior.

Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies

When a study is conducted over a long period of time it is longitudinal and can be used to study one individual at different stages.A cross-sectional study is where one group of participants (e.g. teens) are compared to another group (e.g. infants).

Role play

Participants may be asked to take on a certain role as if it was real life. For example, they could be asked to imagine they are lying, or take on the role of a prison guard.

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Pilot Studies

Often psychologists carry out a ‘dress rehearsal’ of their study before they go out into the world and conduct the research on a large number of people. This is called doing a pilot study. This enables the researcher to check for design faults. It is done to check that all elements of the study work, that the participants understand the instructions, and that no one can guess the true aim of the study. It saves a lot of time and money in the long-

run!

Consider the answer to this example exam question from June 2013:

A researcher investigated whether memory for words presented with pictures was better than memory for words presented without pictures. The researcher used an independent groups design.

In Condition 1, participants were given a limited time to learn a list of 20 words. They were then asked to recall the 20 words in any order.

In Condition 2, participants were given the same time to learn the same 20 words, but this time each word was presented with a picture. For example, the word ‘apple’ was presented alongside a picture of an apple. They were then asked to recall the 20 words in any order.

A pilot study is a small-scale investigation carried out before the main study.Explain why it would be appropriate for this researcher to use a pilot study. In your answer you must refer to details of the experiment given above. (4 marks)

Total marks out of 4: _______

Peer feedback:

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Apple

Reliability

It is very important for psychologists to be sure that their research is producing reliable results. Reliability refers to the consistency of results – in science this might mean how accurate is a ruler at measuring or how good is a calculator at adding up? In psychology it means would a test marked by two different people, be scored in an identical way? Or, if a study is replicated would the findings should be similar?An IQ test may be unreliable if a person sits the test on Monday and

scores 140, and then sits the same test on Friday and scores 90. Even though it can be replicated, it shows low consistency and therefore is an unreliable test.

Some research methods (such as laboratory studies) have high reliability as they can be replicated and the results checked for consistency. Other research methods however (such as case studies and interviews) have lower reliability as they are difficult or impossible to replicate. As they cannot be replicated, we cannot check how consistent the results are.

Forms of reliability

Internal reliability – whether a test is consistent within itself, e.g. a set of scales measures a bag of flour at half the weight of two bags of flour.

External reliability – whether the test is consistent over time, e.g. an individual scores roughly the same IQ every time he/she takes the test.

When conducting an observation it is important that two observers produce a similar record. How often the two observers agree is called inter-observer reliability. There is a simple equation for checking the level of agreements:

1. How can psychologists improve reliability in observational research?

2. How can psychologists improve reliability in questionnaires and interviews?

3. Mr Coles asks you to make tea for all the staff at Parents’ Evening. How do you ensure you are reliable?!

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Validity

Reliability, on its own, is not enough. Studies should be measuring what they are intended to measure. If a researcher wanted to measure IQ would he do it with a ruler? Validity refers to whether or not a test measures what it was designed to measure.

For example, do IQ tests really measure ‘intelligence’ or do they measure performance on the test?

Internal validity - The extent to which study is free of design faults, which may affect results. Internal validity also looks at whether the IV really caused the changes to the DV or whether the results were due to extraneous variables. To have high internal validity you must make sure that you are testing what you intended to test.

External validity - This means the extent to which generalisation can be made from the test environment to other situations. If the study lacks internal validity that external validity will also be low and you cannot generalise the results. Types of external validity include:

Ecological validity – generalising results to other placesPopulation validity – generalising results to other peopleHistorical validity – generalising results to different times

How can psychologists improve validity in questionnaires and interviews?

Mundane RealismStudies in psychology should try to reflect real life and not be too artificial or ‘fake’. Many studies lack ‘mundane realism’...this means that they do not reflect what happens in the real world. Which study that you’ve already looked at lacks mundane realism? Why?

Research task:We need to be able to measure the validity of a study. Complete some research in your own time about what each of the following terms mean when measuring validity.

Face validity

Concurrent

validity

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Predictive validity

Extraneous variables

When psychologists carry out an experiment they must control all other factors apart from the IV. This is so that they know that the changes in the IV cause the changes in the DV.

However, sometimes there are extraneous variables (page 94-95). These are variables out of the control of the psychologist. These don’t cause problems, unless they are not controlled. If these variables cause a change in the DV, they are known as ‘confounding variables’.

Outline in the table below how participant variables can affect the DV.

Age, intelligence, motivation, experience Gender Irrelevant participant

variables

Participant

Variables

Outline in the table below how situational variables can affect the DV.

Order effects Time of day Temperature Noise

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Situational

Variables

Extraneous variable How does it affect validity? How can it be overcome?

Situational variables (anything to do with the environment of the experiment): time of day, temperature, noise levels etc

Something about the situation of the experiment could act as an EV if it has an effect on the DV. For example, poor lighting could affect participants performance on a memory test

Situational variables can be overcome by the use of standardised procedures which ensure that all participants are tested under the same conditions.

Participants variables (anything to do with differences in the participants): age, gender, intelligence, skill, past experience, motivation, education etc.

It may be that the differences between the participants cause the change in the DV. For example, one group may perform better on a memory test than another because they are younger, or more motivated.

Participant variables can be completely removed by using a repeated measures design (the same participants are used in each condition). Matched pairs (participants in each group are matched) could also be used.

Investigator effects: this refers to how the behaviour and language of the experimenter may influence the behaviour of the participants. The way in which an experimenter asks a question might act as a cue for the participant. Also known as experimenter bias

Leading questions from the experimenter may consciously or unconsciously alter how the participant responds. For example, the experimenter may provide verbal or non verbal encouragement when the participant behaves in a way which supports the hypothesis.

Investigator effects can be overcome by using a double blind technique. This is when the person who carries out the research is not the person who designed it.

Demand characteristics: participants are often searching for cues as to how to behave in an

The structure of the experiment could lead the participant to guess the aim of the study. For example, participants may

When designing a study, it is important to try and create a situation where the

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experiment. There could be something about the experimental situation or the behaviour of the experimenter (see investigator effects) which communicates to the participant what is “demanded” of them.

perform a memory test, be made to exercise, and then given another memory test. This may lead the participants to guess that the study is about the effect of exercise on memory, which may cause them to change their behaviour

participants will not be able to guess what the aim of the study is. This is called a single blind technique.

Participant effects: participants are aware that they are in an experiment, and so may behave unnaturally.

They may be overly helpful and want to please the experimenter. This leads to artificial behaviour. Alternatively, they may decide to go against the experimenter’s aims and deliberately act in a way which spoils the experiment. This is the “screw you” effect.

Again, by designing a study so that the participants cannot guess the aims, participant effects can be reduced.

This table will help you summarise what the main ethical issues are, problems researchers can have with them, and how they can be dealt with. Complete this table either during the presentation to help you concentrate, or after the presentation from memory. Some of the table is completed for you.

Ethical issue Explanation/definition

Problems for researchers

Ways of dealingwith this issue

Informed consent

The information given might help the

participants guess the aim of the study

and therefore change their behaviour.

Presumptive consent. Ask a group of similar people whether they would be OK with the

deception.

If certain people want to leave the study, this may bias the sample and the

results.

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This should be for both psychological effects and physical

effects.

They should avoid these risks and stop

the study if necessary.

Confidentiality

Each person has the right to decide who

knows and who doesn’t know personal

information about them.

Sampling

Sampling refers to the process by which research psychologists attempt to select a representative group from the population. We can’t study the entire popular it would take forever, so instead a smaller group of participants must act as a representative sample. In an attempt to select a representative sample and avoid sampling bias (e.g. over representing one category of participants in a sample such as students), psychologists use different sampling techniques.

What is a target population?

Using the information on pages 108-109 of your textbook complete the grid below:

Method Description of method Advantages/Disadvantages

Effect on population validity

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Opportunity Sample

High chance that the sample will be biased

leading to lowpopulation validity

Volunteer Sample

Research has found that a particular type of person is likely to

volunteer for research; thus this type of

sampling has a very high chance of bias. This

meansthat we cannot

generalise to the target population leading to

low population validity

Random Sample

This is a representative sample and has high population validity

Quantitative data analysisData is the results from research. Numerical data is described as quantitative data. Data which is not numerical e.g. opinions and beliefs is qualitative. Depending on what type of data it is, the analysis will be different.

Complete the table below using page 96.

What is it? Strength of method Weakness of method

Mea

sure

s of c

entra

l

Mean

The mean is the most sensitive measure of central tendency, taking all scores into account.

Mode Similar to the median, the mode is unaffected by extreme scores.

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tend

ency

Median

Unlike the mean the median only takes one or two scores into account – the middle value(s).

Mea

sure

s of d

isper

sion

Range Easy to calculate

Standard Deviation

A small standard deviation indicates that the results are reliable.It uses all of the scores.

Complete research method questions box 3.8 on page 96 in your textbook

Example exam question: A researcher carried out an experiment to investigate how many numbers could be held in short-term memory. The participants were 15 children and 15 adults. Participants were asked to repeat lists of random numbers, in the correct order, as soon as they were read out by the researcher. For example, when the researcher said, “3, 4, 2, 8” the participant immediately repeated “3, 4, 2, 8”. When the researcher then said,“7, 5, 9, 6, 4” the participant immediately repeated “7, 5, 9, 6, 4”. One number was added to the list each time until participants were unable to recall the list correctly. Each participant’s maximum digit span was recorded. Write the mode for each group in the

table below:Age group Mode

Children Adults

Graphs

You will sometimes be asked to sketch a graph or interpret a set of data in the exam. Make sure you are familiar with each of the graphs below.

Histograms

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Themes are grouped into categories and conclusions are drawnStatements are compared to see if there are similarities, these are grouped together (called themes)Information is compressed into brief statements (called codes) Any similar information is grouped together

Used to represent data on a ‘continuous’ scale

Columns touch because each one forms a single score (interval) on a related scale, e.g., time - number of hours of homework students do each week

Scores (intervals) are placed on the x-axis

The height of the column shows the frequency of values, e.g., number of students in each interval – this goes on the y-axis

Bar Charts

Used to represent ‘discrete data’ where the data is in categories, which are placed on the x-axis

The mean or frequency is on the y-axis

Columns do not touch and have equal width and spacing

Examples:o Differences in males/females

on a spatial tasko Score on a depression scale

before and after treatment

Scattergrams

Used for measuring the relationship between two variables

Data from one variable is presented on the x-axis, while the other is presented on the y-axis

We plot an ‘x’ on the graph where the two variables meet

The pattern of plotted points reveals different types of correlation, e.g., positive, negative or no relationship.

Content Analysis

There are four steps to content analysis…

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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1005

1015202530

Histogram showing number of hours spent doing homework in a survey of

students

Homework (hours per week)

Num

ber o

f stu

dent

s (fr

eque

ncy)

Without Caffeine Group

With Caffeine Group

0.1

1

10

A bar chart showing the difference in reaction times between groups given a caffeine drink

or notM

ean

reac

tion

time

( sec

s)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 2000

10203040506070

Scattergram showing correlation between stress and absenteeism from work

Stress score

Days

off

wor

k pe

r yea

r

What is an advantage of content analysis?

What is a weakness of content analysis?

Content analysis of the media’s reporting of crimeYou will be conducting a content analysis of two newspapers. You will be investigating whether the two types of newspapers report crime differently. InstructionsStep 1: What crimes do you think would be reported in newspapers?Step 2: What characteristics of the crime would be reported (e.g. age/sex of victim etc)?Step 3: Pick two newspapers that you will analyse (e.g. one national and regional paper, tabloid and broadsheet, red top and broadsheet). You will need to bring these papers in with you next lesson. Step 4: Design your content analysis sheet on A3 paper. It will look a bit like

the one belowType of Crime

Crime CharacteristicsMurder Sexual assault

Age of VictimSex of Victim

Age of OffenderSex of Offender

Step 5: Conduct the content analysis using the papers. Step 6: Write a report on what you have found. The report should cover the following points:

Are there any similarities between the two papers? Are there any differences between the two papers? Can you explain why these differences might be? Are there any implications from your findings? Are there any issues with the content analysis as a method? What are its strengths and weaknesses?

Qualitative DataQuantitative research uses methods that measure amounts of behaviour usually assigning a value to what is being measured. Qualitative research uses smaller samples than quantitative research but usually involves the collection of large amounts of data. Audio, written and visual data can be collected.

It is important to summarise the enormous amount of data collected.

Step 1: Categorise the dataPre-existing categories – the researcher decides on the categories before the research.

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Emergent categories – categories emerge when examining the data.

Step 2: Behavioural categories are used to summarise the dataThe categories or themes are listed.Examples of each type of behavior are represented with a quotation.Frequencies of each category may be counted and this turns qualitative into quantitative data.

Step 3: Conclusions are drawn

Use pg. 119 to record the advantages and disadvantages of qualitative and quantitative data.

Type of data Advantages Disadvantages

Quan

titat

ive

Qual

itativ

e

PSYA1 – Research Methods ChecklistUse this checklist to ensure that you have covered all the areas needed for success in your exams. The following topics will be covered in class. However, it will be your responsibility to catch up with any topics you miss and to actively revise the different areas.

Topic Area Covered in Class

Revised

Methods and Techniques34

Experimental method, including laboratory, field and natural experiments

Studies using a correlational analysis

Observational techniques

Self-report techniques including questionnaire and interview

Case studies

Investigation Design

Aims

Hypotheses, including directional and non-directional

Experimental design (independent groups, repeated measures and matched pairs)Design of naturalistic observations, including the development and use of behavioural categoriesDesign of questionnaires and interviews

Operationalisation of variables, including independent and dependent variables

Pilot studies

Control of extraneous variables

Reliability and validity

Awareness of the British Psychological Society (BPS) Code of Ethics

Ethical issues and ways in which psychologists deal with themSelection of participants and sampling techniques, including random, opportunity and volunteer samplingDemand characteristics and investigator effects

Data Analysis and InvestigationPresentation and interpretation of quantitative data including graphs, scattergrams and tablesAnalysis and interpretation of quantitative data. Measures of central tendency including median, mean, mode. Measures of dispersion including ranges and standard deviationAnalysis and interpretation of correlational data. Positive and negative correlations and the interpretation of correlation coefficientsPresentation of qualitative data

Processes involved in content analysis

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