Assignment 1 Urban and Rural Housing Nisha.K1350007

7/29/2019 Assignment 1 Urban and Rural Housing Nisha.K1350007

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C O M PA R I S O N O F H O U S I N GP O L I C I E S A N D P R O G R A M M E S

O F D E V E L O P E D A N DD E V E L O P I N G C O U N T R I E S

URBAN AND RURAL HOUSING

SEPTEMBER 4, 2013

NISHA.K

135007

M.ARCH (GENERAL)

I SEMESTER, HIET ,CHENNAI


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NISHA.K M.ARCH(GENERAL) HIET 1350007 2013-152

INTRODUCTION

The right to housing is recognised in a number of international human rights instruments.

Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognises the right to housing as

part of the right to an adequate standard of living. It states that:

Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of

himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary

social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability,

widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control

A developed country or "more developed country" (MDC), is a sovereign state that has a highly

developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less developed

nations. Most commonly, the criteria for evaluating the degree of economic development are gross

domestic product (GDP), the per capita income, level of industrialization, amount of widespread

infrastructure and general standard of living. Developed countries have post-industrial economies,

meaning the service sector provides more wealth than the industrial sector According to the

International Monetary Fund; advanced economies comprise 65.8% of global nominal GDP and

52.1% of global GDP (PPP) in 2010. In 2011, the nine largest advanced economies by either nominal

GDP or GDP (PPP) are the United States, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Japan, Italy,

Canada, Spain and South Korea. Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions. One such

criterion is income per capita; countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per capita would

thus be described as developed countries "A developed country is one that allows all its citizens to

enjoy a free and healthy life in a safe environment."


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A developing country, also called a less-developed country (LDC), is a nation with a low living

standard, underdeveloped industrial base, and low Human Development Index (HDI) relative to

other countries. Developing countries are countries which are in the process of industrialization.

Developing countries are, in general, countries that have not achieved a significant degree of

industrialization relative to their populations, and have, in most cases, a medium to low standard of

living. There is a strong correlation between low income and high population growth.

Case Studies

1. National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy 2007, Government of India2. HOPE VI is a plan by the United States Department of Housing and Urban

Development.

3. National shelter policies: Nigeria


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H O U S I N G P O L I C I E S

NATIONAL URBAN HOUSING AND HABITAT POLICY 2007

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

MINISTRY OF HOUSING & URBAN POVERTY ALLEVIATION

Shelter is a basic human need next only to food and clothing. At the end of the 10th Five Year Plan,

the housing shortage is estimated to be 24.7 million. However, urban areas in our country are also

characterized by severe shortage of basic services like potable water, well laid out drainage system,

sewerage network, sanitation facilities, electricity, roads and appropriate solid waste disposal. It is

these shortages that constitute the rationale for policy focus on housing and basic services in urban

areas. This policy intends to promote sustainable development of habitat in the country with a view

to ensuring equitable supply of land, shelter and services at affordable prices to all sections of society.

Given the magnitude of the housing shortage and budgetary constraints of both the Central and

State Governments, it is amply clear that Public Sector efforts will not suffice in fulfilling the housing

demand. In view of this scenario, the National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy, 2007 focuses the

spotlight on multiple stake-holders namely, the Private Sector, the Cooperative Sector, the Industrial

Sector for labour housing and the Services/Institutional Sector for employee housing. In this

manner, the Policy will seek to promote various types of public-private partnerships for realizing the

goal ofAffordable Housing For All.

This report deals with the problems encountered by the poor in their struggle to find shelter in


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developed and developing countries. The report specifically addresses the issue of how current

shelter policies are leaving the poor out of the shelter-delivery process. These cases indicate the

direction shelter policies should take.

NATIONAL SHELTER POLICIES FOR THE POOR

1. The national policies adopted by the case-study countries dealt with in this report are all in linewith the Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000 (GSS).

The key point to focus is on are

Enabling all factors in the shelter production and improvement process to utilize theirfull potential and resources.

The role of the government and public authorities at various levels should be one offacilitating shelter construction

establishing more appropriate regulatory frameworks and shelter financing schemes allowing the private sector, on-governmental organizations (NGOs), community-based

organizations (CBOs) and individual households to make their effort and contribution

An efficiently functioning market for building materials, among other things, is thus ofutmost importance.

Emphasis on setting the conditions right for self-help and mutual aid, as well ascommunity participation in upgrading projects.

2. As an effect of the policies mentioned above inclusion of cost recovery in upgrading programmes, the beneficiaries are to pay according

to the full cost of improvements made in water provision, path construction, drainage, street

lighting and so on.


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Cross-subsidization is, however, applied to some extent, making the better-off people inparts of an upgrading area pay more than the poor in other parts. Cost recovery and "the

user pays" principles are seen to be required in order for replicability of shelter and

upgrading programmes to be possible.

The aspect of the shelter policies of cost recovery and reduction in subsidies, have beendetrimental for improved shelter for the poor.

A negative (and unintentional) consequence of reduced public construction of housing forthe non-poor, without a simultaneous increase in private-sector building, is a downward

pressure on cheaper housing.

The gentrification of certain parts of urban residential areas pushes the poor into areas withworse environments and accommodation. This may be a temporary phenomenon until

markets function better, thus giving the right signals and prices for a higher involvement of

private capital in housing schemes.

. The World Bank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to

focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal

of labour regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.

MULTIPLE, SERIOUS BARRIERS TO SELF-SUFFICIENCY

Developing countries invest relatively little of public funds on housing. That is the fact thathousing for the better-off and adequate shelter for the poor are relatively effective sectors in

which to invest in order to have an impact on national economic growth.

Adequate shelter, including dwellings, privacy, security, lights, basic infrastructure and servicesand a location making the journey to work feasible provided by the poor themselves through

an enabling strategy creates relatively much employment, high multiplier effects and national


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backward linkages. It is typical for 30 to 60 per cent of the urban population in developing

countries to live in illegal settlements, and in overcrowded and deteriorating tenements.

Urban poverty, slums and pavement dwellers are increasing. Lack of land for shelterconstruction has become an acute problem everywhere, and vast slums are found at the outskirts

of the cities.

The poor urban communities in the big cities rank among the most life-threatening andunhealthy living environments that exist.

The experience with enabling shelter strategies reveals the fact that in a number of cases theintroduction of enabling shelter strategies has actually damaged the housing choices of the

poorest groups.

At the level of the individual settlement, upgrading often drives out those who cannot afford thecosts imposed by higher housing standards and service charges.

Likewise, land-sharing, rehabilitation and resettlement programmes often have negative effectson the ability of very poor families to remain when shelter and the environment are improved

and commercialized.

Wherever the supply of housing inputs falls behind demand, access to home-ownership declinesand more and more low-income families are forced into rented accommodation. If these supply

constraints continue to grow, conditions in the rental market deteriorate as rents increase,

housing quality falls, residential densities rise, and property-ownership becomes more

concentrated.

In fact, among those experiences that have been identified as successful very few have succeededin involving and including the poorest households. Those cases in which the very poor have

benefited have come about only through deliberate action on the part of government or of the

community concerned, usually in the form of direct subsidies and/or special assistance. This

implies, as was stated in the new National Housing Policy in India, going beyond the enabling


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strategy to delineate government's role as provider, to take care of the needs of the poorest and

most vulnerable sections that cannot secure affordable shelter under present conditions and need

direct government help in the form of land, housing inputs and employment opportunities.

The plight of the poorest and the facilitation of participation by the not so poor are, in manyways, connected. In fact, it is only by enabling the not so poor to help themselves that

governments can make resources available to assist the poorest groups.

POVERTY

Poverty in India is widespread, with the nation estimated to have a third of the world's poor. In 2010,

the World Bank reported that 32.7% of the total Indian people are below the international poverty

line of US$ 1.25 per day (PPP) while 68.7% lives on less than US$ 2 per day.

There is no common agreement on the content and categorization of the term "poverty". It isuseful to distinguish between the following degrees of material and psychological hardship: food

poverty (absolute or starvation poverty); subsistence poverty (divided into a narrow and a broad

basic needs concept); and relative deprivation (of either a social coping or a social participation

kind). The last category of limited access to social participation can easily be confused with the

concept of inequality and with different life-styles in a society.

This report limits the category "poor" to those in food poverty, plus those in subsistence povertyin a narrow sense. It happens that case studies, which establish a poverty line for a country, also

include some expenditure for travel and recreation. The term "lower-income group" will be used

for this category. This group of people has a sufficient material consumption to allow them an

active and fairly secure life concerning food, water, clothing and shelter. They do, however, have

an income below what is typically necessary for complete social coping and participation in a

society's normal activities and events. The term "low-income groups" is used when referring to

both the poor and the lower-income group.


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PUBLIC HOUSING IN THE UNITED STATES

SOURCE: PRINCIPLES FOR INNER CITY NEIGHBOURHOOD DESIGN HOPE VI

AND NEW URBANISM, DEPA RTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT


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Public housing in the United States is housing administered by federal, state and local agencies to

provide subsidized assistance for low-income households. Now increasingly provided in a variety of

settings and formats, originally public housing in the U.S. consisted primarily of one or more

concentrated blocks of low-rise and/or high-rise apartment buildings. These complexes are operated

by state and local housing authorities, which are authorized and funded by the United States

Department of Housing and Urban Development. More than 1.2 million households currently live in

public housing of some type.

HOPE VI

HOPE VI is a plan by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development. It is

meant to revitalize the worst public housing projects in the United States into mixed-income

developments. Its philosophy is largely based on New Urbanism and the concept of Defensible

space. The programs major objectives are:

To improve the living environment for residents of severely distressed public housing by

demolishing, rehabilitating, reconfiguring, or replacing obsolete projects in part or whole;

To revitalize the sites of public housing projects and help improve the surrounding

neighborhood;

To provide housing in ways that avoid or decrease the concentration of very low-income

families; and

To build sustainable communities.


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Residents living in these developments are given four basic options:

pass the screening for the limited number of public housing units in the new development;

use a housing choice (Section 8) voucher to move into the private market. (Under the federal

voucher program, residents pay up to 40 percent of their income for rent and the voucher covers the

rest);

move to a different public housing unit, if one is available; or

leave assisted housing altogether.

HOPE VI makes use of New Urbanism, meaning that communities must be dense, pedestrian-

friendly, and transit-accessible. Housing rarely comes in the form of apartments. Instead, private

houses, duplexes, and especially for public housing projects, row houses are preferred, because these

buildings directly interact with the street. Similarly, houses always stand close to the street, with small

front yards. It is common to see porches on the buildings, as well as small apartments for single

residents built over garages or on the ground floor.


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By applying defensible space, most communities are specifically designed or remodeled with

private property, emphasizing security. Buildings are low-rise and often integrated directly into failing

urban areas, in an effort to revitalize them. Private custodianship, with individuals taking care of their

assigned part of the project, is a critical element. Likewise, providing residents with high-quality

materials and houses is believed to encourage pride in the space and an interest in keeping things in

good condition. This, theoretically, mitigates vandalism.

MULTIPLE, SERIOUS BARRIERS TO SELF-SUFFICIENCY

Not all residents will be this fortunate. Many HOPE VI families waiting to relocate have physicaland mental health problems, histories of domestic violence or substance abuse, criminal records,

or poor credit histories. These problems create severe barriers to a successful housing transition.

More than one-third of adult respondents report having a chronic illness or health condition,such as high blood pressure, diabetes, or arthritis. Further, more than one-fifth of adults have

asthma. The situation for older adults is particularly severe, with just 10 percent reporting good

or excellent health, compared with 39 percent for all adults over 65 nationally.

Mental health problems are widespread. Nearly one in three respondents (29 percent) reportspoor mental health, almost 50 percent higher than the national average. Further, nearly one in six

adults has experienced a major depressive episode within the past 12 months.

HOPE VI children are also in worse health than other children their age. One in five childrenage 6 to 14 has asthma; the figure for younger children is one in four, more than three times the

national average. Parental reports about childrens behavior suggest that mental health is also an

issue for these kids. About two-thirds of older children (age 6 to 14) have one or more reported

behavior problems; about half have two or more.


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Highlighting the impact of these barriers, fewer than half of the respondents were employedprior to relocation. These residents cited health problems and a lack of adequate child care as

major barriers to employment, along with caring for sick family members, suffering from

extreme fear and anxiety, and looking unsuccessfully for work.

Many of the elements of the program do not involve construction of buildings at all. Morefunding goes to housing assistance vouchers than in previous programs. As with the strategy of

constructing in-fill housing in middle-class neighborhoods and providing new housing for

market-rate buyers, this element helps integrate residents into existing neighborhoods, to

produce certain cohesion.

In almost all implementations of the program, housing authorities and non-profits have providedresident-assistance information programs for new homeowners, teaching them and their

neighbors how to take care of a house that they must protect.

As with welfare reform, the HOPE VI program has the potential to improve former residentslives, but it also can put vulnerable families at significant risk. Some could move to better

apartments in less distressed neighborhoods, but others might find themselves struggling to find

adequate, stable housing.

More than one- third of adult respondents report having a chronic illness or health condition,such as high blood pressure, diabetes, or arthritis. Further, more than one-fifth of adults have

asthma. The situation for older adults is particularly severe, with just 10 percent reporting good

or excellent health, compared with 39 percent for all adults over 65 nationally.


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. NATIONAL SHELTER POLICIES: NIGERIA

In Nigeria, the provision of housing has generally been seen by policy-makers as something to be

tolerated rather than desired. Housing was thus given low priority in development planning. Specific

output targets have for instance always been set for agriculture, manufacturing, roads etc., but

housing has been treated as a social overhead. A review of the past housing policies and

programmes of both the public and private sectors reveals that effective solutions to the shelter

problems are yet to be found. It has been assumed in Nigeria that general economic growth would

eventually solve these problems.

The public sector has provided only about 10 per cent of the housing stock in the country. A new

National Housing Policy was launched in 1991. The ideas included in this policy imply a redirection

of past practices. Shelter was for instance transferred from the consumer to the regional

development sector. The ultimate goal of Nigerias New National Housing Policy is to ensure that all

Nigerians own or have access to decent housing, at affordable cost, by the year 2000.

To achieve this laudable goal, the Government has decided to pursue the following policy

objectives:

Encourage and promote active participation in housing delivery by all tiers of government;

Strengthen institutions within the system to render their operations more responsive to demand;

Emphasize housing investments which satisfy basic needs;

Encourage greater participation by the private sector in housing delivery.The above objectives, among others, constitute the cardinal points for the implementation of the


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housing policy.

To accomplish these objectives, the following strategies have been adopted

: Establishment of an appropriate institutional framework to facilitate effective planning inhousing supply;

Restructuring all existing public institutions involved in housing delivery at the federal andstate government levels with a view to making them more effective and responsive to the

needs of citizens of the country;

Revive existing laws and regulations such as the Land Use Decree, planning laws etc., tofacilitate housing provision;

Improve the finances and strengthen the executive capacity of local government to enable itto contribute more effectively in housing delivery;

Mobilize private-sector participation in the provision of housing; Upgrade and rehabilitatelow- quality or sub-standard houses in urban areas as a step towards improving the quality of

the environment; Restructure the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria to serve as an apex

housing-finance institution;

Mobilize savings through the establishment of a National Housing Fund;

Ensure continuous flow of adequate funds from various sources into the apex institutionfor on-lending to other mortgage institutions;

Encourage research into and promote the use of locally produced building materials as ameans of reducing housing costs;


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Adoption of functional design standards to reduce costs and enhance socio-culturalacceptability,

safety and security and privacy;

Increase the number and improve the quality of the workforce and personnel needed in thehousing sector;

Utilize the location of housing estates and other residential neighbourhoods as an instrumentfor balanced population distribution in order to minimize associated problems of transport

and services.

The Federal Government will initiate, define and coordinate the policy options and instruments for

achieving the objectives in the housing sector, while the actual implementation will be undertaken by

appropriate agencies at federal, state and local government levels. The Federal Government will

formulate policy, coordinate, construct and monitor housing programmes and projects.

THE WAY FORWARD

Housing is an economic activity with an inherent multiplier effects. Once the housing sector is

buoyant, it would positively rub on other sectors of the economy, be it finance, building materials,

employment, real estate, and land transactions, among others. The government can accomplish a lot

in the housing sector through concerted effort and adequate funding. While the record of

government interventions in the housing sector in Nigeria looks quite impressive, policies are rarely

implemented or haphazardly implemented. In other words, Nigeria seems to be long on policy, but

very short on implementation.

The government should shift focus from full direct housing construction to that of


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providing enabling environment for the sector.

Individuals and private agencies are known to be more efficient to be in housingconstruction. Thus, given the same amount of money, individuals and private agencies are

likely to build more and better houses than the government or quasi-government agencies,

especially in a country like Nigeria where there is a high level of corruption.

The government should adopt and vigorously pursue a housing delivery strategy that isend-users driven and through the use of cooperatives, development agents, and Public

Private sector Participation (PPP).

Since most housing delivery projects are long-term investments and capital intensive,financial institutions should be encouraged to finance some of these projects.

Cooperative housing should be encouraged because most individuals are able toachieve/perform through cooperative societies.

Building materials are believed to constitute about 55% to 65% of total cost of constructioninput.

To achieve sustainable housing delivery in Nigeria, housing developers should shift fromover-dependency on imported materials to the use of local materials, such as walls, roofing,

and floor materials that are affordable and durable.

In conclusion, there are at least five powerful factors involved in the housing crisis and which are,

no doubt, beyond an individuals control, namely,

population growth,


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rapid urbanization,

natural disasters,

political upheaval, and

persistent povertyThese factors, among others, must be adequately addressed by the government if appreciable

progress is to be made in its quest for providing good housing for all

Conclusion: In the 3 scenario discussed above the situation in various stages of Development

namely we see a housing policies catering to the variety of population with their specific needs. . The

World Bank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on

public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labour

regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.


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Comparative Study of data for the Case study countries

India USA Nigeria

Population 1,220,800,358 313,933,954 140,431,790

GDP(2011

estimate)

US$ 1.779 trillion US$ 15.61 trillion US$ 273.042 billion

GDP bysectors(2011estimate)

agriculture: 18.1%

industry: 26.3%

services: 55.6%

agriculture: 1.2%

industry: 22.1%

services: 76.7%

agriculture: 35.4%

industry: 33.6%

services: 31%

Land Area 3,287,263 km2 9,629,091 km2 923,768 km2

% of populationliving on less than$2 a day

75.62% (2011) - 83.91%

Urbanpopulation as %of totalpopulation

31.3% 82.4% 49.6%

Life expectancy 65 78 51

Unemploymentrate

3.8% 7.4% 9.9%


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India USA Nigeria

Issues According to a 2011PricewaterhouseCoopersreport, India's GDP atpurchasing power parity

could overtake that ofthe United States by2045.

During the nextfour decades, IndianGDP is expected togrow at an annualizedaverage of 8%, making itpotentially the world'sfastest-growing majoreconomy until 2050.

The reporthighlights key growthfactors: a young andrapidly growing working-age population;

growth in themanufacturing sectorbecause of risingeducation andengineering skill levels;an

sustained growth ofthe consumer marketdriven by a rapidlygrowing middle class.

About 82% ofAmericans live in urbanareas (including suburbs)

The US economy iscurrently embroiled inthe economic downturn

which followed theFinancial crisis of 20072008,

There were about643,000 sheltered andunsheltered homelesspersons in the U.S. in

January 2009.

Almost two-thirdsstayed in an emergencyshelter or transitionalhousing program and theother third were livingon the street, in anabandoned building, oranother place not meantfor human habitation.

US has a lowerabsolute poverty rate by

market income thanmost other wealthynations.

The most populouscountry in Africa, 1/6thof African population.

Approximately 50% ofNigerians are urbandwellers.

The variety of customs,languages, and traditionsamong Nigeria's 389ethnic groups gives thecountry a culturaldiversity.

Nigeria suffers from a

population explosion,with a currentpopulation in excess of170 million (2012) and agrowth rate of morethan 2% p.a. (or adoubling time of about30 years), with all theassociated problemssuch as youth bulge,crime, ethnic tensionand high emigration.

Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_country http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_country http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HOPE_VI http://www.urban.org/uploadedpdf/310593_HopeVI.pdf http://www.gfmag.com/gdp-data-country-reports.html


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UN-Habitat Global Housing Strategy: Framework Document, Housing and SlumUpgrading Branch, UN Habitat

PUBLIC HOUSING DELIVERY STRATEGIES IN NIGERIA: A HISTORICALPERSPECTIVE OF POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES -Ademiluyi, I. A. ,DepartmentOf Geography and Regional Planning, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun

State, Nigeria

National Experience with Shelter Delivery for the Poorest Group, The Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000, United Nations Conference on

Human Settlements (Habitat)

Documents

Assignment 1 Urban and Rural Housing Nisha.K1350007