455

Antoine Arnauld (1612-1694), philosopher, theologian, logician, and grammarian. He was a central Jansenist figure and became the leader of Port-Royal after publishing his first book, De la fréquente communion (1643). Professor of Philosophy at the Sorbonne from 1641 to 1656, he was expelled by instigation of the Jesuits, with whom he was engaged in an intense political and theological dispute, which led to the inclusion of his work in the index (1663). In spite of the hostility of his colleagues of Port-Royal to modern thought, especially to Cartesianism, Arnauld adopted a basically Cartesian stance. A brilliant polemicist, he wrote, through Mersenne’s mediation, the Fourth Objections against Descartes's Meditations (1641). He also conducted a twenty years long philosophical and theological debate with Malebranche. He corresponded with Leibniz in two crucial moments in Leibniz's intellectual development: the elaboration of his early physics (1670-1671) and the elaboration of his mature metaphysics (1686-1690). The latter interaction, initiated with Leibniz's submission to Arnauld's consideration of the Discourse on Metaphysics (1686), yielded a sharp polemical correspondence, which remains to this day crucial for understanding Leibniz's central metaphysical views. Arnauld cooperated with Isaac Le Maître in the first translation of the Bible into French. Apart from an extensive theological work, Arnauld co-authored two books that were influential in the 17th and 18th centuries: Grammaire générale et raisonnée (1660), with Lancelot, and La logique, ou l’art de penser (1662), with Nicole.

Pierre Bayle (1647-1706), philosopher, historian of ideas, and

polemicist. His writings were marked by his sharp critical ability, which led to a sceptical attitude and, ultimately, to fideism. Born a Calvinist, he converted early in his life, under the influence of the Jesuits, to Catholicism and then back to Calvinism – a sure indication of a searching mind. Since 1675, he taught Aristotelian Philosophy at the Protestant Academy of Sedan, at the invitation of his friend, the Calvinist theologian Pierre Jurieu, with whom he later held a bitter theological, political, and philosophical

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Biographical Notes 456

controversy. After the closing of the Academy (1681) – one of the initial steps in the suppression of religious tolerance in France, which culminated with the revocation of the Edit of Nantes (1685) – he went into exile along with many other Huguenots and settled in Rotterdam, where he was a professor at the Ecole Illustre until his death. Bayle held a basically Cartesian philosophical stance, especially regarding dualism, and favored Malebranchian occasionalism as a solution to the problem of the interaction between mind and body. He corresponded with Leibniz (1687-1702), and his critique of Leibniz’s “bizarre” hypothesis of pre-established harmony in the article “Rorarius” of his Dictionary provoked Leibniz’s reaction and led to a controversy that culminated in the Théodicée – which is largely an attempt to refute Bayle’s contention that there is no possible conciliation between faith and reason. He founded and edited the important journal Nouvelles de la République des lettres (1684-1687), where he stimulated a critical exchange of ideas in all disciplines. His densely argued Commentaire philosophique (1686) remains a mainstay of the doctrine of religious tolerance and his Réponse aux questions d’un Provincial (1703-1706) argues for the views with which Leibniz most directly contends in the Théodicée. Bayle’s most influential work was the Dictionnaire historique et critique, first published in 1696, followed by many expanded and revised editions.

Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627-1704), theologian, preceptor of the

royal dauphin since 1670, Bishop of Meaux since 1681, was the éminence grise of Louis XIV’s religious politics. A prolific writer and scholar, he became a member of the French Academy in 1669. A sharp polemicist, very influential in Catholic policy, he was a severe doctrinal critic of Protestantism, against whom he wrote a series of fundamental texts, among which: Réfutation du catéchisme du pasteur Ferry (1655), Histoire des variations des Églises protestantes (1688), Avertissement aux protestants (1689-1691). He defended the view that there is a sharp contrast between the perennial truths of the Catholic Church and the unsteady course of

Relation sur le quiétisme (1698), he attacked Fénelon and Madame de Guyon and contributed to the papal condemnation of quietism in 1699. He wrote a Cartesian-inspired philosophical treatise, Traité de la connaissance de Dieu et de soi-même (publ. 1741), and his non-theological work of most impact in his time was the Discours sur l’histoire universelle (1679). He corresponded with Leibniz from 1692 to 1701, mainly debating the question of the reunification of Christian churches.

Protestant doctrine, which demonstrates the superiority of the former. In his

Bi 457ographical Notes

Louis Bourguet (1678-1742), whose earlier interest was in ancient languages and the history of the alphabet, became later on a natural scientist and member of the academy of sciences of Berlin, as well as a professor of philosophy and mathematics in Neuchâtel. He corresponded with some of Leibniz’s correspondents, through whom he got in touch with Leibniz in 1709, and remained his friend and correspondent until 1716. Their correspondence covered a broad range of topics, including cosmological issues and an interesting critique by Leibniz of the second edition of Newton’s Principia in a letter from 1715. Bourguet defended in some publications Leibniz’s scientific and metaphysical views, and studied carefully the Théodicée, about which he asked for and obtained clarifications.

Gilbert Burnet(t) (1643-1715), theologian and historian, of Scottish

origin. Studied in Aberdeen, Amsterdam, and Paris. Ordained as a priest of the Scottish Church in 1665, he becomes professor of theology in Glasgow in 1669. Since 1673 in London, where he was close to John Wilmot’s Catholic party, he had to leave England in 1683, under James II. He worked out an agreement that permitted William and Mary’s return in 1688. An active supporter of the new Protestant regime, he was appointed Bishop of Salisbury in 1689 by William of Orange. An important figure in Queen Anne’s court, he was the teacher of her son, the Duke of Gloucester. Burnet was a member of the Royal Society already in 1665 and was influenced by the “Cambridge Platonists”. Being familiar with many religious denominations, he had a tolerant orientation and defended the acceptance in the high clergy of non-conformists. His An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England (1699) contains a clear doctrinal statement that the German theologians from Berlin and Hanover considered useful for the unification of all the Protestant churches. Among his other works are The History of the reformation of the Church of England (3 volumes, 1679-1715) and An Enquiry into the measures of submission to the Supreme Authority (1688).

Thomas Burnett of Kemeny [Kemnay] (1656-1729), a relative of

Gilbert Burnet, was a jurist and amateur philosopher, who traveled throughout Europe. In the 1690’s he established close links with Princess Sophie of Hanover and corresponded with her and with Leibniz (from 1695 to 1715). Through him Leibniz’s attempts to contact Locke and his circle were conducted, with the help of Richard Bentley. Thomas Burnett met Malebranche in Paris and was arrested in the Bastille in 1702 due to his family links with Gibert Burnet. Leibniz intervened for freeing him. He

Biographical Notes 458

supported the House of Hanover’s claim to the throne of England, which Leibniz considered his great opportunity to realize his unfulfilled dream to move to London.

Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), physician, mathematician, physicist,

astrologer. Well known physician, whose services were solicited by princes and noblemen, he was the first to give a clinical description of typhus and held a chair of medicine in Pavia. His pantheistic naturalism bore the

mark

of neo-platonic influence, and his books on philosophical subjects were widely read. His work in algebra is a landmark in the history of mathematics. His Ars magna sive de regulis algebricis contains the solution of the cubic equation due to Niccolò Tartaglia. He was the first to provide the rudiments of a calculus of probabilities, in Liber de ludo aleae. He had the ability to write on scientific and philosophical subjects in a way accessible to a wide audience, as in De subtilitate rerum, Practica arithmetica et mensurandi singularis, and De proportionibus, numerorum, motuum, ponderum, sonorum, aliarumque rerum mensurandarum.

Hermann Conring (1606-1681), physician, politician, naturalist. After

studies in Leiden becomes professor of natural philosophy and then of medicine in Helmstedt. Although not a professional jurist, he is considered the founder of the history of German Law. Thanks to his broad European perspective, his services as an advisor of princes and kings were sought, including by Louis XIV. Served also as a doctor of Queen Christine of Sweden and was a supporter of Harvey’s theory of blood circulation. An Aristotelian who valued and practiced experiment, he was a vigorous opponent of hermetic, cabbalistic, astrological, and other tendencies he considered non-scientific. In Church politics, he was a Lutheran favorable to the irenic Helmstedt theologians. Through Christian von Boineburg, minister of the Duke of Brunswick, Conring got in touch with Leibniz and was instrumental in his appointment in Hanover. In their correspondence they discuss a variety of juridical, medical, theological, metaphysical, natural philosophy, and epistemological topics. He calls into question Leibniz’s notion of a demonstration as a definition-based chain of substitutions, an objection that leads Leibniz to further thoughts about his conception of analysis. They also diverge in natural philosophy. Whereas Conring espouses a mechanist mathematical reductionism, claiming that all properties of natural things are quantities, so that natural philosophy is a “concrete mathematics”, Leibniz acknowledges a qualitative aspect of nature and denies that all properties of bodies are quantifiable – even movement. In his vast intellectual production, part of

Bi 459ographical Notes

which is collected in 7 volumes (1730), Conring employed many pseudonyms.

Honoré Fabri (1608-1688), a Jesuit, was a well-known natural

scientist, philosopher, and theologian, professor of philosophy and mathematics in Lyon, and member of the Jesuit Minor Vatican Penitentiary, in charge of Inquisition-related activities. A free mind, he criticized Descartes for his doctrine of ‘subtle matter’, Huygens for his account of the rings of Saturn as explaining the planet’s origin, Pascal for his criticism of the Jesuits, and Pope Clement IX for the so-called ‘pax clementina’, which Fabri considered to be fraudulent vis-à-vis the Jansenists. He intervened in favor of Galileo, indicating the possibility of a non-literal interpretation of the biblical passages that were argued by the Church to contradict the Earth’s motion. For his defense of probabilism against the Canonists he was jailed for a short period in 1672. Although he was rehabilitated, his book on this topic remains in the Index. Leibniz appreciated his work, which he studied and annotated, and corresponded with him. Fabri’s major scientific work is Physica, id est scientia rerum corporearum (Lyon, 1669), to which many other titles could be added, such as Tractatus physicus de motu locali (Lyon, 1641), Tractatus duo, quorum prior de plantis et de generatione animalium, posterior de homine (Paris, 1666), and Philosophia universa (Lyon, 1646), where he undertakes to bring together a philosophical and a scientific general outlook. His theological views are expressed in Pithanophilus sive Dialogus de opinione probabili (Rome, 1659) and Apologeticus doctrinae moralis Societatis Iesu (Lyon, 1670) – to whose second edition (Köln, 1672), he adds a refutation of Pascal’s Provinciales [a copy of which was annotated by Leibniz (A VI 2626-2637)].

Hugo Grotius [de Groot] (1583-1645), Dutch jurist, diplomat and

politician, theologian, poet, is best known as the leader of the modern conception of natural law and the founder f the “law of nations”. An erudite humanist, Grotius edited works of Euripides, Strobaeus, Martianus Capella, and others, and was receptive to the ideas of Francisco Suárez. Henri IV of France called him “le miracle de Hollande” and introduced him to his Conseil d’Etat. He received a doctorate in Law from the University of Orléans, was appointed in 1609 historian of the General States, was Pensionary of Rotterdam, and since 1617 permanent member of theNetherlands State Council. He took part in several political, juridical, and theological controversies. His political career came to an end when he was condemned to life imprisonment at the age of 35. In 1621 he escaped from

o

4

Biographical Notes 460

prison with the help of his wife and spent the rest of his life mostly in Paris, where he became a central figure of the circle of late-humanist scholars, which included Mersenne, Fabri, and many others. It was there that he wrote his famous book De jure belli ac pacis (Paris, 1625), which had a lasting impact – among others upon Leibniz – as the founding document of modern natural law and international law. He influenced Leibniz not only for his legal and political ideas, but also as an important early figure among the scholars who worked for the irenic ideal (cf. his De veritate religionis christianae, Leiden, 1627).

Franciscus Mercurius van Helmont (1614-1699), a renowned

physician who served as a resident several aristocratic families, in England and other countries. His medical and diplomatic duties allowed him to be in touch with several scholars throughout Europe and to contribute to the circulation of ideas, some of them esoteric. He developed the doctrine, due to Paracelsus, of the archeus as the vital principle, and elaborated a monadology similar to Leibniz’s, whom he thus anticipated. According to him, the physical and spiritual world are composed of monads and is ruled by a cosmic ‘sympathy’; the monads are indivisible and eternal, but capable of development and improvement. Leibniz, who had studied his works and had met him in 1671 and 1680, invited him, prompted by Electress Sophia, to visit Hanover in 1694 in order to expound his system, which drew from Platonic, alchemist, Rosicrucian and Hermetic sources. He was closely associated with Lady Anne Conway, who introduced him to the Quakers, some of whose beliefs he adopted. Among his works, Alphabeti vera naturalis Hebraici brevisima delineatio (Sulzbach, 1667), The Divine Being and Its Attributes Philosophically Demonstrated (London, 1683), Opuscula philosophica (Amsterdam, 1690).

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), an Oxford graduate, was a public figure

and a systematic philosopher. In the service of the Earls of Devonshire as financial manager and tutor, he traveled with the young heirs in the continent, especially to France and Italy (1608-1610, 1634-1637) and met leading thinkers of the century, including Bacon, Galileo, Mersenne, Gassendi, and perhaps Locke. Exiled in France (1640-1651) by virtue of his support of English royalists, he returned to England under Cromwell. But his views on the separation between Church and State were opposed by the royalists and, along with his critique of both Anglicanism and Presbyterianism, temporarily allies under the Restoration, led to his condemnation for heresy and endangered his safety. A stern polemicist and skilled rhetorician, Hobbes criticized Descartes’s Metaphysical

Bi ographical Notes 461

Meditations, engaged in a mathematical dispute with the Oxford mathematicians John Wallis and Seth Ward, and held a long debate on freewill with the Anglican Bishop John Bramhall. He developed a comprehensive philosophical system, encompassing political philosophy, law, epistemology, and natural philosophy under the umbrella of a materialist metaphysics. The young Leibniz admired his work and corresponded with him briefly in 1670-1671. He was particularly interested in Hobbes’s nominalism, which assigned to language a constitutive role in reasoning, but criticized the relativization of truth this position led Hobbes to endorse, and was not satisfied with Hobbes’s way of dealing with the relationship between reason and faith and the determinism that his materialism was charged by Bramhall to entail. Leibniz, a partisan of natural law theory, also opposed Hobbes’s contractualism.

Pierre Daniel Huet (1630-1721), member of the French Academy and

preceptor of the Dauphin, was in his youth an enthusiastic Cartesian, who appreciated the innovative character of Descartes’s ideas. Later he became a strong critic of Cartesianism, on the grounds that he didn’t accept that the cogito and the lumiere naturelle can function as criteria of the achievement of certainty. In this spirit, he published a Censura philosophiae Cartesianae (Paris, 1689), which is presumably the book to which Leibniz refers in Chapter 38. His critique of Cartesianism is the reason why in his time he was considered a skeptic and his positions dangerous for religion. Arnauld, for instance, finds a close similarity between Huet’s Demonstratio evangelica and La Mothe le Vayer’s De la vertu des payens , and warns against its dangers (Œuvres, III, p. 400). But in fact, along with the fallible nature of human knowledge, Huet insisted that experience grants knowledge in the midst of uncertainty, and was thus closer to the ‘mitigated skepticism’ of Gassendi. His “historical method”, designed to end theological controversies by determining the truth of historical claims through the attempt to find the most ancient points of agreement between several peoples and traditions, instantiates his ‘scientific’ approach. Leibniz appreciated this method, not without some criticism thereof (see Introductory Essay, Section 4). In general, Leibniz’s assessment of Huet was, as indicated in Chapter 38 and in the correspondence with Nicaise (GP II 533), much more nuanced than that of his contemporaries. Huet’s posthumously published Traité de la faiblesse de l’esprit humain (Paris, 1722) makes clear indeed that his skepticism was far from radical. Leibniz and Huet held a long correspondence between 1673 and 1695 (partially published in GP III 1-22).

Biographical Notes 462

Daniel Ernst Jablonski (1660-1741), theologian, uncle of Comenius, was the Bishop of the Moravians, to whose exiled congregation he helped throughout his life. He studied theology at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder and Oxford, specializing in Biblical philology. Reformed preacher at Magdeburg (1683), court preacher at Königsberg (1691) and Berlin (1693), he was ordained Bishop in 1699. With the transformation of Brandenburg into the State of Prussia, Jablonski made it his main goal to unify all the (evangelical) Protestant denominations under the leadership of Prussia – the so-called ‘Unionist’ movement. He worked in close cooperation with Leibniz and Molanus for this purpose. He also cooperated with Leibniz in another project, the creation of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, founded in 1700 and inaugurated in 1711, with Leibniz as president. Jablonski was the Academy’s first vice-president and in 1737 became its president. He made a careful edition of the Old Testament (1720) and thanks to him the Berlin edition of the Babylonian Talmud was printed.

Isaac Jaquelot (1647-1708), from a Huguenot family, educated as

a

priest. After the revocation of the Edit of Nantes flees to TheHague, where he acquires a reputation as a preacher. But after the publication in 1690 of a two volume critique of Jurieu’s – leader of orthodox Calvinism in Holland –attack on Socinianism, Jaquelot has to flee once more. He is finally invited by Queen Sophie Charlotte for the position of Chaplain of the Prussian court in Berlin. Through her, Jaquelot becomes acquainted with Leibniz, with whom he met several times and corresponded from 1702 to 1706. He opposed Leibniz’s doctrine of pre-established harmony, which he believed to be inferior to Malebranche’s occasionalism, on the grounds that it “multiplied beings without necessity and created a thousand difficulties” (GP III 482) and suppressed free will (GP III 441). A sharp polemicist, he published a critique of Bayle’s doctrine of the incompatibility of faith with reason, Conformité de la foi avec la raison, ou Défense de la religion contre les principales difficultés répandues dans le Dictionnaire Historique et Critique de M. Bayle (1705), Bayle’s reply in the second volume of his Entretien de Maxime et de Thémiste (1707) being followed by Jaquelot’s Entretien de Maxime et de Thémiste, ou réponse à l’examen de la théologie de M. Bayle (1707). His critical review in the Journal des Savans of a book defending Descartes’s demonstration of God’s existence, Examen d’un écrit qui a pour titre : Iudicium de argumento Cartesii pro existentia Dei petito ab ejus idea(1701) provoked a flurry of debates in the pages of this and other journals. Probably it was also a topic in the conversations Jaquelot held with Leibniz,

“”

in which they had discussed the Cartesian proof earlier. They certainly also

Bi 463ographical Notes

discussed the proper way to refute Bayle’s views on the relationship between faith and reason; yet, though both agreed on the need to refute Bayle, their strategies of argumentation differed substantively.

Joachim Jungius (1587-1657), natural scientist, logician,

mathematician, educator, physician. Professor of mathematics in Giessen (1609-1614), studied medicine in Rostock and Padua. Professor of logic and natural philosophy in the Hamburg’s Gymnasium (1629), resigned due to conflicts with the administration and the clergy over allegations of his Calvinist tendencies, and devoted his time to research. He was the founder of the first society for the research of nature – Societas Ereunetica – in northern Europe. Its aim was to transform the investigation of nature, with the help of empirical work and a new mathematical ‘heuretics’, into an axiomatic science. His ‘empiricism’ comprised a new empirical methodology for science (Protonoetica), with the help of which chemistry was to lead to the discovery of the elements of the natural order. Jungius’s logic was anti-scholastic and he defended the independence of logic from metaphysics, as well and the application of mathematics to natural science. Although most of his writings remained unpublished, Jungius was a reputed philosopher, whom Leibniz ranked among the most important thinkers of the century. In his life he published very little – notably Geometria empirica (1627), the first three volumes of the textbook Logica Hamburgensis (1638), and Analysis logica apparentis demonstrationis libri VI (1652); his disciples published posthumously some of his manuscripts in physics and biology. In the 20th century a renewed interest in his work has yielded the publication of more so far unpublished material, e.g., additions to the Logica Hamburgensis (J. Jungius, Logica Hamburgensis, ed. by R. W. Meyer, Hamburg, J. J. Augustin, 1957) – including some of the manuscripts Leibniz was so eager to examine, 1691 fire in Vagetius’s house, where they were stored. For the remaining manuscripts, see C. Meinel, Der handschriftliche Nachlass von Joachim Jungius in der Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg, Stuttgart, Hauswedell, 1984.

Jean Le Clerc (1657-1736), born into a Calvinist family in Genève,

studied theology and philology; since 1684, professor at the Remonstrant seminar of Amsterdam. Sided with other rationalist critics of the Reformation ideology, but criticized Richard Simon’s (and Spinoza’s) contestation of Moses’ authorship of the Pentateuch. Translator of the Bible and editor of the works Er asmus in ten volumes and of Grotius’s De veritate religionis christianae, Le Clerc was also editor of three journals:

which were rescued from the

of

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464

Bibliothèque universelle et historique, Bibliothèque choisie, Bibliothèque ancienne et moderne. The 80 volumes of these journals were an important forum for debates, in which the best minds of the time participated. His major work is a study of methods of critique of sacred as well as profane, old as well as recent texts, the Ars Critica (1697; 8th ed. 1778). Philosophically, he was basically a Cartesian, but he was an admirer of Newton and a friend of Locke. He was also a critic of Bayle, especially on religious issues. Leibniz was familiar with his work, which he often mentions, not always in agreement with him.

Nicolas Malebranche (1638-1715), priest, philosopher and scientist.

After a scholastic education in high school and the Sorbonne, entered in 1660 the Oratory, an order created for increasing the religiosity of Catholic priesthood. Until he discovered and read in 1664 Descartes’s Traité de l’homme, Augustine was the major influence in his intellectual development. Through Descartes, he turned his intellectual efforts to philosophy and science. Life in the Oratory granted him plenty of free time for research and writing. He acquired the best scientific knowledge available at the time (for example, he studied the new infinitesimal calculus with the Marquis de l’Hopital), worked in microscopy, and was elected in 1699 a member of the Académie royale des sciences, where the influence of his ideas was remarkable in the controversy they provoked between two ‘parties’ – the malebranchistes and the anti-malebranchistes. Basically a Cartesian, his deep religious background led him to attempt reconciling faith and reason, which in turn implied reformulating the emblematic Cartesian theses: the founding status of the cogito, the immanence of ideas in the thinking subject, the origin of eternal truths. In his best known book, De la recherche de la vérité, où l’on traite de la nature de l’esprit de l’homme, et de l’usage qu’il en doit faire pour éviter l’erreur dans les sciences (Paris, 1674-1675 ; first published in 2 volumes, followed by several thoroughly revised and expanded editions), he elaborates the anti-conceptualist, Platonist-sounding doctrine that the objectivity of knowledge is ensured by the fact that our thought is performed through the ‘vision in God’ of ideas, rather than by ‘modifications of the mind’. This, and other philosophical ideas of Malebranche provoked intense critical reactions, notably by Simon Foucher (in his Critique de la recherché de la vérité, 1675) and by Antoine Arnauld (in his Des vrayes et des fausses idées, 1683), to which Malebranche reacted promptly and rather violently, yielding prolonged polemics (especially in the second case; cf. Dascal 1990a). Malebranche corresponded with Leibniz on several topics, ranging from physico-mathematical issues (e.g., the Cartesian principle of the

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465

conservation of the quantity of movement, of whose mistake he persuades Malebranche) to theological issues such as grace and salvation. On the issue of mind-body causality, Leibniz’s doctrine of pre-established harmony was intended to be a more reasonable alternative than Malebranche’s occasionalism; yet the latter did not vanish as easily as Leibniz had expected, and remained for quite a while a vigorous idea, supported and developed by many.

Gerhard Wolter Molanus (1633-1722), Lutheran theologian, a student

of Georg Calixt and a friend and collaborator of Leibniz. He studied theology at Helmstedt and in 1659 was appointed professor of mathematics at Rinteln, and of theology a number of years later. He held various ecclesiastical positions: director of Hanover’s consistory (since 1674), abbot of Loccum (since 1677), and was the advisor of the Electors of Hanover on religious affairs. In this capacity, he participated in the inter-confessional colloquia held in the court of Hanover with the aim of advancing the irenic project of reunion between Protestants and Catholics. Born in the midst of the Thirty Years War, he witnessed its catastrophic consequences and was strongly motivated to find the way to avoid this in the future. He was the head of the Protestant committee that negotiated with the Catholics, represented by Rojas y Sp nola and Niels Stensen, under the surveillance of Bossuet. In this capacity he prepared the protocols of the meetings and wrote two important documents: Regulae circa Christianorum omnium ecclesiasticam reunionem and Cogitationes privatae. The irenic method developed by Molanus consisted in two fundamental points: convening a truly ecumenical council with the participation of theologians and clergy from the various Christian confessions, whose decisions would be binding and would replace, on some points, those of the Council of Trent; and the acceptance by the Protestants of the Pope’s Christian primacy, a right stemming from Christian tradition. In the wake of the failure of the Protestant-Catholic nearly twenty years of negotiations, he turned his efforts to the union of the Protestants, which the Queen of Prussia, Sophie Charlotte pressed for. In all these endeavors Molanus worked as a partner of Leibniz, with whom he shared the irenic ideal, was in intense contact, and sometimes even engaged in co-writing detailed proposals for overcoming difficulties disclosed in different stages of the negotiations.

David Vincenz Placcius (1642-1699), was born and passed away in

Hamburg, studied briefly with Johannes von Felden in Helmstedt and then in Leipzig with Jakob Thomasius, becoming then Leibniz’s fellow student.

í

Returning to Hamburg he practiced law until he became in 1675 a Professor of Rhetoric and Moral Philosophy at the town’s Gymnasium. His writings include poetry, literary history, law, and philosophy. He was one of the defenders of the natural law approach and basically followed Aristotle’s ethics. His many publications include, among others, De interpretatione legum (Orléans, 1665), Institutiones medicinae moralis (Hamburg, 1667), Accessiones ethicae, juris naturalis, et rhetoricae (Hamburg, 1690). Leibniz was familiar with his work, which he discussed in a sustained and varied correspondence.

Samuel Pufendorf (1632-1694), leading natural law philosopher and

jurist in Germany. Studied theology and law at Leipzig, politics and moral philosophy at Jena, and completed his studies at Leiden. His first book, Elementorum Jurisprudentiae Universalis Libri Duo (1660) made him known and he was invited to occupy the first chair of natural and international law in Germany, at Heidelberg, where he developed natural law theory along lines that diverged from Grotius’s. In 1668 he became professor of international and natural law at Lund, where he wrote his eitght-volumes magnum opus, De jure naturae et gentium (1672), which had a huge impact for over a hundred years. Leaving academia,Pufendorf became court historian in Stockholm from 1677 to 1688, and then he occupied a similar position at the court of the Elector of Branderburg, in Berlin. As a political historian, his horizon transcended the scope of his duties and revealed a global European perspective. His De statu Imperii Germanici (1667), published under a pseudonym, undertook to show the inconsistencies of the dual structure of the Holy Roman Empire, with the emperor in Vienna and the Electors in Germany sharing power and sovereignty. Leibniz, contrary to him, considered these inconsistencies merely apparent and viewed the structure of the Empire as a model for a federative state. Leibniz also diverged from Pufendorf in the field of natural law and the controversy between them in fact went beyond specific issues in any given field, expressing rather different perspectives in law, politics, theology, and history (see Döring, Forthcoming).

Petrus Ramus or Pierre de la Ramée (1515-1572) was one of the most

widely read Renaissance humanists, among whom he enjoyed much prestige due to his outspoken anti-Aristotelian stance. His M.A. dissertation, Quaecumque ab Aristotele dicta essent commentitia esse (Paris, 1536) had immediate impact and its ideas were further developed in Aristotelicae Animadversiones and Dialecticae Partitiones (both published in Paris, 1543). He undertook to replace formal Aristotelian logic by a new,

466 Biographical Notes

rhetoric-based “dialectics”, which he considered to be closer to natural argumentation and more useful for discovery. The Sorbonne’s reaction to his ideas led to their condemnation by royal decree (1544). He was rehabilitated by Henry II and held a chair at the Royal College of Paris (1551). His prolific production includes also Institutiones dialecticae (Paris, 1543), Platonis epistolae latinae (Paris, 1549), Ciceronianus (Paris, 1557), Scholae gramaticae (Paris, 1559), Scholae dialecticae (Basel, 1559), and much more. His work was very influential in his time.

Nicolas-François Remond ‘Chef des Conseils’ of the Duke of was

Orléans, Regent of France after Louis XIV’s death. His brother,Pierre Remond de Montmort, a mathematician, member of the Académie des Sciences and of the Royal Society, author of a treatise on games, also corresponded briefly with Leibniz. After reading the Théodicée, Nicolas- François became an enthusiastic supporter of Leibniz, describing himself as his faithful disciple. The correspondence between them, initiated in 1713, continued until Leibniz’s death. Remond was associated with other Leibniz supporters in Paris, including Varignon who was very active in the Leibniz-Newton struggle about the calculus. Remond was in fact an important link between Leibniz and what was going on in England at the time, especially through the Venetian Conti who became a close friend of Newton. But his interests were quite broad, ranging from mathematics and politics to literature and philosophy, and he informed Leibniz about what was going on in the Republique des Lettres.

Gilles Personne de Roberval (1602-1675) was an influential physicist

and mathematician, creator of a balance that bears his name, and leading figure in the research on infinitesimals that led to the development of the calculus. He was a founding member of the Académie des Sciences and a friend of leading scientists of his time, such as Marin Mersenne, Jean Gallois (editor of the Journal des Sçavans), Etienne and Blaise Pascal, Christian Huygens, Pierre Gassendi, and Pierre de Fermat. A severe critic of Descarte s Discours de la Méthode, as well as of his mathematics, he sided with Fermat in his acrimonious polemics with Descartes. In January 1675, Leibniz discussed with him in Paris the mistakes in Descartes’s Geometry and in November-December, after his death, examined the manuscript he had left of his Elementa geometrica. Jean Galois, with the support of Colbert and the Duke of Chevreux, proposed Leibniz for the chair of Roberval in the Académie des Sciences (Müller and Krönert 1969: 37, 39-40). He authored a Traité de Méchanique des poids soustenus par des puissances sur les plans inclinéz à l’horizon (Paris, 1636) and edited

Biographical Notes 467

’

468 Biographical Notes

Aristarch of Samos’ De mundi systemate, parties et motibus eiusdem (Paris, 1644). His posthumously published works include Traité de Géometrie (publ. 1996), Les principes du devoir et des connaissances humaines (publ. 1992), Traité des indivisibles (publ. 1987).

Cristobal Rojas y Spínola (1626-1695) was Bishop of Thina from

1666 to 1686, when he was appointed by Emperor Leopold Bishop of Wiener-Neustadt. Throughout his life, he endeavored to bring about the reunification of the Christian churches. For this purpose he traveled widely and held reunification meetings with leading Lutheran theologians, e.g., G. W. Molanus, a close associate of Leibniz. Rojas y Spínola’s treatise Regulae circa christianorum omnium ecclesiasticam reunionem (1683), reprinted many times, formed the basis for the meetings held in Hanover in 1683. Leibniz’s relations with Rojas y Spínola began in 1679 and continued virtually until the latter’s death. Leibniz regarded highly Rojas y Spínola, and even considered writing his biography – one of the many projects he didn’t carry out. For more information on Rojas y Spínola, see R. Mäumer (1999).

Faustus Sozzini (Socinus) (1539-1604), following his uncle Laelius

Socinus (1525-1552), was an anti-Trinitarian theologian, whose doctrine influenced the rise of English Unitarianism and represented a major contribution to the rationalist trend in 17th century theology. Denounced by the Inquisition in 1559, he took refuge in Zürich. From 1563 to 1574 he lived in the Medici court in Florence, where he developed his doctrines, which he defended in public controversies in Switzerland in 1574. Since 1579 he lived in Poland, where he was the leader of the anti-Trinitarian community of the ‘Polish Brothers’ until 1683, when he took refuge from persecution in small Polish villages. In the turn of the century, the so-called Raków Catechism, spelling out the Socinian creed, is elaborated and translated into several languages (published in 1630 as De vera religione). The Polish Socinians were forced into conversion or exile by the Polish Diet, and dispersed throughout Europe; communities survived in several regions up to the 19th century. Socinus is a ‘rationalist’ interpreter of Christian faith, according to Leibniz’s classification in Chapter 2, because he argued, in many polemical writings, against those who do not employ their own reason in establishing the articles of faith relevant for salvation. Among his works, De Sanctae Scripturae Auctoritate (ca. 1580), Refutatio libelli, quem Jacobus Vuiecus Jesuita anno 1590 polonice edidit, de divinitate Filii Dei et Spiritus Sancti (1594), Christianae religionis

Biographical Notes 469 brevissima institutio per interrogationes et responsiones, quam Catechismum vulgo vocant (ca. 1603).

Francisco Suárez (1548-1617), philosopher, theologian, jurist. His

education was oriented towards an ecclesiastic career: he studied Canonic law, philosophy and theology at the University of Salamanca. He then taught philosophy and theology in several universities: Salamanca, Valladolid, Alcalá, Collegio Romano, and Coimbra. A Jesuit who contributed significantly to the revival of scholasticism, his initial work is a famous commentary on Thomas Aquinas’s Summa Theologica, published in 1590. In his most important philosophical work, Metaphysicarum Disputationum tomi duo (1597), he developed an original conception of metaphysics, defending the thesis of the ontological and epistemological primacy of the individual. This operates a radical transformation of metaphysics with anthropological and political implications, for it leads to the assertion of the value of human nature and the autonomy of civil society. In this respect, Suárez is a precursor of the Christian natural law theorists. Leibniz discusses his conceptions of matter and form in the Disputatio Metaphysica de Principio Individui (1663; A VI 1 12), and of cause in the Preface to Nizolius (1670; A VI 2 418) and in Chapter 2, paragraph 28), as well as in his later writings. Suárez’s Opera omnia comprises 28 volumes (ed. Vives, Paris, 1856-1861).

Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (155/160 B.C. – after 220

A.D.). Early Christian author from Carthage, born in a pagan family, had a good intellectual upbringing, especially in Law, which is manifest in his writings after conversion. A masterful Latin writer and well versed in Greek, he created about a thousand neologisms designed to express Christian concepts. He combated Gnosticism, but became a leader of Montanism, whose last “tertullians” returned to Christian orthodoxy in 438, under the influence of Augustine. About thirty of his writings have been preserved. Among them, the Apologeticum, addressed to the magistrates, which contests the legality of lawsuits against the Christians and affirms that the human soul is naturally Christian. In De praescriptione haereticorum, he denies the heretics the right of using the Scriptures and argues that faith and reason are incompatible. Although he does not expressly employ the formula “I believe because it is absurd” (credo quia absurdum est), usually attributed to him, he defends the view that faith does not need the support of philosophy: “it is believable because it is foolish, … certain because it is impossible” (credibile est quia ineptum… certum est quia impossibile). Leibniz refers often to his juridical thought and makes

470 Biographical Notes

use of his terminology; he also compiled approvingly what he considered to be important elements of his Eucharistic ideas (“De locis Tertulliani circa Eucaristiam”, 1677-1680; A VI 4 2533-2539).

Christian Thomasius (1655-1728), son of Jakob Thomasius,

teacher Leibniz

in Leipzig, was a philosopher and jurist, who taught at Leipzig and Halle, where he was one of the founders of the new university. He was in volved in several controversies, including with his former student Gabriel Wagner, with the Pietists, and with the doctrinarian orthodoxy prevalent in Leipzig. Thomasius, influenced by Pufendorf, adhered to natural law theory, to which he was an important contributor. A critic of the aristocracy’s culture mondaine, he defended however a strict separation of Law, politics and theology from ecclesiastical authority and faith. He corresponded occasionally with Leibniz, who was well informed about his work, of which he was often critical. In addition to his juridical works, he wrote about a wide range of topics, and was considered by Diderot, along with Bruno, Cardano, Bacon, Campanella, Descartes, Hobbes, Leibniz, Le Clerc, and Malebranche, a representative of eclecticism, “that philosophy which is so reasonable”, whose practitioners exercise “the most beautiful prerogative of humankind, the freedom of thinking by oneself” (Encyclopédie, article “Eclectisme”).

Johann Gabriel Wagner (1660-1717), studied in Leipzig and Halle

under Christian Thomasius. While a teacher of philosophy in the Hamburg Gymnasium, he got in

ever since they had

a substantive philosophical relationship. Little is known about his life, except that he frequently got into trouble. The last known report about him is by a scholar from Göttingen, who writes in 1717 that Wagner came to see him “in a pitiful shape” (Jaumann 2004: 694). As soon as he obtained his doctoral degree, he launched a virulent critique of his teacher’s Christian Thomasius Introductio in Philosophiam Aulicam (1691), titled Discursus et dubia in ChTh Introductionem in Philosophiam Aulicam (1691), which he signed with the pseudonym ‘Realis de Vienna’. The rift between them deepened after further attacks by Wagner on Thomasius’s (whom he ironically dubbed ‘the Socrates of the Germans’) subsequent work. This is only an example of Wagner’s character and sharp polemical attitude, which also prevented him from obtaining steady employment. In Hamburg he was expelled from the Gymnasium due to the weekly criticism he leveled in his Vernunftübungen against traditional forms of thought. An independent and original mind, historiographers now view him as an important figure in the German ‘Radical Enlightenment’ of the late 17th and

’s

touch with Leibniz in 1696, and

’s

Biographical Notes 471

early 18th century, a member of what Herder in 1794 called “the society of our invisible ones” (Jaumann 2004: 695), whose work is part of the ‘clandestine’ philosophical literature of the time. He did indeed express and forcefully argue for what were quite radical positions in his time, such as a version of materialism defending the priority of physics, a cultural nationalism claiming the superiority of the Germans’ understanding over that of all others German as a scientific language, as well as a peculiar theory of mind. In spite of all this, Leibniz corresponded with him until 1708 and supported him materially and morally on several occasions. Wagner’s (i.e., Realis de Vienna’s) publications also include Responsum philosophicum ad Christiani Thomasii quaestionem de definitione substantiae (1693), Prüfung des Versuchs Vom Wesen des Geistes (1707), Meditatio de gravitatis et cohaesionis causa (1712).

Erhard Weigel (1625-1699), a mathematician, inventor and

philosopher, was a highly esteemed teacher of Leibniz in Jena, where he was professor of mathematics. It is said that another of his famous students there, the jurist Samuel Pufendorf, developed his conception of natural law on the basis of one of Weigel’s lectures. For Weigel, mathematics was the complete model for all thought, thus occupying the position of a General Science or Universal Mathematics –ideas later developed by Leibniz, albeit along different lines. Weigel elaborated the Pythagorean doctrine that numerical relationships underlie everything and applied it to, in addition to natural philosophy, moral philosophy and moral pedagogy, as well theology. He created an ‘art of calculating’ for the learning and practicing of moral virtues, demonstrated mathematically the mystery of the trinity, and applied his pan-mathematic view to numerous other subjects. Among his writings, Synopsis jurisprudentiae mnemoneutica (1669), Idea matheseos universa (1669), Pancosmos aetherus et sublunaris (1670), Universi corporis pansophici Pantologia (1673), Arithmetische Beschreibung der Moral-Weisheit von Personen und Sachen (1674), Compendium logisticae (1691).

and of

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Austin, J. L. 1962. How to Do Things with Words. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Barenboim, D. and Said, E.W. 2004. Parallels and Paradoxes: Explorations in Music and Society. New York: Vintage Books.

Baruzi, J. 1907. Leibniz et l’organisation religieuse de la terre Paris: F. Alcan.

Baruzi, J. 1909. Leibniz. Avec de nombreux textes inédits. Paris: Bloud et Cie. Belaval, Y. 1960. Leibniz critique de Descartes. Paris: Gallimard. Beyssade, J.-M. and Marion, J.-L. (eds.). 1994. Descartes: Objecter et

Répondre. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. Biermann, K.R. 1967. Überblick über die Studien von Leibniz zur

Warscheinlichkeitsrechnung. Sudhoffs Archiv 51(1): 79-85. Blank, A. 2003. Incomplete entities, natural non-separability, and Leibniz’s

response to François Lamy’s De la connaissance de soi-même. The Leibniz Review 13: 1-17.

Blank, A. Forthcoming. Ramus and Leibniz on analysis. In Dascal (ed.) [a] Boucher, P . Forthcoming

Bourbaki, N. 1960. Eléments d’histoire des mathématiques. Paris: Hermann. Breger, H. 1989. Symmetry in Leibnizian physics. In The Leibniz

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Brosseder, J. 1967. Oekumenische Theologie. München: Max Hueber. Cajori, F. 1925. Leibniz – the master builder of mathematical notations. Isis

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481

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557-573. 2 :

483

Subject Index Abandonment, 244, 342, 343-344,

348, 351-353, 355, 394 Absolutism, 6 Abstract, 18, 90, 121, 126, 153,

271, 276, 278, 338, 340, 384, 390, 445

Absurdity, lxviii, 81, 183, 186, 210, 354, 415, 424, 425, 446, 469

Academy, liii, lxii, 278, 442 edition, xvii, xxii, 29, 35, 41, 89,

114, 147, 168, 178, 225, 235, 243, 251, 300, 309, 340, 342, 347, 351, 355, 370, 372, 455-457

Accident, 184, 220, 223, 265, 345, 411

Accommodation, xxxix, 26, 249 Action, lvi, 6, 51, 57, 116, 137,

163, 191, 200, 243, 268, 387, 399, 409, 411, 438

legal, 40, 70, 165, 286, 287, 343-347, 352, 354-355, 395-397

moral, 40 principle of, 15, 340

Ad hominem, 201, 205, 210, 313 Adept, 170 Admonition, 175, 195 Adversary, xxxi, xlii,, lxv, lxvii, 3,

51, 62, 72, 111-114, 117, 143, 145, 146, 148, 156, 158, 159, 163, 173, 201, 204-206, 210, 249, 319, 354

Affection, 17, 85, 144, 153, 387 Agent, 40, 289

free, 186 legal, 289, 396 moral, 40

Agreement, lxi, 47, 81, 112, 125, 161, 193, 199, 218, 228, 230, 251, 260, 261, 329, 334, 335, 380, 393, 394, 395, 403, 413, 438 see also Consensus

Alchemy, 170, 271, 303, 460 Algebra, 97-98, 103, 134, 136,

137, 141, 216, 228, 260, 264, 267, 275, 276, 280, 281, 296, 379, 384,

Allegation, 71, 154, 155, 260, 390, 463

Alphabet of human thoughts, 102, 119,

120, 122, 217, 264 Ambiguity, xlvii, 10, 20, 22, 23,

29, 62, 79, 80, 121, 143, 146, 179, 207, 257

Amphiboly, 80, 89 Amplification, 76, 388 Analysis, xxxii, xlv, lxii, 33, 41,

84, 86, 90, 91, 93, 94, 99, 102, 103, 116, 119, 132, 135, 140, 141, 202, 214-217, 220, 221, 223, 229, 235, 263-267, 271, 272, 275, 276, 279, 280, 286, 296, 302, 325, 366, 371, 384, 430,433, 443, 458 see also Resolution

Ancestor, 346, 347 Ancient, xix, xlii, lii, 18, 31, 87,

125, 160, 188, 218, 228, 232, 233, 314, 345, 374, 401, 405, 431, 439, 448, 457, 461

Anglican, 359, 370, 399, 415, 461 Animal, 26, 139, 184, 384, 385, 436

seminal, 436 Antagonist, 306, 307

484

Antecedent, 9, 11, 12, 83, 198, 262, 409, 416

Antichrist, 257, 318, 331 Apodictic, 47 Apostate, 51, 362, 370 Apostles, 53, 308, 333, 334 A posteriori, 84, 85, 97, 222, 229,

271, 272, 425, 441 Apparence, 50, 181 Appearance, lxviii, 82, 104, 106,

172, 181, 183, 193, 222, 224, 426, 437, 438

Apperception, 197, 389 see also Consciousness

Application, 46, 168-173, 182, 197, 199, 204, 235, 267, 268, 424 see also Attention

A priori, xxvii, 84, 85, 94, 96, 97, 114, 222, 229, 266, 271, 424, 425, 441

Arbitrariness, lxvii, xxxi, l, lxiii, 7, 68, 84, 86, 91, 132, 134, 189, 310, 327, 355, 416

Argumentation, xxi, xxi, 2, 3, 25, 29, 39, 49, 65, 70, 77-92, 125, 144, 163, 218, 221, 239, 321, 323, 341-357, 416, 436, 451, 463, 467

Aristotelian, xxx, 70, 78, 80, 90, 91, 147, 157, 199, 218, 240, 264, 279, 377, 387, 388, 429, 433, 455, 458, 466

Arithmetic, xxxiii, 19, 22-24, 115, 116, 119-128, 137, 180, 186, 214-217, 225, 228, 264, 267, 275, 281, 296, 368, 379, 382, 384, 440

binary, 120, 125, 126 Art

of characters, 220, 263-269 see also Characteristic

of combinations, 94, 96, 220, 224, 275, 278, 430, 433 see also Combinatory

of conversation, 5, 147, 170, 171, 185, 298 see also Conversation

of cunning, 136 of defining, 272, 281, 439 see

also Definition of dialogue, xvi, liv, lv, lix, lxv,

26, 72, 167, 431 see also Dialogue

of discovery, see of inventing of disputing, xxx, xxxi, xliii,

1-6, 10, 36, 66, 145, 155-157, 217, 226, 248, 286, 297, 298, 415 see also Disputatio, Disputation, and Dispute

of divination, 136, 402, 413 of exegesis, 381 of experimenting, xxxvii, 378 of expounding, 386, 430 see also

Method, expository of formulae, 136 of interpreting, 70, 71 see also

Interpretation of interrogating, xxxiv, xxxvii,

36, 37, 378 of inventing, xix, 93-98, 121,

130, 135, 136, 275-283, 368

of judging, 93, 121, 135, 213 see also Judgment

of legislating, 289 see also Legislation

mnemonic 136 see also Memory of practice, 384 of speech, 31, 86, 135, 147, 173,

482 see also Rhetoric of subtlety, 220, 380 see also

Subtle of thinking, see Thinking, art of of understanding, 134, 375 of verifying, 40, 430

Subject Index

485

Assertion, 2, 15, 30, 50, 210, 382, 393

Assumption, lxii, lxiii, 84, 105, 178, 199, 210, 216, 241, 280, 290, 371, 401, 419

Astronomy, 82, 138, 229, 375, 452 Atheism, 237, 239, 306, 307,

370, 425 Attention, 3, 20, 39, 43, 59, 71,

144, 157, 165, 172, 176, 194, 197, 257, 383, 414

Audience, liv, 3, 30, 51, 52, 62, 124, 147, 148, 158, 198, 201, 204, 380

Authenticity, 10, 145, 158, 197, 366 Authority, 4, 7, 36-38, 51-53, 56,

76, 78, 121, 194, 210, 259, 296, 336, 344, 406, 419, 421, 470

of Church, 56, 63, 160, 161, 197, 247, 255, 257-260, 317-319, 325-327, 332, 333, 335-337, 339, 340, 402, 453

divine, 49, 52, 134, 421 institutional, 7, 16, 51, 191, 335,

355, 356 of judge, 53, 56, 345 moral, 56, 63 public, 16, 36 of Scripture, 53, 152 way of, xxxix

Axiomatic, 134, 141, 209, 241, 360, 463

Axiomatization, 140, 371 Balance see also Scales

of law, 35-40 of reason, xxxi, xliv, lxvii,

lxviii, 7, 8, 19, 20, 30, 89, 168, 173, 179, 248, 263, 372

of reasons, xxvii, 6, 15, 22, 36, 70, 71,124, 126, 160, 181, 200, 201, 241, 242, 263, 267, 290, 318, 323, 344, 353, 436, 404

Baptism, 314, 340, 412, 417 Barbarian, 86, 123, 126, 130, 307, 405 Beauty, 143, 147, 148, 169, 185,

186, 193, 195, 264, 315 Begging the question, 294 Being, supreme, 29, 30 Believe

change of, xlv, 241-245 obligation to, 41-47, 325

Believer, xxi, xxvi, lxvi, 13, 53, 317, 332, 333, 339, 340

Benevolence, 351, 378, 400 Bible, 56, 148, 159, 190, 362, 453,

455, 459, 462, 463 see also Scripture

Body, 11-14, 37, 50, 138, 183, 223, 265, 269, 302, 359, 436, 438, 456, 465

Bookkeeping, 130, 215, 379 Brabeum, 50 Cabbala, 119, 120, 220, 264,

298, 458 Calculation, xlii, lxvii, 19, 21, 22,

105, 141, 180, 217, 266, 280, 296, 379

Calculative, lxvi, lxix, 141, 198, 208, 214

Calculus, xxxi, xxxiii, xxxv, lx, lxiv, lxix, 29, 66, 93, 102, 106, 123, 129, 134, 141, 148, 213, 215, 216, 241, 264, 267, 290, 301, 385, 389, 458, 464, 467

Calvinism, xxv, xxvi, 24, 26, 259, 262, 319, 321, 399, 414, 415, 417, 433, 442, 451, 453, 455, 462, 463 see also Church, Reformed

Subject Index

Canonist, xxxiv, 38, 40, 161, 459 Cartesianism, xxxii, lx, lxii, lxvii,

24, 29, 103, 127, 141, 198, 209, 211, 214, 216, 237, 259, 374, 375, 387, 389, 433, 443, 446, 448, 455, 456, 461, 462, 464

Casting of lots, 17, 20, 24 out nines, 22, 24, 141, 267, 281

Casuism, 40, 324, 414, 429, 430, 433 Category, 85, 91, 121, 122, 223,

376, 377, 387 Catholicism, lvii, 7, 16, 24, 41, 55,

152, 153, 154, 161, 167, 198, 201, 241, 243, 248, 253, 261, 305, 309-327, 329-340, 415, 416, 451, 455, 465 see also Church, Catholic

Cause, 13, 199, 332, 411, 471 Certainty, xliv, lxvii-lxix, 7, 14, 28,

31, 36, 42, 46, 52, 61, 62, 82, 86-88, 113, 124, 125, 133, 141, 158, 169, 177, 179, 181, 183, 194, 198, 210, 233, 264, 266, 267, 271, 275, 276, 279, 280, 290, 296, 316, 326, 331, 337, 348, 392, 401, 402, 410, 412, 420, 424-426, 452, 461, 469 see also Necessity and Uncertainty

absolute, lxvii, lxviii, 226, 231, 371 413

geometrical, 153, 178, 265 logical, 222, 425 metaphysical, 222, 223, 366, 436 moral, 16, 185, 223, 365, 366 physical, 223

Chance, 4, 17, 18, 24, 37, 43, 95, 97, 106, 176, 183, 185, 186, 204, 264, 267, 288, 329, 402

Chaos, 436, 437

Character, 95, 103, 120, 121, 135, 220, 271, 272, 277, 278, 294, 296

Characteristic numbers, 119-127 universal, 93, 217, 263, 271,

277, 286, 295 see also Art of characters

Charity, 52, 56, 61, 90, 125, 155, 169, 190, 192, 243, 244, 256, 320, 333, 337, 346, 442 see also Principle of

Cheating, 36, 143, 183, 228, 392 Christ, 5, 9, 12, 13, 14, 38, 53, 56,

103, 160, 164, 174, 243, 247, 249, 252, 254, 257, 312, 323, 332, 334, 368

Church Catholic, 8, 62, 63, 162, 243-245,

250, 252, 255-261, 314, 330-335, 337-340, 405, 414, 453, 456

of England, 399-417 Fathers, xix, 61, 148, 159, 160,

364, 447 Gallican, 254, 260 Greek, 161, 245, 340 Latin, 161, 244 Oriental, 318 particular, 244 primitive, 149, 151 Reformed, xxvi, xliv, 10, 14, 23,

24, 54, 245, 251, 318, 405, 462

Roman, see Catholic true, 63, 201, 259, 313, 319 universal, 63, 244, 245, 252-254,

260, 362, 415 Clarity, lxv, 79, 80, 134, 141, 143,

147, 158, 206, 207, 280 Clashing, xxxix, xlvii, 50, 141, 205,

249, 256, 290, 327, 342, 395, 423

486 Subject Index

Class, 63, 99, 103 Classification, 94, 130, 166, 266,

286, 287, 289-301, 376, 468 Coexistence, xxiv, xxvii, 243 Cogito, 209, 211, 461, 464 Collegiant, 442, 443 Color, 52, 101-104, 138, 220, 311,

363, 438 Combinatory, 30, 94, 96, 99, 103,

129, 155, 208, 287, 325, 356 see also Art of combinations

Communication, xxiii, xxiv, xxviii, lxii, lxvi, 30-32, 89, 121, 126, 140, 143, 221, 323, 330, 359, 438, 448

oral, 2, 4, 52, 53, 154, 298, 302, 380 written, lv, 2, 4, 11, 53, 72, 192,

204, 232, 264-266, 348, 350, 361, 365, 382, 394

Communion, 244, 245, 249, 255, 256, 316, 320, 330, 333, 334, 338

Companion, lvi, 191, 195, 231, 282 Compensation, 126, 148, 158, 183,

207, 289, 300, 441, 447 Complaint, 67, 69, 77, 158, 287-290,

300, 305, 381 Complexity, lxii, 33, 91, 102, 121,

122, 209, 220, 221, 224, 225, 266, 312, 323, 342, 377, 379, 387, 403

Composition, lxvi, 91, 98, 224, 413 Comprehensible, 123, 238, 239,

298 see also Incomprehensible and Intelligible

Computing, lxix, 21, 22, 24, 88, 91, 126, 135, 241, 263, 372

Concept, xxi, xxviii, xxxii, xlvii, lvii, 75, 84, 86, 91, 102, 103, 119, 120, 134, 141, 217, 219-221, 223, 224, 240, 271, 295, 302, 325, 371, 373, 414, 432

Concession, xxxix, 14, 30, 143, 163, 210, 248, 256, 257, 260, 323, 329, 336

Conciliation, xxi, xxv, xlviii, lix, 60, 88, 167, 168, 252, 265, 275, 405, 413, 415, 416, 421, 456 see also Moderation and Reconciliation

Conclusive, 59, 125, 135, 217, 341, 356, 357

non-conclusive, xlvii, 214, 319 Concordance, 265 Concrete, 75, 90, 143, 298, 323,

390, 458 Condemnation, xxviii, 8, 240, 253,

254, 305, 307, 308, 317, 327, 340, 409, 414, 427, 453, 456, 460, 467

non-condemnation, 261 Condescension, 86, 249, 253, 256,

260, 323 Condition, 27, 88, 107, 108, 175,

213, 247, 258, 334, 393 Confession, Augsburg, 155,162,

250, 251, 260, 261, 335, 416, 442

Conflict, xxiii, xxiv, xxxix, liv, 5, 14, 18, 30, 31, 87, 88, 92, 144, 161, 163, 210, 244, 248, 256, 302, 318, 323, 327, 340, 401, 409, 414, 453

Confrontation, xxi, xxvii, l, lvi, lxix, 177, 305, 415, 421

Confusion, xliii, lxiii, lxvi, 1-6, 12-14, 132, 138, 174, 206, 213, 215, 221, 235, 259, 279, 295, 440

Congruence, li, 265, 394, 413 Conjecture, xxxv, lxiii, lxiv, 36,

75, 81, 86, 87, 89, 233, 263, 267, 269, 322, 348, 351-353, 431, 435-443

487Subject Index

Conscience, 35, 38, 95, 155, 183, 188, 206, 242-245, 256, 311, 319, 321, 331, 430, 433

Consciousness, 38, 43-45, 157, 311, 324 see also Apperception

Consensus, xxix, xlviii, l, li, 16, 53, 61, 132, 210, 218, 348, 393, 396, 403, 413

Consequent, 9, 11, 83, 87-89, 158, 165, 180, 197, 409, 413

Conspiracy, 318, 357 Contender, xxix, xxxix, xli-xliii,

xlv, xlvii, lx, lxiv, 49-54, 55, 146, 248, 259, 301, 403 see also Opponent, Proponent, and Respondent

Contest, xlii, lxiv, 49-52, 62, 124, 145, 404

Context, 67, 77, 79, 90, 101, 248 Contingency, xxxiii, lvi, 35, 36, 63,

144, 185, 211, 265, 266, 380, 381, 384, 400, 402, 403, 410, 411, 417, 426, 448

Continuity, 3-5, 192, 220, 287, 334, 413

Contract, 36, 40, 70, 108, 166, 288, 391-397

bare, 391, 395 dressed, 391, 395 formal, 391 nude, 132 quasi-contract, 396

Contradiction, xx, l, 9, 30, 60, 84, 88, 141, 173, 180, 185, 201, 205, 221, 259, 265, 362 see also Principle of

Controversy, see also Contest, Debate, Discussion, Dispute, and

perplex, 345, 347 philosophical, 7, 271

religious, 8, 16, 51, 55, 63, 225 sacred, 49-54 semi-mathematical, 381 theological, 156, 218, 271,

305-308, 379, 459, 461 theoretical, 16, 68

Conversation, lv, lvii, 26, 72, 121, 130, 147, 167-169, 174, 247, 380, 462 see also Art of conversation

Conversion, 125, 196, 199, 259, 412, 468, 469

Conviction, 3, 31, 32, 145, 146, 173, 177, 178, 186, 192, 194, 195, 202, 279, 254, 300, 306, 315, 316, 378, 382 see also Persuasion

Correspondence, xxiv, lii, liii, lxxi, 89, 101, 138, 285-303, 341-357

Corruption, 170, 173, 306, 410, 412, 417

Council Ecumenical, xxiv, 151, 250, 254,

257, 329, 333-335, 338, 465

general, 162, 251, 252, 255, 333-335

Lateran, 162, 239, 240, 250, 260, 339, 340, 425

legitimate, 251, 255, 262, 325-327, 329, 335

of Basel, 260, 339 of Carthage, 340 of Florence, 155, 254, 337, 340 of Jerusalem, 253, 261 of Constance (Konstanz), xli,

260, 363, 369 of Lyon, 337, 340 of Nicaea, 314, 339 of Palestine, 307, 308 see also of

Jerusalem

488

Judge of

Subject Index

of sages, 6 of Trent, xxxix, xli, 53, 199,

245, 250-253, 255, 260, 261, 262, 318, 321, 322, 325, 329, 336, 465

universal, 255 Creativity, 116, 141, 275 Creature, 61, 186-188, 194, 362,

437, 438 Crime, 183, 237, 288, 356,

357, 401 Criticism, xx, xxx-xxxii, xlii, lvii,

lviii, 8, 9, 22, 40, 73, 81, 98, 102, 126, 129, 161, 173, 197, 224, 237, 240, 260, 291, 294-297, 302, 323, 324, 361, 362, 371, 373, 375, 388, 401, 415, 416, 420, 443

Crowd, 332 Culpability, 243, 288, 305, 344,

345, 409 Cult, 165, 172, 189, 196, 256, 257,

310, 338, 362, 412 see also Rite

Cunning, 151, 255, 352 see also Art of

Curve, 33, 94, 97, 98, 103 algebraic, 97, 98, 103 transcendent, 94, 97, 98, 103

Custom, 9, 27, 71, 81, 129, 170-173, 180, 260, 261, 343, 345, 401

Damnation, 319, 320, 322, 333,

334, 414 Data, xxxiii, xxxvii, xlii, 28, 125,

138, 214, 217, 226, 227, 231, 235, 264, 267, 268, 269, 276, 290, 296, 385, 430

Death, 175, 176, 188, 227, 229, 344, 435, 467

Debate, xx, xxiii, xxiv, xxvii, xxviii, xlii, xliii, xlv, xlvii, liii, lxiv, 5, 7, 8, 27, 28, 35, 36, 47, 50, 65, 143, 145, 146, 158, 196, 199, 201, 214, 248, 260, 302, 305, 312, 315, 321, 323, 341, 355, 359, 386, 389, 391, 400, 415, 416, 421

Decision, xxxi, xxxix, lix, lxix, 2, 4, 7, 8, 17, 19, 49, 56, 58, 65, 66, 69, 81, 92, 134, 147, 196, 207, 228, 233, 252, 253, 255, 257, 262, 320, 325-327, 329, 334, 335, 345, 357, 371, 380, 381, 409, 416, 425

Declaration, 32, 63, 154, 162, 230, 251-253, 257, 258, 342, 357, 361

Decree, 53, 69, 161, 254, 260, 262, 333, 403, 404, 410, 412, 414, 416

Deductive, xxxi, xxxiii, xliv, lxviii, lxix, 65, 93, 198, 213, 371-373 see also Conclusive and Demonstrative

Definition, 21-23, 29, 31, 32, 46, 47, 56, 78, 80, 84-86, 90, 91, 129, 132-134, 218, 220, 271-273, 280, 302, 322, 325-327, 366, 383, 385, 438, 440, 443 see also Art of defining

indefinable, 21 Deliberation, 3, 8, 37, 38, 124, 126,

147, 156, 158, 173, 225, 226, 228, 230, 235, 403

Demonstration, 15, 30, 31, 44, 83, 84, 108, 134, 217, 239, 275 see also Proof

489Subject Index

Demonstrative, xlvii, lxiii, lxiv, lxvi, 1, 32, 47, 86, 130, 209, 218, 231, 233, 264, 277-279, 286, 366, 372, 425

non-demonstrative, lxviii, 136, 198, 426, 440, 452

Deontic, 41 Determination, 42, 77, 102, 199,

265, 339, 411, 413 Devotion, 62, 174, 177 Diaeresis, 91, 93, 286, 287 Diagram, xlvii, 98, 133, 134, 156 Dialectics, xxx, xxxi, xxxiii,

xxxvii, xlvii, liv, lxv, 5, 30, 66, 73, 75, 76, 89, 90, 136, 140, 146, 157, 214, 226, 216, 218, 342, 366, 373, 388, 419-427

Dialogue, xx, li, liv, lv, lxv, lxvii, lxxii, 25-28, 30, 72, 156, 167-200, 256, 307, 359 see also Art of dialogue

Dichotomy, 98, 287 see also Diaeresis

Didactics, lv, 116, 220, 300 Digests, 68, 73, 77-79, 90, 264,

276, 397 Dioptrics, 278 Director, xlvii, 1, 3-5, 38, 389 Disagreement, xxiv, 2, 7, 10, 151,

162, 250, 258, 335, 396 Discourse, xxviii, 3, 5, 11, 30, 32,

146, 224, 380, 382, 392 Discussion, xxiv, xxviii, xxxix,

xliv, lvi, 3, 20, 38, 49, 75, 155, 161, 202, 206, 213, 238, 241, 247, 248, 256, 259, 261, 262, 311, 312, 314, 318, 326, 335, 343, 391, 416, 423, 436

Disjunctive, 11, 12, 14, 85, 88, 99 Disorder, xxxix, xliii, 65, 214, 332,

343, 380, 381, 436

Disposition, 80, 109, 154, 205, 232, 234, 245, 288, 321, 351, 393, 416

Dispute disputation, xxix-xxxi, xxxiii,

lxviii, 5, 24, 49, 62, 218, 228, 248, 259, 266, 269, 355, 388, 419, 431

disputing see Art of formal, 146, 380, 382, 389 meta-disputation, 5 mingled, 1-6 undisputable, 180, 190, 196

Distinction, lxviii, 1, 5, 53, 78, 80, 89, 90, 94, 129, 138, 140, 141, 151, 158, 163, 196, 199, 218, 230, 238-240, 258, 265, 266, 289, 312, 316, 320, 327, 340, 356, 380, 387-389, 414, 419, 433

Divinity, 10, 51-53, 154, 184, 199, 207, 224, 238-240, 249, 254, 266, 311, 314, 320, 322, 337, 362, 366, 401-403, 409, 447

Division, xlvii, 91, 98-100, 103, 116, 145, 155, 157, 220, 287, 288, 291, 376, 377, 388 see also Diaeresis

Dogma, lxvii, 151, 154, 161, 168, 220, 253, 260, 322, 333, 401, 416, 443

Dominican, 40, 402, 414 Doxastic, 41 Eclecticism, 271, 387, 390, 445, 470 Edit of Nantes, 247, 456, 462 Education, xxviii, 5, 51, 190, 253,

261, 296, 297, 313, 369 see also Didactics and Pedagogy

Efficacy, 68, 72, 229, 333, 391-395 Elector, xxix, liii, 251, 260, 261, 354,

360, 362, 367, 369, 372, 460

490 Subject Index

Elements, xx, xliii, lvi, lxii, 78, 86, 99, 133, 134, 138, 153, 167, 180, 181, 215, 217, 286, 289, 350, 363, 366, 437

of thinking, Ellipsis, 66, 96 Eloquence, 37, 315, 333, 365, 380,

405 see also Rhetoric Emperor, 152, 154, 186, 197, 199,

247, 248, 251, 257, 260-262, 295, 330, 338, 341, 362, 363, 364, 447, 466

Empirical, 27, 75, 90, 105, 384, 436, 463

Encyclopedia, xxxvi, xli, 39, 67, 102, 129-141, 213, 219-224, 231, 236, 288

Éndoxa, 218, 430 Enthusiasts, liii, 197 Enthymeme, 92, 182, 288, 321, 432 Enumeration, 66-68, 94, 96-98,

100, 103, 138, 156, 180, 228, 235, 288, 377

Enunciation, 80, 95, 132, 134, 220, 221, 222, 224

Epicureanism, 185 Epistemology, xxvii, xxxii, xxxiv,

xlv, l, liv, lvi, lviii, lxii, lxiv, lxvi, 6, 8, 101, 105, 106, 117, 141, 163, 219, 224, 235, 370, 453

Equilibrium, lxviii, 168, 179, 222 Equity, xlv, 148, 166, 183, 204,

207, 291, 338, 348, 356, 397 Error, xxvii, lxiii, lxv, 19, 21-23, 61,

82, 125, 182, 228, 242-244, 250, 252, 253, 277, 316, 339, 379, 384, 385, 401, 423

Essence, 12, 13, 131, 186, 259, 313, 321, 334, 379, 393, 396, 414

Establishment, xxxix, l, lxiii, 261, 359, 360, 363-367, 371, 426

Ethics, xxviii, xli, 83, 90, 126, 144, 148, 149, 163, 164, 183, 196, 199, 237, 265, 305, 308, 323, 370, 384, 427 see also Virtue

Ethos, 199 Etymology, xlii, 10, 79, 141, 371 Eucharist, xli, 53, 314, 334 Evangelical, 10, 14, 16, 404, 405,

415 see also Lutheranism Evidence, xxxiv, lx, lxii, lxvii, 19,

53, 62, 81, 148, 157, 205, 207, 209, 210, 341, 346, 347, 356, 371, 436

Evil, origin of, 403, 410, 424 Evolvent, 97, 98, 103 Examination, 19-22, 124, 192, 265,

310, 311, 319, 321, 334, 347, 351, 431, 433

Excommunication, 24, 313, 317, 319, 334

Expectation, 109, 111, 114, 115, 153, 195, 345

Experience, 32, 38, 59, 60, 117, 124, 132, 134, 135, 140, 172, 179, 181, 189, 209, 233, 242, 268, 276, 277, 280, 296, 297, 311, 319, 366, 401, 436, 441

Experiment, xxxiv, lxiv, 22, 45, 47, 50, 84, 91, 123, 132, 133, 138, 207, 227, 229, 264, 276, 381, 437, 458

Expounder, xlv, 206-208, 400-403, 406 see also Judge of controversies

Expression, 84, 89, 137, 206, 266 Extensional, xxxi, 385 External, xlvii, lxii, 30, 43, 56, 63,

150, 181, 179, 197, 241-245, 312, 383, 436, 438, 448

Extraordinary, 18, 51, 169-171, 191, 194, 248, 254, 322, 436

491

see Thinking

Subject Index

Facility, 21, 91, 117, 229 see also Feasible

Faith see also Believer fundamental article of, 11, 13,

161, 237, 312, 314-316 matter of, 170, 196, 250, 251,

259, 326 mystery of, 8, 11, 14, 53, 238,

239, 314, 364, 420-422, 426, 471

question of, 9 Fallacy, 143, 157 Falsity, xxxi, lxviii, 12, 143,

149-152, 181, 210, 220, 238-240, 265, 291, 350, 351, 401, 420, 422-425

Feasible, xxix, 116, 117, 194, 207, 275, 281, 385, 441

Feeling, lxvii, 12, 26, 43, 174, 177, 197, 231, 243, 311, 313, 319, 320, 362

Feudalism, 73 Fiction, 164, 185, 238, 341-357 Fideism, 443, 453, 455 Figure, lxiii, 12, 21, 80, 96, 103, 120,

133-135, 137, 141, 194, 215, 221, 239, 278, 281, 308, 378, 379, 431, 432, 436, 440, 441

Force, xlii, xlv, 6, 37, 38, 42, 49-51, 59, 62, 73, 75, 78, 79, 120, 126, 134-136, 217, 268, 288, 317, 323, 335, 343, 344, 351, 353, 366, 392, 396, 402, 432, 438, 439, 440

Forget, xxxix, 3, 4, 45, 58, 205, 206, 307

Form in form, 19, 23, 65, 66, 125,

180-182, 226, 379, 380, 432 see also Formal

of computing, 22, 135 dialectical, xxxi, 66, 146

of dialogue, li, liv of disputation, xxxiii, 62, 380 of disputing, 36, 146, 155-157,

226, 286, 298, 381, 389, 423 of reasoning, 2, 135, 182, 435

Formal, xxxiii, xxxvii, xlvii, liv, lxvi, 13, 66, 69, 70, 78, 93, 98, 99, 105, 129, 140, 144, 146, 152, 198, 209, 210, 214, 230, 238, 240, 263, 269, 271, 301, 305-307, 319, 320, 327, 329, 342, 357, 379, 381, 388, 389, 391, 432, 451

Formalism, lxv, lxvi, 144, 198, 388 Formalization, xxxi, xlvii, 198

Fortune, 50, 52, 67, 83, 171, 178, 186, 263, 267, 354, 368, 386, 402, 403

Freedom, xxix, lvi, 86, 90, 132, 186, 257, 265, 361, 369, 400, 401, 409-412, 416, 417, 447, 462

Fundamental, xxix, xlv, xlvii, 10, 66, 84, 95, 99, 102, 126, 164, 185, 219, 260, 286, 303, 305, 320, 329, 331, 332, 359, 372, 380, 420, 421 see also Faith, fundamental article of

Game, 24, 83, 146, 153, 301, 326,

377, 380 Generation

of animals, 435 of plants, 103 spontaneous, 442

Genus, 23, 80, 85, 87, 95-100, 103, 115, 287, 288, 376, 377, 384 see also Species

Geography, xlii, 82, 137, 139

492

Formula, xxiv, xlviii, 12-14, 61, 66, 94, 102, 134, 136, 228, 230, 289, 317, 322, 335, 403, 469

Subject Index

Geometry, xxxiii, 33, 39, 103, 125, 136, 137, 171, 178, 179, 186, 215, 221, 264, 275, 275-281, 371, 389, 400, 440

Globe, 137, 139, 179, 436, 437 Glory, 50-52, 61, 125, 140, 175,

190, 191, 193, 195, 207, 232, 294, 410, 439

Gnostology, 220 Good, 4, 12, 26, 51, 63, 125, 148,

166, 178, 193, 207, 210, 255, 315, 382, 401, 403, 424, 439

common, 5, 6, 82, 89, 193-195, 207, 403

Grace, 52, 170, 172-176, 195, 196, 199, 207, 311, 313, 314, 319, 331, 333, 337, 378, 401, 411-414, 416, 417, 453

Habit, liii, 11, 59, 158, 189, 196,

205, 350, 387, 404 Happiness, xxiv, lxiii, 37, 42, 46,

52, 78, 119, 129, 130, 139, 166, 174-176, 182, 187, 188, 190, 195, 199, 216, 217, 219, 227, 235, 308, 332, 442 see also Unhappiness

Harm, xxviii, 108, 109, 121, 149, 151, 164-166, 190, 248, 256, 280, 289, 317, 356, 368, 380, 394, 397, 421

Harmony, xxi, l, 126, 190, 197, 199, 251, 330, 424

pre-established, lvi, 421, 438, 440, 447, 456, 462, 465

universal, l, 190, 424 Hatred(s), 17, 154, 190, 307, 402 Hebrew, 10, 86, 159, 303, 364 Heresy, 51, 61, 155, 206, 237-239,

244, 247, 249, 250, 253, 260, 313-316, 320, 326, 333, 338-340, 425, 460, 469

formal, 319, 320 material, 316, 319, 320

Hermeneutic, xxxvi, xli, xliii, lxvii, 7, 8, 30, 35, 56, 66, 77, 160, 214, 261, 360

Hermetic, 119, 453, 458, 460 Hermit, 168-170, 172, 199 Heuretic, 286, 300, 463 Heuristic, l, lxvi, 65-74, 93-104, 129,

143-162, 163, 209, 287, 303 Hierarchy

ecclesiastic, 154, 255, 333, 338 epistemic, xxxv, 166

History, xix, xli, xlii, lii, 10, 63, 81, 126, 139, 231-235, 364, 366, 376, 382, 439, 452, 453

ecclesiastic, 56, 339, 362, 370 of logic, 429-434

Holy Ghost, 176, 252, 255, 257, 261,

313, 316, 332, 333, 335 Scripture, 51, 53, 249, 250, 252,

257 see also Scripture Trinity, 239 see also Trinity Virgin, 257

Homiletic, 199 Honesty, 27, 83, 164, 186, 204,

323, 348 Hope, xlii, lix, lxiii, 4, 18, 49-52,

62, 105-117, 130, 131, 153, 154, 180, 183, 192, 194, 215, 248, 267, 296, , 339, 350, 369, 402, 439, 442

Huguenot, xxiii-xxvi, 54, 309, 456, 462

Hypothesis, lxiii, 15, 30, 32, 41, 47, 84, 86, 132, 138, 209, 213, 215, 217, 221, 337, 371, 411, 416, 435-438, 456

Idea, lxv, 18, 29, 89, 91, 116 Idolatry, 308, 364

493Subject Index

Ignorance invincible, 151, 306, 307 sin of, 306, 307

Illness, 170, 174, 192, 227, 402 Imagination, lxiv, 116, 134, 137, 141,

170, 189, 281, 364, 430, 445 Immortality, 223, 425 Impartiality, 5, 28, 59, 63, 65, 72,

201-208 Impersonate, 177 Implicit, 51, 56, 89, 91, 135 Improbability, 14-15 Imprudence, 344, 350 Inclination, lxviii, lxix, 11, 12, 15,

19, 42, 81, 124, 168, 173, 181, 206, 222, 291, 338, 396, 411, 416, 437

Incomprehensible, 238, 240 see also Unintelligible

Incredulity, 177, 189 Index, 23, 51, 96, 97, 130, 133,

181, 215, 216, 357, 416 see also Inventory

Indication, xxxv, 53, 76, 145, 223, 267, 281, 290, 431 see also Sign

counter-indication, 76, 145, 290 Individual, 6, 17, 52, 75, 85, 103,

130, 139, 197, 245, 265, 291, 336, 445

Induction, 14, 15, 102, 132, 198 Inesse, 238, 265 see also Inherent Infallibility, xxxix, xliv, 8, 16,

19, 21, 52, 53, 57, 59, 83, 189-192, 259, 311-314, 332-335, 381

Inference, xxxi, 9, 14, 82, 89, 92, 135, 141, 179, 197, 198, 226, 276, 286, 291-295, 357, 366, 373, 378, 379, 388

Infidel, 308, 310, 313, 425

Infinite, lx, lxvii, 29, 84, 88, 156, 183-185, 215, 239, 242, 279, 280, 313, 385, 413, 421, 424, 437, 448

In foro interno, 245 see also Internal

Inherent, 71, 86, 99, 238, 239, 342 Injustice, 4, 5, 159, 165, 245, 321,

344, 423 Innovation, 29, 53, 141, 215, 230,

426, 433, 461 see also Reform Inquiry, xxx, xxxvi, lxii, lxiii, 21,

163, 177, 217, 302, 378 see also Research

Instauration, 213, 214, 216 Intellect, 325, 326 Intelligence, 37, 50, 163, 268, 348,

365, 416, 423 Intelligibible, 75, 119, 129, 138,

201, 238, 305, 419, 420 Intensional, 384 Intention, 87-89, 150, 151, 243,

244, 261, 335, 336, 342-344, 348, 350, 352, 393, 394, 405, 406, 410, 413, 425, 433

Interest particular, 4, 41, 129, 141, 219 self-interest, 191, 193, 365

Interlocutor, 32, 170, 323 Internal, xlvii, 56, 63, 174, 181,

316, 319, 411, 438 Interpretation, 7, 8, 14, 30, 56, 66,

77-92, 197, 254, 261, 290, 297, 453 see also Hermeneutic

Intolerance, 443 Intuition, lxii, 198, 231, 235, 266,

432 see also Knowledge, intuitive

Invalid, 59, 69, 82, 83, 141, 157, 340, 349, 351-354, 401

494 Subject Index

Invention see Art of inventing Inventory, xlii, 96, 215, 235 see

also Index and Repertoire Investigation, lxii, 35, 36, 39, 86,

93-96, 100, 123, 138, 139, 170, 181, 183, 210, 226-229, 232, 373, 378 see also Research

Invincible, 151, 240, 250, 253, 255, 305-308, 419, 422-425

Irenic, xlv, li, 153, 162, 260, 325, 329, 340, 458, 460, 465

Irrational, 18, 24, 323, 384 see also Rational

Irrelevance, xxvii, 65, 155, 198, 253, 376, 381

Isostheneia, lxviii, lxix, 6, 168 Jansenism, xxxiii, 40, 196, 261,

305, 310, 315, 321, 402, 414, 448, 455, 459

Jesuit, xxiii, xxv, 40, 54, 196, 198, 237, 260, 261, 305-308, 319, 321, 327, 354, 402, 414, 433, 442, 448, 453, 455, 459, 469

Jew, 26, 159, 253, 261, 364 see also Hebrew

Judge of controversies, xxviii, lxvii, 7-23, 25, 49, 55-63, 201, 297, 298, 312, 335, 381, 451, 452 see also Expounder

Judgment, 4, 16, 23, 37, 50-53, 57, 62, 71, 99, 103, 106, 145, 164, 165, 174, 204, 208, 210, 251, 258, 275, 286, 300, 329-339, 357, 378, 382, 402, 430-433

Jurisconsult, 75-76, 378 Jurisprudence, 19, 36, 37, 67,

68-69, 75-76, 77-92, 103, 164-165, 234, 272, 286, 289, 322, 335, 341-357, 366, 381, 391-397

Justice, lii, 4, 6, 39, 65, 77, 90, 95, 164, 183, 186, 187, 190, 313, 321, 323, 346, 355, 356, 366, 397, 409, 412, 413

King, liii, liv, lviii, 18, 24, 116,

186, 260, 318, 361-363, 369, 372, 404, 422, 449

Knowledge adequate, 221 advancement of, xvi, xxi, xxiv,

xxx, lix, lxii-lxv, 93, 126, 140, 235, 389

a posteriori, 222 certain, 42 clear, 351, 353, 389 demonstrative, 253 distinct, 14, 322, 389 doubtful, 14, 281 empirical, 27 foundation of, lxii, 140, 209 of God, 170, 171, 306, 308, 409,

416 historical, xxxvi, xli, 253 human, 181, 214, 216, 217, 271,

276, 348, 447, 461 intuitive, 89, 266, 416 middle, 416, 417 model of, xxxiv obscure, 13, 219, 424 of oneself, 319 probable, 1 topical, 223 useful, lxiii, 130, 131

Labyrinth

of continuum, 413 of disputes, 172 of freedom, 413

Language adamic, 120 formal, 263

495Subject Index

philosophical, 220, 266, 272 symbolic, 259, 263 universal, 119-127, 277

Law canonic, 78, 469 Carolingian, 349 civil, 78, 289, 343, 394 codification, 77 common, 352 criminal, 106 feudal, 72, 73 international, 341, 355, 356,

460, 466 natural, 1, 89, 217, 345, 350,

391-397, 460, 466 Roman, 40, 78, 90, 92

Laziness, 172, 173, 191, 225, 234, 268, 401, 402, 413

Legislation, 65, 90, 341, 356, 395 Legislator, 39, 77-82, 87, 89, 90, 261,

342-346, 352, 353, 356, 395 Libertine, 233, 425 Library, xxviii, xxxii, 76, 97, 130,

185, 300, 363 Lie, 120, 148-152, 160, 161, 238,

240, 330 Light

divine, 176, 311, 322 enlightenment, 203, 470 illumination, 103 inner, 179, 311, 322 natural, 198, 421

Likelihood, 5, 15, 35-38, 61, 106, 153, 179, 185, 186, 191, 194, 233, 254, 265, 311, 327, 344, 353, 361, 431 see also Probability

Limitation, 76, 92, 94, 165, 260, 267, 377, 388

Literal, 9, 80, 215, 459 Litigation, 65-74, 166, 335, 345,

346, 357, 431

Loci, xxxvi, xlvii, 136, 357, 377, 378, 388 see also Topoi

Logic applied, 286, 290 formal, 451 history of, 373, 429, 430, 431 modal, 41, 453 natural, 141, 373, 382 new, 105, 225-230, 342, 452 pure, 385 of the contingent, 35, 36

Logistics, 137 Logocritics, 300 Logometric, 36 Logos, 199, 401 Love

of God, 56, 63, 189, 193, 206, 314, 319, 320

pure, 321, 438 self-, 165, 166

Lutheranism, xliv, lvii, 162, 197, 247, 251, 259, 261, 321, 323, 399, 404, 405, 414, 415, 442, 458, 465, 468 see also Evangelical

Machine, xix, 98, 184, 186, 189,

203, 368 see also Mechanics Turing, 102

Magic, 120, 170, 201, 220, 354, 389

Majority, will of the, 17 Malevolence, 161, 345, 394 Maliciousness, 306-308 Maneuver, xlv, 3, 327, 330, 426 Manichean, 401, 419-421, 426 Manipulation, 120, 124, 126, 143,

148, 388 Mark, 140, 221, 267, 277, 280,

281, 333, 411 see also Sign visible, 62, 202

Materialism, 373, 461, 471

496 Subject Index

Mathematics, xix, xxxiv, lx, 29, 88, 105, 122, 129-133, 136, 137, 140, 189, 196, 199, 226, 232, 275-280, 285, 359, 360, 363, 365-368, 371, 379, 381-384, 388, 389, 413, 426, 432, 441, 458

pure, 384-386 universal, 93, 217, 231, 265, 471

Maxim, xxi, 36, 39, 70, 180, 191, 206, 207, 235, 308 see also Principle

Meaning, xxxvi, xlii, l, lxv, lxvi, 9-15, 21, 30-32, 36, 47, 77-79, 82-91, 123, 135, 147, 164, 266, 292, 313, 318, 331, 366, 431 see also Sense

Mechanics, xxxii, 20, 66, 102, 103, 137, 138, 141, 187, 217, 227, 229, 234, 384, 389, 448

Medicine, 39, 66, 67, 70, 75-76, 103, 145, 170, 171, 217, 225, 228, 232, 233, 240, 267, 277, 373

Melancholic, 178 Memory, 44, 45, 122, 133, 136,

147, 171, 188, 205, 232, 268, 344, 349, 430

Metamorphosis, 265, 436 Metaphor, 7, 13, 16, 30, 80, 102,

126, 158, 198, 213, 217, 275, 290, 389, 413, 415

Metaphysics, xxii, lvii, 29, 30, 37, 90, 123, 126, 178, 217, 234, 264, 265, 276-279, 359, 366, 387, 388, 400, 414, 439-441, 448

Metempsychosis, 265 Method

a posteriori, 84, 85, 97, 271, 299 a priori, 84, 85, 97, 222, 271 of colloquia, xxiv, xxv, xxx, 38,

51, 72, 228, 230, 249, 258, 259, 262, 465

of concessions see Concession of condescension see

Condescension empirical, 105, 463 of enumeration, see

Enumeration of establishments, 29, 359-372

see also Establishment expository, 400, 404 incontestable, 66, 182, 279,

365, 370 inventing, 70, 130, 133, 368

Art of inventing provisional, lxiii, 261 of reunion see Reunion summarizing, 230, 406, 415

Metropolite, 333 Military, 51, 37, 81, 89, 126, 137,

163, 217, 234, 267, 289 Mind, xix, 5, 50, 124, 154, 174,

175, 187, 204-206, 227, 233, 253, 268, 277, 294, 331, 338, 364, 365, 388, 406, 452 see also Soul

Miracle, 18, 52, 53, 125, 170, 174, 257, 416, 448

Misery, 176, 182, 190, 192, 195, 196

Misunderstanding, xli, lxv, 158, 249, 259, 381

Modality, 41, 116, 117, 153, 198, 221, 283, 453

Moderation, xxvii, xxviii, xlv, li, lix, 17, 27, 38, 46, 149, 153, 192, 201-203, 207, 238, 330, 335, 337, 386, 394, 404-406, 423

Mohammedan, 172, 233, 245, 364, 401, 413, 415

Monad, l, 102, 359, 436, 438, 448, 460

Monomachia, 18

497

of see also

Subject Index

Morality, xxiv, li, 16, 40, 42, 46, 56, 63, 75, 87, 139, 143, 144, 148, 151, 158, 161, 163-165, 170, 172, 185, 189, 197, 199, 217, 223, 240, 245, 276-278, 280, 305, 308, 324, 365, 366, 410, 413, 414, 417, 421, 430

Motivation, xxii, xxxi, lxiv, 42, 155, 166, 187, 189, 193, 232, 316, 318, 320, 442

Movement, l, liv, lxii, 33, 75, 126, 137, 193, 237, 278, 316, 438, 440

perpetual, 178, 227, 230 Mundane, 169, 177 Mystery, lxvii, 119-121, 125, 150,

203 see also Faith, mystery of Mystical, liv, 150, 167, 199, 259,

264, 333 Name, xx, xxxiii, 84, 176, 220,

273, 313, 376, 395, 396, 415 Nature, xxxiv, xxxvii, 21, 37, 75,

82, 96, 104, 120, 125, 129, 141, 172, 179, 184, 185, 188, 189, 195, 268, 306, 307, 374, 378, 379, 395, 410, 425, 448, 458, 463

Necessary concept of, 42, 318, 410, 417,

452, 453 condition, 275, 280, 281, 283,

326, 332, 336, 373, 422, 424 conclusion, lxvii, 14, 19 domain, lxvi, 36, 380 principle, 71, 356 proposition, 31, 83, 88, 448 truth, lxix, 30, 185, 211, 242,

265, 312, 318 Necessity see also Certainty

geometrical, 41, 47, 185 hypothetical, 41, 411

moral, 41, 47, 439 physical, 47

Negotiation, xxii, xxiii, xxviii, xxix, xxxix, xliv, li, lvii, 55, 63, 73, 143, 152-154, 162, 201, 234, 241, 247-262, 323, 325, 329-340, 399, 416, 465

Noematic, 298 Nominalism, 269, 387, 461 Nomothetics, 67, 82, 90 Noology, 220 Norm, li, lii, 8, 19, 23, 40, 51, 148,

199, 225, 228, 261, 287 Notion

adequate/inadequate, 220, 221, 266 clear/obscure, 220, 221, 266 confuse/distinct, 220, 221, 266 suppositive/intuitive, 266

Number, 19, 70, 96-98, 105-117, 119-127, 131, 156, 264, 265, 266, 276, 290, 314, 368, 377, 379, 380, 384, 387, 439 see also Casting out nines and Characteristic numbers

Obedience, xxiv, 45, 57, 160, 251,

252, 289, 317, 319, 320, 332 Objection, xxi, xxxix, lvi, lxii, lxv,

lxviii, 19, 66, 102, 124, 150, 157, 202, 298, 309, 310, 313, 354, 420, 458

invincible, 240, 422, 424, 425 Obligation, 9, 69, 154, 164, 177,

198, 230, 289, 344, 391-397, 404, 409, 424

to believe, 9, 41-47, 58, 241, 245, 325

Oblique, 85, 286, 291-295, 378, 388 Occasion, xix, xxxiii, 10, 67, 148,

152-155, 175, 229, 247, 333, 348, 350, 391, 403, 406 see also Opportunity

498

see also Mechanics

Subject Index

Occasionalism, 456, 462, 465 Omission, 2, 11, 21, 36, 182, 230,

255, 288, 350, 381, 432 Onomatopoeia, 134 Operation, lx, 21, 22, 24, 102, 119,

126, 141, 144, 180, 223, 224, 268, 300

Opponent, xxxi, xxxix, xlvii, lxvi-lxviii, 46, 147, 158, 163, 204, 249, 263, 298, 323, 330, 380, 381, 387, 404, 406, 415, 419

Opportunity, xxix, 143, 152, 174, 182, 189, 190, 217, 312, 336, 345, 348, 367, 378, 386, 421, 451 see also Occasion

Optics, 124, 137 Order see also Disorder

demonstrative, 372 of discovery, 95 expository, 404 geometric, 201 mathematical, 363 natural, 21, 121, 133, 463 religious, 17

Organon, 33, 122, 268 Orthodoxy, 305, 462, 469, 470 Other’s place, xlv, xlvii, lxvi, 20,

140, 158, 163-166, 168, 196, 199, 248, 330, 406, 413, 427

Outcome, 105-117, 210, 301, 402 Ownership, 245, 342, 341-357, 396

see also Usucaption Pact, xxxix, 70, 108, 159, 337,

391-397 see also Contract Pagan, 233, 245, 308, 320, 362,

364, 401, 411, 414, 447 Pansophia, 202, 208 Paradox, lxiv, 45, 117, 147, 148,

158, 172, 173, 195, 202, 320, 385, 423

Paralogism, lxv, 83, 237, 266, 279, 378, 388, 441

Particle, 126, 135, 136, 141, 437 Passion, lxiv, 16-18, 90, 137, 173,

176, 192, 352, 387, 401 Pathos, 199 Peace, xxii-xxvii, liii, liv, 16, 26, 38,

50, 155, 162, 196, 227, 228, 247-251, 255, 262, 331, 336, 338, 355, 356, 361, 369, 386, 394, 399, 402, 406, 422, 452

Peasant, 12, 13, 25-28, 171, 227, 379 Pedagogy, 5, 390, 471 Perception, 12, 43, 52, 81, 207, 209,

220, 222, 278, 311, 315, 333, 374, 376, 416, 430, 437, 438

apperception, 197, 389 Perfection, 30, 39, 67, 84, 94, 97,

125, 133, 139, 171, 183, 186, 187, 190, 195, 219, 234, 239, 249, 264, 268, 269, 279-281, 313, 383, 385, 393, 396, 410, 420, 421, 424, 425, 442

imperfect, 73, 80, 151, 184, 228, 388, 417, 422

Performativity, 397 Peroration, 3, 4 Person, xlii, 9, 11-13, 15-18, 50, 51,

80, 81, 109, 148, 157, 170, 177, 183, 193, 196, 227, 229, 238, 288, 289, 317, 318, 332, 335, 336, 348, 351, 352, 354, 364, 393, 423

Persuasion, 3, 26, 41-45, 51, 52, 56-59, 62, 63, 90, 125, 129, 140-144, 146, 147, 152, 153, 157, 158, 163, 167-170, 174, 175, 178, 179, 183, 191, 195, 199, 244, 247, 249-251, 253, 259, 281, 300, 311, 323, 329, 346, 362, 424, 436, 445, 465 see also Conviction, Power of persuading, and Rhetoric

499Subject Index

Petition, 287-290, 427 Philosophy

Ancient, 439, 448 Greek, 439, 447, 448 see also

Aristotle, Plato, Skepticism Irish, 447 Modern, xxx, xxxii, 415, 425,

433 see also Arnauld, Bacon, Bayle, Descartes, Grotius, Hobbes, Jungius, Locke, Malebranche, Pascal, Spinoza

Pagan, 447 Perennial, 445, 446 Scholastic, 382, 415 Spanish, 447

Physical, xlii, lx, 41, 47, 75, 138, 183, 189, 199, 223, 409, 417, 421

Physician, xxxv, 37, 75, 76, 231, 248, 290, 402, 458, 460

Physics, xix, liv, 29, 41, 75, 76, 82, 88, 126, 127, 130, 137, 138, 141, 199, 217, 229, 232, 234, 237, 276-279, 285, 361, 363, 385, 387

Piety, 12, 15, 18, 63, 151, 160, 168-170, 174, 177, 197, 207, 305, 308, 313, 318, 322, 369, 397, 405, 416

Plaintiff, 69, 158, 344-346, 356 Platonic, 91, 98, 155, 460 Pleasure, 2, 21, 42, 109, 121, 130,

166, 169, 175, 178, 188, 193, 195, 376, 377, 386, 392, 442

Point of view, xxi, l, lvi, lxvii, lxviii, 6, 99, 148, 149, 163-166, 199, 209, 256, 283, 375

Polemics, xxili, lii, liv, lvii, lxxi, 7, 24, 214, 230, 322, 420, 445, 455, 456, 460, 462, 464, 467, 468, 470

Politics, 1, 3, 4, 6, 25, 37, 40, 56, 78, 82, 83, 90, 98, 102, 105, 163-165, 189, 199, 218, 225, 228, 230, 233, 235, 247, 260, 272, 285, 305, 318, 327, 329, 330, 341, 349, 359, 361, 363, 370, 371, 397, 399, 414, 415, 420, 455-461, 466-470

Pontiff, 242, 261, 333, 335, 338, 339 Pool, 105-117 Pope, 16, 40, 55, 56, 152, 154, 155,

162, 167, 179, 196, 237, 242, 243, 247-262, 302, 305, 308, 317, 323, 327, 329, 330, 333-340, 402, 414, 415, 433, 456, 459, 465 see also Pontiff

Possession, 57, 63, 291, 301, 308, 339-346, 356

long-lasting, 346, 351, 352, 354 Possibility, 3, 4, 10, 15, 22, 30, 33,

66, 67, 77, 89, 92, 108, 109, 116, 117, 126, 152-154, 167, 168, 198, 209, 215, 227, 229, 230, 235, 259, 262, 283, 308, 315, 317, 319, 372, 388, 389, 394, 426, 442, 448, 453, 459

Power, xxiii, xlii, liii, 4, 36, 41-47, 57-61, 78, 87, 88, 95, 120, 123, 124, 126, 134, 146, 158, 174, 195, 223, 226, 248, 262, 265, 278, 296, 332-334, 347, 394

of persuading, xxv, 57, 144, 145, 323

Practice, xx, xxxix, 9, 11-16, 23, 27, 35, 65-68, 71, 90, 139, 132, 146, 157, 189, 231, 235, 249, 286, 362, 369, 376, 381-384, 403, 405, 412, 413

Praetor, 228, 230, 322 Pragmatics, 30, 45, 77, 78, 89, 90,

91, 94

500 Subject Index

Pragmatism, lxiii, lxiv Prayer, 189, 199, 299 Predestination, li, 9, 319, 399-405,

409-414, 417 see also Providence

Predication, 30-33, 80, 84-86, 89, 91, 99, 103, 222, 238, 239, 265, 292, 377, 378, 388, 431

Prediction, 150, 164, 171, 179, 181, 190, 413 see also Prophecy

Prejudice, 82, 161, 168, 234, 311, 312, 314, 318, 322, 368

Premise, 21, 32, 59, 65, 88, 92, 134, 163, 179, 180, 217, 276, 321, 419, 425, 426, 431, 432

Prescription, 11, 70, 311, 322, 323, 341-357

Presumption, xxiv, xxxv, lxix, 35, 36, 53, 63, 68, 86-88, 163, 198, 215, 224, 241, 262, 290, 291, 301, 311, 322, 323, 341-357, 381, 431, 436, 448

Prince, liv, lvi, 5, 6, 40, 125, 183, 194, 199, 201-207, 251, 255, 354, 422, 446

Principle, 209-211, 222-223 see also Maxim

of aversion, 350, 355, 356 brocardic, 39, 70, 71, 272 of charity, 56, 154, 193, 323 of contradiction, 181, 186, 209,

211, 222, 237, 238, 239, 240

of faith, 10 incontestable, 178 of invention, 93 of morality, 56, 148, 158 of natural law, 1 of reason, 90, 209, 211, 220, 241 of the other’s place see Other’s

place

Privilege, 35, 38, 40, 52, 81, 82, 335, 393, 442

Prize, xlii, 22, 37, 50-52, 106, 229 Probability, xxxiv, xxxv, lii, lxvi,

6, 14, 29, 35-40, 42, 43, 49, 53, 60, 62, 79, 83, 108, 120, 145, 181, 182, 198, 215, 217, 226, 233, 286, 291, 352, 388, 430, 433, 435, 441 see also Likelihood, Verisimilitude, and Improbability

calculus of, xxx, xlvii, lxix, 93, 125, 127, 153, 198, 231, 290, 301, 458

degree of, xxiii, 36, 70, 87, 91, 157, 181, 233, 267, 276, 290, 301, 324, 381

estimation of, 105-117, 233, 267, 290, 345

Probity, 61, 392 Procedure, xxiv, xxx, xxxiv, xxxix,

xliii, xlv, liv, lxvi-lxix, 7, 8, 10, 18, 19, 22, 23, 30, 35, 38, 39, 47, 65, 66, 68, 91, 99, 101, 140, 141, 160, 201, 213, 218, 247, 254, 286, 287, 322, 325, 327, 334, 339, 357, 376, 379, 381, 433

Profit, 50, 81, 107, 112-115, 207, 346, 361, 394

Progress, l, lxii, lxiii, 28, 93, 94, 97, 126, 140, 144, 214, 216, 264, 266, 269, 365, 378, 389, 441, 447, 453

Project, 55, 96, 130, 206, 229, 258, 276, 430

Prolixity, 4, 76, 381 Promise, 16, 131, 177, 202, 203,

229, 252, 331, 393, 397 Proof, see Demonstration

charge of, xxxi, 89, 241, 298 formal, 301, 379

501Subject Index

historical, 217 semi-proof, 49, 53

Prophecy, 125, 149, 150, 179, 364 Proponent, xxxi, lxviii, 6, 260 Proportion, 103, 106, 107, 109,

110, 116, 117, 137, 192, 263, 265, 267, 291, 379, 382

Propriety, 164 Protestantism, xxvi, 7, 8, 10, 14, 16,

23, 53, 152-155, 161, 243, 245, 251, 252, 258, 311, 319, 320,

Calvinism, Protonoetics, 303 Providence, 8, 52, 53, 171, 183-187,

199, 233, 249, 254, 265, 286, 401, 426, 453

Prudence, 4, 37, 152, 171, 180, 188, 189, 193, 254, 256, 330, 335-338, 339, 348, 350, 353, 402

Psychology, 89, 90, 105, 130, 143, 144, 148, 225, 230, 275, 301

Public action, 16, 51 corruption, 170 debate, liii, 3, 5, 51, 421, 468 good, 18, 61-63, 95, 145, 191,

217, 290 happiness, 216-218, 219-224 peace, 155 see also Peace reasoning, 21 treasury, 227, 346 utility, 95, 217

Punishment, 42, 44, 46, 51, 52, 175, 223, 289, 308, 344, 346, 348, 354, 356, 362, 392, 409, 416

Quakers, 322, 460 Quarrel, lxv, 37, 67, 178, 189, 197,

228, 229, 232, 305, 321, 346, 423, 442

Quietism, 322, 456

Ramism, 132, 376, 387, 388 Semi-Ramism, 376, 387, 388

Rapporteur, xlv, xlvii, lxix, 72, 155, 201, 306 see also Expounder

Rational, 6, 14, 20, 24, 40, 77, 93, 120, 123, 136, 140, 141, 147, 263-269, 384, 419

balance, see Balance of reason(s)

debate, xxiv, xxvii, xlv, lix, 65, 400

decision, lxix, 7, 8 grammar, 130, 134, 136, 141 interpretation, 77 method, 105-117, 140, 420 morality, 40 order, 125 persuasion, 41, 147, 168 theology, liv, 167, 197, 237, 286

Rationalism, xxii, lxvi, lxviii, lxix, 8, 14-15, 263, 443, 463, 468

Rationality, xliv, l, lxvi, lxviii, lxix, 6, 7, 140, 143, 168, 198, 214, 263

Reason balance of, see Balance of

reason(s) explicable, 321 force of, 37, 366 general, 311, 318, 323 inexplicable, 311, 321 particular, 311, 318 practical, 76 principle of, see Principle of

reason right, 18, 19, 56, 63, 308, 343, 354 theoretical, 76, 225, 366

Reasoning, xxxv, liv, 2, 3, 20, 21, 32, 44, 53, 60, 82, 83, 87, 111, 125, 132, 135, 178, 179, 185, 205, 268, 276, 277, 300, 383, 401, 420, 435, 438, 441, 461

502

and Lutheranism 330, 404, 405, 456, 462 see also

Subject Index

Reciprocal, 80, 85, 86, 89, 91, 132, 397

Reconciliation, xxvii, xlvii, li, lxxii, 247, 260 see also Conciliation

Recto, 85, 291-295, 377, 388 Reflection, xxii, xxiii, xxvii, lxxi, 144,

159, 172-175, 195, 197, 210, 223, 234, 268, 297, 300, 316, 325

Reform, xxxii, lii, 39, 70, 197, 215, 241-245, 260, see also Innovation

Reformation, xxiv, xxx, 41, 51, 197, 198, 244, 245, 260, 261, 323, 331

Reformulation, xlv, xlvii, li, lix, 201-208, 400, 417

Refutation, xlvii, liii, lix, lxvii, lxviii, 4, 143-146, 157, 237, 239, 419, 420, 426, 445, 456

irrefutable, 215 Relation, xxxii, lv, 101, 103, 108,

261, 265, 291, 355, 362, 387 Religion, 7-16, 25-28, 37, 49-54,

125, 148-152, 172, 179, 196, 237-262, 305-340, 353, 360, 366, 368, 369, 399-417, 426, 464 see also Church

change of, 241-245, 327 Remonstrant, 24, 362, 364, 442,

443, 463 Repertoire, lxviii, 97, 130, 168, 260 Replica, 3, 157, 161, 306, 441

see also Retort Reply, xxx, 3, 5, 67, 76, 156, 177,

203, 295, 312, 315, 378, 423 counter-reply, 76

Republic, 8, 9, 16-18, 21, 23, 27, 57, 81, 82, 87, 140, 151, 215, 234, 289, 317, 332, 335, 354

Reputation, lxiv, 55, 60, 193, 205, 295, 310, 367, 368

disrepute, 386

Research, xlii, 97, 170, 172, 225, 366 see also Inquiry

Resolution, xxiv, xlviii, l, 1, 7, 27, 49, 72, 84, 90, 91, 143, 208, 260, 269, 312, 389, 403, 419, 420, 425, 432 see also Analysis

Respondent, 249, 298 see also Opponent

Retort, 67, 157, 239, 315, 436 see also Replica

Retraction, 154 Reunification, xxix, xxxix, xli,

xliv, lvii, 1, 55, 63, 152, 167, 201, 206, 241, 247, 248, 261, 262, 329-340, 416, 443, 456, 465, 468 see also Irenic and Reunion

Reunion, xxv, 55, 62, 63, 230, 247-262, 403, 415, 465

Revelation, xxvi, 52, 53, 170, 421, 422, 424

Rhetoric, xxx, xxxvi, xxxvii, xlvii, liv, lv, lxv, 5, 54, 55, 68, 80, 90, 136, 140, 143-147, 158, 199, 322, 323, 384, 390, 467 see also Persuasion

Rights, 256, 290, 341, , 348, 393, 397 individual, 6 of nations, 347, 394, 395, 459

see UsucaptionRite, 154, 252, 255, 257, 260, 414

see also Cult Rule, xxix, xxxi, xxxiv, xxxix, lvi,

lix, lxvii, lxviii, 5, 15, 20, 30, 31, 70, 71, 76, 83, 88, 93, 113, 119, 125, 135-137, 144, 163, 168, 189, 192, 197-199, 201, 226, 259, 266, 272, 299, 338, 348, 353, 382-385, 414, 425,

golden, 148, 163

503

of property

430-432

Subject Index

Sacraments, xli, 53, 253, 255, 256, 259, 313, 314, 320, 330, 333, 334

Salvation, 9, 14, 37, 151-155, 168-200, 227, 237, 241-245, 305, 308, 312-316, 319-322, 331-335, 338, 387, 403, 408, 413-416

Scales, lxviii, 19, 20, 21, 36, 124, 228, 267, 290, 356, 366, 381 see also Balance of reasons

Schism, 61, 62, 63, 154, 242, 244, 245, 248-250, 254, 255, 260, 317, 320, 321, 331, 333, 338, 402 see also Heresy

Scholastic, xix, xxx, 5, 13, 24, 98, 135, 136, 217, 220, 240, 269, 277, 364, 373, 382, 386, 387, 415, 419, 434, 447, 463, 464, 469

Science general, xxi, 56, 93, 119,

213-218, 219, 220, 225, 226, 230, 231, 234, 235, 375

Scripture, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 23, 63, 326, 335 see also Holy Scripture and Testament

Sect, 23, 38, 52, 123, 213, 249, 261, 266, 310, 320, 415, 445

Sectarianism, 269, 404, 405, 415 Semantic, 8, 79, 91, 141, 432 see

also Word Semiotic, xlvii, l, lx, lxvi, 400 see

also Sign Sense (ling.), see also Meaning

figurative, 12, 14-16, 47, 79, 80 improper, 12, 16 metaphorical, 16 proper, 12, 79

Sense (psych.), lxii, lxvii, 19-21, 138, 139, 170, 176-178, 188, 189, 215, 222, 383

Series, 96, 97, 125, 126, 131, 133, 146, 266, 269, 377, 404

Sign, 117, 132, 140, 182, 207, 280, 333, 393, 395, 396 see also Character and Indication

infallible, 312 sensible, 52, 53 of truth, 52, 164, 165 visible, 62, 202, 356

Similarity, 136-139, 169, 265 Sin, 152, 176, 243, 307

formal, 306, 307 of ignorance, 306, 307 of lying, 148-152 original, 257, 315, 331, 416, 417 philosophical, 305-308, 327, 414

Skepticism, lv, lxii, lxvii, 6, 160, 167-200, 426, 451-453

Socinianism, xxv, 14, 16, 315, 360, 362, 370, 443, 462, 468

Sophism, 20, 31, 38, 83, 145, 157, 204, 266, 401, 402, 432 see also Paralogism

Sorites, 21, 66, 180, 293 Soul, 26, 37, 38, 50, 153, 169, 171,

174, 187, 189, 190, 194, 223, 272, 336, 338, 393, 438 see also Mind

Species, xlvii, 23, 80, 85, 89, 95-100, 102, 103, 139, 184, 255, 256, 287, 288, 330, 377 see also Genus

Speech, 3-5, 53, 135, 171, 382 Spontaneity, 22, 42, 62, 138, 265,

391, 410, 442 Statesman, 190, 199 see also

Elector, Emperor, and Prince Stoicism, 197, 276, 277, 375 Strategy, xxi, xxviii, xxxix, lxv,

lvii, lxii, lxvi-lxviii, 6, 40, 55, 63, 141,143-146, 148, 153, 157-160, 168, 199, 224, 240, 248, 262, 325, 389, 419, 426, 463

504 Subject Index

Stubbornness, 172, 177, 314, 333, 363, 365

Subaltern, 96, 98, 99, 100, 137, 287, 288 see also Division

Subdivision, 96, 100, 287, 376, 387 Subjective, 7, 56, 198, 321, 433 Subordinate, 90, 103, 140, 401 Subsistence, 14, 15, 181 Substitution, 31, 91, 271, 292, 294,

458 see also Surrogation Subtle, lxvii, 6, 26, 38, 41,143,

164, 198, 205, 224, 241, 248, 275, 321, 356, 363, 459 see also Art of subtlety

Suppositive, 266 Surrogation, 357 Syllogism, 66, 83, 180, 217, 226,

239, 279, 298, 380, 385, 432, 440

pro-syllogism, 226, 230, 298, 303, 381

Syllogistic, 65, 92, 141, 210, 291, 381, 388, 389, 431

figure, 135, 239, 378, 431, 440 mode, 135, 136, 141, 239, 378,

378, 388, 431-434, 440 non-syllogistic, 141, 198, 388

Symbol, xliii, lxvi, 119, 220, 259, 263, 266, 267, 314, 317, 333

Synod, xxvi, 161, 254 Synopsis, xxviii, xlvii, l, 99, 200,

216-218, 400, 406-413, 414, 416

Syntax, xliii, 66, 79, 89, 135, 141, 144 Synthesis, xlv, l, lxii, 91, 93-99,

102, 103, 129, 132, 140, 220, 235, 275, 280, 302, 430, 433

System, l, lvi-lix, lxvi, lxxii, 101, 119, 141, 168, 389, 423, 445-449

Table, xlvii, 22, 24, 96-101, 131-133, 136, 228, 235, 272, 288, 376, 377, 404, 407, 408

Tendency, 46, 148, 237, 409, 443 Testament

New, 10, 149, 317, 364 Old, 149, 317, 364, 462

Testimony, xxxvii, xlii, 10, 14, 20, 52, 53, 75, 406, 430 see also Witness

Textual, xxix, 7-24, 310, 360, 417 Textualist, 8, 14 Theocracy, 332 Theology, xx, xxii, xxiv, xxxiv, 37,

130, 151, 170, 189, 234, 235, 237-240, 263, 271, 326, 381, 401, 417

moral, 151 natural, 40, 46, 139, 217, 308,

359, 366, 404 rational, liv, 167, 237, 363, 424 revealed, 217, 308, 404

Theorem, xxxiii, lxii, 21, 22, 39, 41-44, 84, 86, 91, 95, 110, 132, 138, 171, 186, 265, 280, 292-295, 366

Thinking, 29-33, 91, 116, 117, 126, 130, 133, 135, 175, 205, 206, 220, 222, 237, 263, 327, 361, 423

art of, 373, 378, 383, 384, 429-432, 440

blind, 33

thread for, 226-230 Time

delay, 22, 268, 344, 345, 346, 355, 423

elapsed, 329 immemorial, 343, 344 lag, 347 limit, 345

505

legal, 1, 35, 39, 65, 66, 78-92, 286

elements of, 29-33

Subject Index

Tolerance, xxii, xxv-xxvii, xlv, xlviii, 245, 248, 251, 259, 323, 400, 403, 413, 453, 456

Topics, xxxiii, xxxvi, lvii, 36, 39, 70-73, 80, 89, 90, 140, 300, 366, 377, 378, 387, 388, 430, 433

Topoi, liv, 39, 93, 68-69, 140, 168, 260, 269, 322, 430 see also Loci

Tradition, xxxv, 41, 75, 76, 80, 103, 106, 136, 147, 199, 232, 250-253, 288, 289, 317, 319, 322, 325, 326, 334, 340, 356, 374, 388, 390, 442

Tranquility, 46, 176, 192, 195, 196, 227, 234, 366, 412

Trial, 49-53, 62, 74, 228, 287, 346, 366

Tribunal, 1, 37, 49, 65-74, 77, 230 Trinity, 9, 13, 14, 239, 314, 320,

324, 362, 421 Truth

absolute, 83, 164, 165, 211 contingent, 185, 265, 266 double, 237, 239, 240, 426 eternal, 216, 380, 417, 426, 464 factual, 185, 266 natural, 62 necessary, see Necessary truth universal, 164 veracity, 63

Uncertainty, xxxi, lxiii, 18, 70, 73,

105-117, 172, 173, 233, 345, 346, 360, 365, 402

Understanding, xxvii, 12-14, 23, 29, 90, 98, 121, 134, 186, 189, 197, 238, 259, 375, 378, 380, 382, 385, 389, 439

Unhappiness, 174, 175, 190, 193, 367 Unintelligible, 446 see also

Incomprehensible and Intelligible

Union, 56, 63, 240, 255-257, 265, 318, 320, 321, 359, 399, see also Body

Universal, 23, 85, 88, 132, 244, 424 see also Characteristic, Church, Council, Grammar, Harmony, Mathematics, Truth

proposition, lxiv, 85, 132 Usucaption, 70, 301, 341-357 see

also Ownership Valid, lxiii, 83, 92, 155, 197, 251,

254, 291-295, 340, 343, 353, 356, 379, 388, 431, 440 see also Invalid

Verdict, lxiv, 19, 57, 317, 334, 357 Verisimilitude, 106, 145, 233, 316,

348, 426, 430, 433 see also Probability

degree of, 71, 267, 426, 452 Vicar, 332, 333 Victory, xlii, 49-53, 62, 101-117,

125, 145-146, 173, 197, 319, 320, 329, 332, 420

Virtual, 238-240, 314 Virtue, 90, 98, 99, 103, 141, 159,

169, 173, 189, 199, 287, 308, 314, 354, 377, 383, 401, 413 see also Ethics

Visionary, 176, 197 Voluntarism, lii, 199 see also Will Vote, liv, 1-6, 17, 257

majority of, 17, 257, 262, 326, 327, 335, 365

War, xxii-xxiv, xxxix, xlii, lviii,

16, 25, 38, 49, 62, 89, 162, 228, 329, 346, 374, 394, 402, 427, 453

Warrant, 32, 289 Weighing, see Balance of reasons

and Probability

506 Subject Index

Will (law), xxiii, 36, 191, 288 Will (psych.), 17, 42, 45, 46, 134,

165, 172, 178, 186, 190, 204, 288, 326, 332, 393, 409

Wisdom, 12, 42, 174, 183, 186-189, 194, 195, 207, 233, 308, 313, 375, 412, 422, 424, 425

Wise, 38, 42, 43, 47, 82, 90, 146, 147, 189, 195, 233, 335, 338, 344, 436

Witness, 27, 37, 132, 149, 181, 205, 233, 318, 344 see also Testimony

Word, lv, lxii,10-16, 20-23, 31, 32, 50, 76, 78-80, 84-89, 102, 122, 125, 134, 135, 141, 143, 146-147, 158, 194, 238, 240, 249, 250, 264, 266, 271, 272, 277, 292, 300, 326, 333, 348, 350, 367, 376, 383, 394, 403, 423

Wrongdoing, 148, 158, 197, 323

Subject Index 507

Name Index Aarsleff, H., 141 Abelard, P., 307, 308 Agricola, R., 387 Alberti, A., see Toureil, A. de Albius, Th., see White, Th. Alexander of Aphrodisia, 5 Allix, P., 362, 370 Almain, J., 306, 307, 308 Alsted, J. H., xliii, 288 Altissiodorensis, see de Auxerre, G. Ambrose, St., 150, 159 Amesius, 165 Andrada, see Payva de Andrada, D. Aphthonius, 390 Apollonius, 182, 198, 281 Archimedes, 222, 224, 295,

382, 385 Aristotle, 5, 13, 36, 68-71, 78, 80,

89-91, 122, 132, 140, 141, 147, 157, 199, 218, 240, 264, 272, 276-279, 287, 300, 308, 377-379, 384-389, 429, 430-433, 452, 455, 458, 466

Aristoxenus, 382 Arnauld, A., xxxiii, lvi, lvii, lxii,

lxiv, 25, 36, 53, 158, 197, 198, 247, 259, 272, 283, 300, 305-308, 315, 318-321, 323, 327, 368, 378, 388, 414, 432, 443, 455, 461, 464

Augustine, St., 143, 149, 150, 151, 158, 159, 160, 161, 210, 253, 259, 364, 365, 371, 405, 415, 425, 448, 464, 469

Austin, J., 397 de Auxerre, G., 306-308 Averroes, 427, 431

Bachusius, T., 388 Bacon, F., xxx, lxiii, 158, 213, 365,

378, 433, 460, 470 Barbeyrac, J., lii, 355, 356 Barckhausen, H., 262, 340 Baron, V., xxxiv, 40 Baruzi, J., xxi, li, liv, 55, 167,

168, 199 Basil the Great, 68, 73 Basnage de Beauval, H., lii, 302, 421 Bayle, P., xxiii, xxxi, lvi, lviii,

lxviii, 23, 199, 240, 259, 321, 361, 370, 400, 416, 419-427, 443, 453, 455, 456, 462-464

Becher, J. J., 272 Belaval, Y., lxvi, 198 Bellarmine, R., 155, 162, 166, 250,

260, 339, 340 Benivenius, 227 Bentley, R., 145, 158, 361,

370, 457 Berlich, M., 356 Bernard, St., 40, 307, 308, 426 Bernouilli, Jacques, xxxv, 388,

441, 443 Bernouilli, Jean, xxxv, 388, 441, 443 Bernouilli, Johann, xxxv, 388 Berry, 367 Bessarion, B., 364 Bishop of Avranches, see Huet, P. D. Bishop of Meaux, see Bossuet, J.-B. Bishop of Neustadt, see Rojas y

Spínola, C., Kollonitsch, L., and Buchheim, F. A.

Bishop of Salisbury, see Burnet, G. Bishop of Thina, 248, 252-257, 260,

468 see also Rojas y Spínola

509

510

Bishop of Worcester, see Stillingfleet, E.

Blank, A., 388, 449 Blondel, F., 384, 390 von Bodenhausen, W., lx, 389 Bochart, S., 54 Boeckler, J. H., 27 Bohl, S., 86, 91 Böhme, J., 120, 126 Böhmer, J. H., 349, 356 Boileau-Despréaux, N., 322

Bossuet, J.-B., 151, 161, 260, 456 Boucher, P., lii, 269, 355-357 Bougot, S., 308 Bourguet, L., 435-443, 457 Boursier, L., 442 Bouvet, J., 125 Boyle, C., 145, 157, 158 Bramhall, J., 461 Brand, 299 Brandes, J. M., 71, 73 Bredenburg, J., 442 de Breen, D., 364, 371 Breger, H., 103, 136 de Brinon, M., 309, 315,

320, 323 Brosseder, J., 260 Brunnemann, J., 68, 73 Buchhaim, F. A., 152, 161 Burchard of Worms, 71 Burnet, G., 361, 369, 371,

399-417, 457 Burnett, Th., lvii-lix, 158, 301,

359, 360, 367, 370, 421, 426, 427, 457-458

de Bussi-Rabutin, 361 Cabeus, N., 278, 282 Calixt, G., 465 Calvin, J., 319

Camerarius, 436 Campanella, T., 272, 470 Cardan, G., 158, 272, 273, 278,

283, 298, 302, 379, 388, 458, 470

Cardoso, A., 47, 76, 103, 199, 308 Carloman, 174, 197 Carpzov, B., 68, 73, 356 Casaubon, I., 365, 371 Casaubon, M., 371 Castaneus, H. L., 272, 273 Cataneo, T., 439 Celsus, 364 Charlemagne, 347, 354, 356 Charles V, xxiv, 251, 252, 262 Chrysostom, J., 150, 159, 160 Cicero, 80, 383, 389 Clarke, S., 116, 449 Claudianus, C., 53 Claudinus, J. C., 37, 39 Coelestius, 307, 308 Collonitsch, L., see Kollonitsch, L. Comenius, J. A., 208, 416, 462 Conring, H., lvi, 1, 47, 90,

458-459 Constantinus, 197 Conti, Abbot, 439, 467 Coste, B. de la, 178, 197 Coste, P., lix Couturat, L., xxi, xxxiii, xlii,

lxii, lxvi, lxix, 73, 102, 116, 140, 217, 218, 390, 431, 433

Cresset, J., 372 Cunningham, A., 363, 371 Cussens, J., 116 Cyprian, St., 253, 339, 340 Cyril, St., 362, 364, 370 Dalgarno, G., 126 Darwin, C., 103

von Boineburg, C., 1, 27, 458

Name Index

Name Index 511

Dascal, M., xxx, xxxi, xliv, xlv, xlvii, li, lv-lvii, lxii, lxiv-lxvi, lxix, 24, 33, 63, 91, 102, 117, 126, 140, 141, 158, 161, 197-199, 217, 218, 235, 240, 261, 269, 300, 323, 327, 356, 387, 389, 426, 433, 464

Davia, G. A., 152 Davillé, L., xlii, 235 Democritus, 226 des Bosses, B., lvi, 85 Descartes, R, xxx, xxxii, lx, lxii,

lxiv, lxv, 27, 93, 102, 122, 123, 126, 214, 216, 218, 269, 272, 278, 282, 298, 382, 388, 437, 439, 440, 441, 443, 459, 464, 467, 470

Digby, K., 279, 282 Dillherr, J.M., 386, 390 Diogenes, 226, 230 Dionysius the Aeropagyte, St., 364 Dodonée, R., 230 Du Plessis Mornay, P., 364, 371 Du Puy, P., 341, 354-356 Duke of Hanover, 77, 167, 256,

201, 285, 372, 388 Duke of Roannez, 368 Dumas, M.-N., 76 Dutens, L., 301, 302 Eccard, J. G., 79 Edzard, E., 290. 301 Ehler, K., xxix, 451-453 Eisenkopf, P., li, 259 Elector of Brandenburg, 466 Elector of Mainz, 354 Elector of Saxony, 251, 261 Emperor Heinrich IV, 295, 302 Emperor Julian, 362, 364, 370 Emperor Leopold, 152, 261, 468 Emperor Sigismund, 73, 186, 199, 363

Epicure, 184, 185, 371 Erasmus of Rotterdam, xxiv, 5,

273, 384, 390, 448 Ernst-August, see Duke of Hanover Euclid, 22, 33, 153, 279, 182, 224,

265, 275, 280, 281, 283 Everhardus, N., 357 Fabri, H., 38, 40, 237-240, 272,

279, 282, 453, 459, 460 Fachineus, A., 68, 73 Fagnani, P., 38, 40 Falcidius, P., 92 von Felden, J., 89, 272, 279, 282,

285, 299, 465 Fénelon, F. de S. de la Mothe-,

442, 456 de Fermat, P., xxxiii, lxv, 197,

441, 467 Fick, J. S., 269 Finckelthusius, S., 68, 73 Fludd, R., 269 Fogel, M., 285, 294, 299, 300, 301 Foucher de Careil, L. A., 168,

247, 256 Foucher, S., lvi, 167, 211, 389, 464 Fraguier, Abbot C., 439, 442 Francks, R., 449 Frederic the Great, 356 Freudenthal, G., 230, 389 von Gail, A., 68, 73 Galen, 431 Galilei, G., 260, 278, 282, 384,

459, 460 Gallois, J., lxvii, 211, 224, 467 Garrison, J., xxv, 467 Gataker, Th., 17, 24 Gensini, S., 141 Gerhardt, C. J., lxii, 429, 446, 448 Gerson, 306

512

Gil, F., 220 Gilbert, W., 278, 282 Graevius, J. G., lvi, 324 Gramond, G. B., 422, 427 Grasvinckel, T., 279, 282 Gratian of Cluse, 151, 161 Gregroy of Nyssus, St., 364 Grice, H. P., 117 Grotius, H., lii, 53, 60, 341,

341-345, 355, 356, 364, 384, 393, 394, 459-460

de Groot, H., see Grotius, H. Grua, G., xxi, lii, 44, 47, 68, 149,

242, 343, 351, 352, 355, 391, 399, 409, 411, 412

Gudius, M., 291 Gutke, G., 220 Hackelmann, L., 68, 73 Hahn, H., 68, 73 van der Hardt, H., 372 Hartsoeker, N., lvi, 436 van Helmont, F. M., 298, 303, 460 Henry IV, 250, 467 Herman, J., 441, 443 Hermogenes of Tarsus, 390 Herthius, J. N., 73 von Hessen-Rheinfels, E., xxvi, 6,

53, 201-207, 245, 247, 259-261, 303, 315

Hevelius, J., 453 Hippocrates, 76 Hispanus, P., 431 Hobbes, Th., xxxix, lii-lvi, lxvi, 18,

21, 24, 91, 102, 103, 120, 144, 158, 166, 197, 272, 278, 298, 371, 460-461, 470

Homer, 203 Horace, 375, 387 Hornschuch, J., 388 Hospinianus, J., 388

Hudde, J., 441 Huet, P. D., xli, lvi, 218, 364, 371,

375, 442, 461 d’Huisseau, I., 443 Hunnius, H. U., 68, 73 Huygens, C., xxxiii, 103, 105, 368,

378, 388, 436, 441, 459, 467 Jablonski, D. E., 399, 400, 416, 462 Jacques I, 362 Jagodinsky, I., 29 James I, 318 Jansenius, C., 24, 414 Jaquelot, I., lvi, 361, 370, 422-427,

462-463 Jean-Frédéric, see Duke of

Hanover Jerome, St., 150, 159, 161, 307 Jesseph, D. M., 197, 371 Johann Friedrich, see Duke of

Hanover Jungius, J., xxxii, lvi, 36, 122, 272,

285-303, 382, 387, 388, 429, 432, 463

Junius, H., 273 Jurieu, P., 259, 321,453, 455 Justinian, 73, 79, 103, 282 Kammermeister, J., 442 Keckermann, B., 432 Kepler, J., 278 Kestner, H. E., 70-73, 90 King, P.197 Kircher, A., 453 Kneale, M., 197 Kneale, W., 197 Knorr von Rosenroth, C., 298, 303 Koch, C. D., xliii, lvi, 373,

429-434 Kollonitsch, L., 251, 261 Krönert, G., 27, 261, 451, 467

Name Index

Name Index 513

de La Mothe le Vayer, F., 197, 414, 461

Lactantius, 364, 371 Laerke, M., 259 Laever, A., 286 Lamy, F., 447, 448 Lancelot, C., 455 Lauterbach, W. A., 68 Laymann, P., 40, 143, 151, 161, 261 Le Bay, M., 402, 414 Le Clerc, J., lvii, lxviii, 361, 362,

370, 420-427, 463-464 Leclerc, J., xxv Le Comte, L. D., 361 van Leeuwenhoek, A., 436, 442 Le Maître, I., 455 Leti, G., 361, 370 de Libera, A., 240 Llull, R., 201, 202, 208, 220, 278, 282 de Lobkowitz, C., 40 Locke, J., xxv, xxvi, xxviii, xxx,

lii, lvi-lxii, 269, 291, 301, 312, 363, 370, 371, 415, 432, 434, 439, 443, 457, 460, 464

Loemker, L. E., 375 Louis XIV, 25, 247, 309, 323, 341,

458, 467 Lucretius, 184, 199 Luther, M., xxiv, 402 McCormick, N., 92 McRae, R., 389 Macedus, 69 Machiavelli, N., lvi, 89, 90 Magliabecchi, A., 435, 442 Maimburg, Father, 321 de Maintenon, F. d’Aubigny,

Mme., 309 Malebranche, N., xxx, lvi, lxii, lxiv,

25, 272, 375, 435, 438, 443, 449, 455, 457, 464-465, 470

Mariotte, E., 102-104, 448 Martin, C. J., 5 Mascardus, 272, 273 Masenius, J., 53, 54 Masham, Lady, 316 Mates, B., 291 de Maubuisson, A., Mme., 309 de Mauro, T., 276 Mavio, 68 Medici, xxiv, 468 Meier, M. D., 391-397 Melanchthon, P., 260, 287 de Melo,Menochius, J., 272 Mercator, N., 280, 283 Mercuriale, G., 76 de Meré, Chevalier, 441 Mersenne, M., 467 Meyer, L., 7, 23 Molanus, G. W., xxvii, 153,

162, 262, 302, 321, 325, 339, 340, 399, 400, 462, 465, 468

Molière, 427 Molina, L., 417 Moller, H. H., 432 de Montaigne, M., 197 Montaltius, L., 40 see Pascal, B. Morin, J.-B., 278, 282 Müller, K., 27, 261, 451 Mynsingerus, 68 Naërt, E., xlv, 442 Neff, L., 141 Netanyahu, B., 259 Newton, I., lx, lxi, lxiv, 197, 363,

371, 449, 457, 464, 467 Nicole, P., xxxiii, 197, 318, 319,

321, 388, 432, 433, 455 Northoff, C., 5 Novarini, L., 272

W. D. C., 116

514

de Olaso, E., 167 Origen, 150, 160, 364, 426 Ortega y Gasset, J., 209 Papin, D., 230, 389 Papin, I., 451, 453 Paracelsus, 460 Parent, A., 447, 448 Parkinson, G. H. R., xxxii, 29,

33, 301 Parmentier, M., 85, 116 Pascal, B., xxxiii, 40, 105, 116,

281, 324, 368, 441, 459, 467 Patrizi, F., 282 Paul, St., 150, 151, 160, 253 Payva de Andrade, D., 313, 320, 322 Pellisson-Fontanier, P., 260,

309-324 Perrier, xxxiii, 368 Petau, D., 324 Peter, St., 150, 151, 160, 161,

261, 453 Peter the Great, 453 Petty, W., 363, 371 Phalaris, 145, 158 Philiponus, 364 Philippi, 68 Photius, 103

Pico della Mirandola, 364 Placcius, D. V., lvi, 166, 285-303,

378, 465 Plato, 233, 287, 364, 382, 439 Pliny, 37 Plotinus, 364 Polycarp, J., 299 Pombo, O., 126 Pomey, F., 272, 273 Pomponazzi, P., 240 Pope Alexander VIII, 305 Pope Clement VII, 261

Pope Clement IX, 196, 459 Pope Gregory VII, 302 Pope Innocence XI, 167, 323 Pope Pius V, 414 Pope Stephen I, 340 Popkin, R., 197 Posner, C., 272 Prince Eugene, 446, 448 Prince Johann Philip, 354 Proclus, 198, 364 Ptolemy, 382, 389 Pufendorf, S., lii, 165, 166, 283,

397, 466, 470, 471 Pythagoras, 22, 24, 119, 120,

264, 471 Quintillian, 5, 80, 84 Racionero, Q., xxix, xxxii, xlii, xlv,

xlix, li, liv, 322 Ramus, P., 96, 140, 280, 387, 388,

432, 466-467 Raspe, E., 35 Realis de Vienna, see Wagner, G. Reiher, 165 Reimann, J.F., 432, 433 Remond, N.-F., liii, lxi, 116, 125,

439, 445-449, 467 Reuchlin, J., 364 de Reux, J., 307

Richter, C. P., 73 Rivaud, A., 29 de Roberval, G. P., 109, 117, 198,

281, 467-468

259-262, 321, 325, 329-340, 359, 465, 468

Rudolph August, 291, 301, 363 Rudolph, H., 73, 153

de Pianese, Marquis, 167-200

de Richelieu, Cardinal, 60, 422

de Rojas y Spínola, C., xxix, xliv,55, 56, 152, 211, 247, 248,

Name Index

Name Index 515

Rulant, R., 39, 76 Rupert Hall, A., lx, 197 Ryle, G., 389 Salvian, St., 314, 320, 322 Sanches, F., 76, 240 Sanctorius, S., 37, 39, 76 Scaliger, J. C., 47, 272, 273, 385,

390, 447, 448 Schiffer, S., 117 Schmidt, J.A., 371 Schopenhauer, A., 146 von der Schulenburg, S., 141 Scotus, D., 240, 281 Searle, J. R., 117, 397 Seckendorff, V. L., xli, 321 Sellschopp, S., 153 Semanus, see Masenius, J. Serres, M., 218, 389 Sève, R., lii, 89 Sharrok, R., 165, 166 Simiane, C. E. P. de, 196 see

Pianese, Marquis de Siver, H., 285, 299 Sixtus Senensis, 150, 160 Snell van Roijen, W., 278, 282 Socinus, F., 370, 378, 468-469, 470 Socinus, L., 468 Sophie, of Hanover, 309, 442,

457, 460 Sophie Charlotte, of Brandenburg

and Prussia, liii, lix, 462, 465 Sozzini, F., see Socinus, F. von Spanheim, E., 370 Spee, F., 354, 357 Spener, P. J., 322 de Spinoza, B., liii, lvi, lvii, 7, 30,

224, 272, 279, 282, 362, 439, 441, 443, 448

Stahl, D., 23, 272 Stahl, G.E., 39

Stein, L., 429 Stelliola, A., 278, 282 Stensen, N., 55, 167, 199, 321, 465 Stenus, N., see Stensen, N. Steuchus, A., 364, 371 Steyaert, M., 308 Stiehler, G., 387 Stillingfleet, E., lxi, 361, 370 Stirnimann, J., 322 Strimesius, S, 165, 166 Struve, G.A., 68, 73 Stryck, S., 392, 396, 397 Stubrockius, B., 40 see Fabri, H. Suárez, F., 13, 23, 40, 411, 459, 469 Suisset, J., see Swineshead, R. Sulli, 446, 447 Swineshead, R., 264, 269, 277, 281 Tacitus, 89 Tartaglia, N., 458 Tempier, E., 240 Tertullian, 11, 23, 311, 322, 340 Thomas Aquinas, St., 364, 389,

433, 469 Thomasius, C., lvi, 72, 73, 164,

296, 302, 386, 390, 470 Thomasius, J., xxx, xxxii, lvi, lxvii,

126, 259, 285, 388, 465, 470 de Toureil, A., 261 Toland, J., 370 Treutler, H., 73 Trew, A., 279 Triphonius, 80 Vagetius, J., 285, 286, 290-295,

299, 300, 301 Valeriano, M., 272 Vallisnieri, A., 435-437, 442 Varignon, P., 467 Veltheim, V., 397 Veron, F., 53, 54

516 Name Index

Vigelius, N., 72, 273 Virgil, 277, 278 Vives, J.-L., 371, 447, 448 Voetius, 17, 24 Voltaire, 6 Vorstius, J., 362 Vossius, I., 282 Wagner, J. G., lvi, 373-390, 429,

470-471 Wakulenko, S., 158 Waldhoff, S., 73, 158 van Wallenburch, A., 7, 9 van Wallenburch, P., 7, 9 Wallis, J., 363, 368, 371, 461 Ward, S., 282, 461

Weigel, E., 279, 282, 283, 298, 471 Weijers, O., 5 Werlhof, J., 341-357 White, Th., 279, 282 Wilkins, J., 126, 272, 273 Witson, 367 de Witt, A., 441 Wolff, C., lvi, 429, 434 Wolzogen, J. L., 7, 23 Woolhouse, R. S., 449 Wroblewski, J., 323 Zanichelli, G., 437, 442 Zarlinus, G., 382, 389 Zwinger, Th., 96 Zwingli, H., xxiv, 402