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BIOLOGICALCOGNITIVE
SOCIOCULTURAL
Levels of Analysis (LoA)
Biological LoA
Focuses on physiology and geneticsGender differences via genetic makeup
XY and XX chromosomesGender differences from the impact of
hormones testosterone and estrogen
Cognitive LoA
Focuses on mental processes Memory Thinking Perception Attention
Gender differences via gender schema theory
Social cognitionGender stereotypes
Sociocultural LoA
Focuses on how environment and culture impact behavior and thinking
Impact of cultural definitions and roles for our mental representations of each gender
Gender differences explained through social learning theory Watching individuals of the same sex for
behavior cues
PHYSIOLOGY AND GENETICS
Biological Level of Analysis
Biological LoA: Physiology & Behavior
Biology can affect cognition and cognition can affect biology…relationship is bidirectional
Physiological factors that impact behavior: Brain processes Neurotransmitters Hormones Genes
Physiology does not work alone since environmental stimuli influence our behavior Stressful experiences Attractive person passing by Brain damage caused by trauma
Goal of IB Psychology
Taking a holistic approach to human behavior
Interactionist Approach: Both sides of nature (biology) vs. nurture (environment) argument.
Principles of Human Behavior (Biological LoA)
1. Behavior can be innate since it is genetically based
Evolution…key role in behavior2. Animal research can provide insight to
human behaviorMuch research done with animals
3. Biology correlates with behaviorLinks between specific biological factors
and specific behaviors
Reductionist Approach
Micro-level research; breaking down complex human behavior into simple parts.
Criticized for being over simplistic but allows us to gain detailed knowledge of human behavior
Important because it allows understanding of several factors that influence one behavior
Impact of Neurotransmitters on Behavior
Influences mood, memory, sexual arousal, and mental illness
Acetylcholine Muscle contraction, helps with development of memory in
hippocampusDopamine
Voluntary movement, learning, feelings of pleasureNorepinephrine (noradrenalin)
Arousal, alertness, stimulation of sympathetic nervous system
Serotonin Sleep, arousal levels, emotion
Affect of Serotonin on Behavior
Tokyo University (Kasamatsu and Hirai, 1999)Aim: How sensory deprivation affects the brainBuddhist monks deprived of food, water, no
communication, and exposure to cold weather48 hours, hallucinationsBlood samples before and right after
hallucinations (serotonin levels increased which activated the frontal cortex and hypothalamus)
Conclusion: Sensory deprivation released serotonin which altered monks experience.
Drugs
Stimulate the production of neurotransmitters
Block receptor sites if too much is produced
Technology and the Brain & Behavior
Technology gives researchers the ability to monitor and discover the “map” of the brain’s activity
Previously, case studies were used; usually situations that would be unethical to reproduce in the lab. Case studies of brain damaged patients
carried out over a long period of time (longitudinally) Phineas Gage, Paul Broca, Carl Wernicke
Allows for observation of short-term and long-term effects
Localization of Brain Function
The idea that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific functions
When a behavior is localized in the brain, it is possible to trace the origin of the behavior to a specific part of the brain.
Does not explain ALL human behavior but is a major step forward in brain research
Robert Heath (1950s) James Old (1950s)
Electrically stimulated parts o f the brain in depressed patients=experienced pleasure
One patient (B-19) electrically stimulated himself 1,500 times in 3 hours
Experienced euphoria and elation and was eventually disconnected against his will
Rats would receive electrical stimulation to the nucleus accumbens when a lever was pressed
Crossed over electrified grids and preferred pleasure lever over food and water
Research on the role of the nucleus accumbens (pleasure center)
Brain Functions and Ethical Considerations
Electrical stimulation of the nucleus accumbens is based mainly on dopamine (desire) and serotonin (satiety and inhibition)
Via animal studies, all drugs increase the production of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and reduce serotonin. Cocaine and nicotine
Frequent use of drugs increase the amount of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. Why drug addicts have an obsessive drive to seek
more drugs even though they know its not good for them
Spiders on Drugs
http://www.trinity.edu/jdunn/spiderdrugs.htm
TechnologyInvasive
Techniques
Study the active brain EEG, PET, fMRI
More ethicalMay be misleading
Ablation (removing) & leisoning (scarring) techniques on animals
Harm cannot be reversed Ethical? Pain?
Technology vs. Invasive Techniques
Jig-Saw Activity Slides…
Biological LoA: Genetics & Behavior
Behavioral genetics: Understanding how both genetics and the environment play a role to individual variations in human behavior.
Rhesus macaque monkeys & humans 93% genes are shared, the 7% makes a large difference
Complexity of genetics:Inheritance contributes to behavior and
acts as a building block however, it is not probable that one specific gene is responsible for complex behaviors: Intelligence, criminal behavior, attachment, altruism
+ = DISORDER
The diathesis-stress modelThe model looks at the genetic/biologic vulnerability to a disorder/disease and the stress or traumatic environmental stimuli that may trigger a disorder (such as depression) The diathesis-stress model uses the analogy of a "walking time bomb" to help explain why, for example, not 100% of identical twins both get depression. It also helps to explain why a large percent of people in traumatic situations (post 9/11, rape, etc.) never develop PTSD. The model further talks about a balance -- the greater the diathesis or predisposition, the less the stress required for the disorder to "appear" and visa versa.
Biological / genetic predisposition
Stress
(environment)
Last years notes on genetics and evolution… I hope you didn’t lose them!
If you did, in your hours of free time,
check these out on the wiki
Inheritance
Genes that are passed down from parents to their off-spring
Humans are composed of 24 pairs of chromosomes 20,000-25,000 genes
James Watson: Human Genome Project 1990-2003 Mapped human genes Regardless of this amazing accomplishment,
the role of specific genes are still unknown
Genetic Research
Based off of correlation studiesIndependent variable is not
manipulated, so no cause and effect can be determined.
Three types:Twin StudiesFamily StudiesAdoption Studies
Twin Studies
Identical: one egg split in two
Share 100% of genes Same sex
Fraternal: Formed from two separate eggs
Share 50% of genes just like any other siblings Same or different sex
Monozygotic (MZ) Dizygotic (DZ)
Used as basis for hypotheses since they show the different degrees of genetic relationship. In twin studies the correlation found is known as concordance.
Family Studies
More representative of the general population
Different degree of relatedness is compared with behavior to determine the impact of genes.
Child
Mother (50%)
Grandparent (25%)
Grandparent (25%)
Father (50%)
Adoption Studies
Used to determine how great of an impact environment plays in behavior since the child does not share any genes with foster parents.
Often criticized because of selective placement Agencies tend to find adoptive parents that are
similar to their biological parents which cause a difficulty in determining separating genetic inheritance from environment influences. This process is known as selective placement.
Evolution
Another principle of the biological LoA is that the environment presents obstacles & challenges for each individual.
In essence, those that adapt have a better chance of survival & having offspring which allows their genes to be passed down.
Theory of Natural Selection
Members of a species acquire adaptive behaviors to survive the ever-changing environment (those better suited for environment will breed and pass on characteristics)
http://youtu.be/Pt2gHpqfZNAAdaption: Species develop characteristics that
make it more competitive in its environmentCharles Darwin (Galapagos Island, finches, beaks)
On the Origin of Species (He didn’t yet know of the biological process through which traits are inherited)
Descent of Man
The Descent of Man findings
We humans share several behaviors with other animalsMate selectionLove of mother for offspringSelf-preservationSimilar facial expressions as apesSimilar feelings as animals
Monkeys vs. Humans
Tetsuro Matsuzawa (2007)Looked at spatial memory in young chimps Used 3 chimps that were taught to recognize
the numbers 1-9 on a computerHumans and chimps saw number flashed on a
touch screen monitor and then the numbers were covered with blank squares and then were asked to touch the squares in sequential order.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gf3_JrTEGW0
Findings
Humans had more errors and less accuracy as numbers were flashed and replaced by squares quicker As agriculture developed, spatial memory skills aren’t
as important for finding food Perhaps this skill was replaced by the ability to develop
languageChimps had astonishing memory; no difference
in their recall in relation to the amount of time that the numbers were replaced with squares. Adaption for survival skills such as remembering where
food and danger is located in the rain forest
Ethical Considerations
Because research in human genetics looks to identify certain genes involved in hereditary diseases there can be some negative outcomes: May pose risks to participates due to the
link between genetic heritage and people’s life
Information obtained may cause stress to participants family
If misused, information can be stigmatizing which could lead the inability to get a job or health insurance.
Once again, notes last year over confidentiality should be revisited
Aboriginal people may object to genetic studies
Eugenics and other forms of discrimination is the cause.
Consent and speaking to community leaders are a must for many aboriginal and ethnic groups.
Intelligence
During the beginning of the 20th century, governments and schools became very interested in one’s intellectual potential and the role genetics play in IQ
Alfred Binet developed an intelligence test to help understand this concept better within the French educational system
Research has shown that poverty plays a major role in the development of a child’s intelligence
The Bell Curve
Book published in 1994 by Harvard professor Richard J. Herrnstein
The debate about the role of genes and environment have to do with ethnic difference in intelligence is not yet resolved
Media discussed the idea that there may be intergroup differences in intelligence, thus conferring the idea that the root of intelligence in debatable
The “g” factor
Argued by Charles Spearman, there is a general intelligence factor that is the basis of all intelligence
Rather than looking a specific educational subjects (history, math, etc.) Spearman’s intelligence test measures the following: Spatial ability Reasoning Divergent Thinking Verbal Fluency
Meta-analysis in Relation to IQ Tests
Bouchard & McGue (1981) used 111 studies of IQ correlations between siblings from research around the world
Found that the closer the kinship the higher correlation of IQ
Meta-analysis: statistical synthesis of the data from a set of comparable studies of
a problem that yields a quantitative summary of the pooled results
Minnesota Twin Study
(Bouchard et al.) Longitudinal study, been going on since 1979
Most cross-cultural study to date (participants from across the world)
Compares MZAs (identical twins raised apart) to MZTs (identical twins raised together)
Mean age of MZAs was 41 (start of study), until this study most research was done with adolescents
Twins completed 50 hours of testing and interviews
Findings
Same person tested twice
87%
Identical twins reared together
86%
Identical twins reared apart
76%
Fraternal twins reared together
55%
Biological siblings reared together
47%
Conclusions
70% of intelligence can be attributed to genetics inheritance, the other 30% is due to other factors
Much research has supported the MTSThe size and nature of the sample has made it
one of the most impressive study ever conducted
Criticisms of the MTS
Relied on media cover for participantsEthical concerns about how twins were
reunitedNo adequate control to establish the
frequency of contact between the twins prior to the study
“Equal environment assumption” Cannot assume twins raised together experience the
exact same environment (different friends, teachers, exposure to stimuli, etc.)
Adoption Studies for Intelligence
Scarr & Weinberg (1977) and Horn et al. (1979)Researched parents that raised adopted and
natural childrenAny significant differences in IQ between the
adoptive and biological children would be attributed to genes
No significant difference in IQ correlations were found
Parents were wealthy, white, middle class and high IQs & adopted children were poor, lower-class backgrounds, and lower IQs
Environmental Role on IQ
Wahlstein (1997) found that intelligence has a lot to do with environment and genetics
Found that transferring an infant from a low SES to a home where parents had a high SES improved childhood IQ scores 12-16 points (about one standard deviation)
Enriched environment may raise IQ in children Strong interaction between genes and the
environment to produce intelligence level
Less Effort Hypothesis
Hainer et al. (1988) used PET scans to see how much energy was used in solving problems vs. data recall Helped decipher what intelligence is (based on
knowledge or ability to solve problems)Those with higher IQs had lower metabolic
rates when solving a reasoning problem in comparison to those with a low IQ No difference in data recall
Those with a higher IQ use less energy to think than those with lower IQs
IQs Change over Time
Plomin & Petrill (1997) found that correlations between parent and child IQs change over time Ages 4-6, 40% correlation Early adulthood, 60% correlation Older adults, 80% correlation
Our genetic disposition pushes us towards environments that accentuate that disposition, thus leading to increased heritability throughout life
SES seems to the most important environmental factors in IQ development
Flynn Effect
James R. Flynn noticed a rise in average scores on intelligence tests in most parts of the world over the last century
Ulric Neisser (1997) The America Scientist, average mean scores are going up about 3 points every decade (increase is even higher in abstract reasoning) Better nutrition Improved schooling Different child-rearing practices Increase in technology in modern life Living a higher visual environment plays an important role in IQ
scores
Does this prove a real increase in IQ or just better understanding of intelligence and tests?
MENTAL PROCESSES
Cognitive Level of Analysis
Cognitive Psychology
Cognition (cognoscere) “to know”Ulric Neisser (1967)
“all the processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.”
Includes the structure and function of the mind
How the human mind comes to know things about the world and how this knowledge is used
Cognitive neuroscience: Combines the knowledge about the brain and knowledge about cognitive processes.
Cognitive ProcessesCognitive Processes:
Perception Thinking Problem-Solving Memory Language Attention
Cognition is based on an individual’s mental representations of the world Words Images Concepts
Different experiences influence our mental representations
Principles of Cognitive Psychology
1.) Mental processes guide behavior Bottom-up Top-down Output (behavior)
2.) The mind can be studied scientifically Developing theories and using scientific
research methods3.) Cognitive processes are influenced by
social and cultural factors Schemas
Mental processes guide behavior (Principle 1)
The mind is a complex “machine” using hardware (brain) and software (mental images or representations)
Information input via bottom-up processing (from the senses)
Information is processed in the mind via top-down processing (pre-stored information/memory)
Output (behavior)
Cognitive Theories and Models in the Real World
Subtle relationships between how people think about themselves and how they behave
A person’s mindset is important to predicting his/her behavior
People have fixed ideas about other people (stereotyping) which can lead to discrimination
Are memories infallible?
The reconstructive nature of memory We do not store exact copies of
experiences; we outline events which are filled out with information when it is recalled
The brain can fabricate illusions which seem so realistic we believe they are true
False Memory: We cannot distinguish between what we
have experienced and what we have heard about an event
Perception
Interpretation and organization of information from the senses to produce some meaningful experience of the world
Perception of an ambiguous object or event is influenced by: Context Frequency How recent
What we think we objectively experience may in fact be a result of the brain’s interpretation of that object or event
The Mind Can Be Studied Scientifically (Principle 2)
New findings can adjust original theories/models or they can also be rejected if empirical evidence no longer supports it
Psychologists study cognition in laboratory settings as well as daily context Previously, the experimental was assumed to be the
most scientific method In the 1960s, Ulric Neisser suggested that cognition
cannot be isolated from our everyday experiences Experimental tasks did not always resemble what
people did in their daily lives
Studying the Mind
Traditionally, controlled experiments were favored Controlled variables
Experimental research might suffer from artificialityData is used to support/refute cognitive modelsToday more methods are used:Case studies
Incredible memory patients Brain damaged patients (Localization functions)
Imaging technology Which areas of the brain are active when making decisions,
how cognitive processes can be disruptive by brain damage (amnesia or Alzheimer patients)
Cognitive Processes are Influenced by Social & Cultural Factors (Principle 3)
Frederic Bartlett coined the term schema (mental representation of knowledge)
Interested in cultural schemas and how they impact remembering
Discovered that people have difficulties remembering a story from another culture and they adjusted the story to fit in with their own cultural schemas
Memory in not a tape recorder and we remember in terms of meaning and what makes sense to us, thus memory is subject to distortions
Mental Representations & Memory
How we store images and ideas in memoryWe use mental representations to think, make
plans, imagine, & daydreamSelf-representation: How you perceive who
you are and how you lookMental representations are organized in
categories which are stored in your memoryManipulating mental representations allows
us to think about situations & predict possible outcomes Make plans, calculate risks, create
Schemas and Schema Theory
Schemas describe how specific knowledge is organized and stored in memory so it can be accessed and used when needed
Schema theory: Cognitive theory about information processing
Suggests that what we already know will influence the outcome of information processing because we humans are active processors of information
We interpret and integrate information to make sense of experiences even if we are unaware of it
When information is missing we fill in the blanks based on existing schemas or inventing information leading to mistakes (distortions)
Cognitive Schemas
Networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world
Pre-stored mental representationsAllows us to have expectations of what will
happen Imagination allows us to picture characters in book
book > movieWhat we already know affects the way we
interpret events and store knowledge in our memory
Points to Remember About Cognitive Schemas
Organize information about the world with fixed and variable slots; if slot is unspecified it is filled in by a “default value” (best guess)
Can be related to form systemsActive recognition devices (pattern
recognition)Help predict future events based on the pastRepresent general knowledge rather than
definitions
Schema Theory & Memory Processes
Schema processing can affect memory at all stages
Encoding: Transforming sensory information into meaningful memory
Storage: Creating a biological trace of the encoded information in memory, which can be consolidated or lost
Retrieval: Using stored informationENCODING
Put into Memor
y
STORAGE
Maintain in
Memory
RETRIEVAL
Recover from
Memory
Evaluation of Schema Theory (Support)
Research supports the idea that schemas affect cognitive processes such as memory
Useful in understanding how people categorize information, interpret stories, & make inferences
Contributed to understanding of memory distortions as well as social cognition
Social psychologists use social schemas to help explain stereotyping and prejudice
Evaluation of Schema Theory (Limitations)
It is not entirely clear how schemas are acquired and how they actually influence cognitive processes
Cohen (1993) said that the concept of schemas is too vague to be useful yet researchers use it to explain cognitive processing
Daniel Gilbert argues that the brain is a “wonderful magician but a lousy scientist” by looking for meaningful patterns but does not check for accuracy
Multi-Store Model
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) created the most influential information processing model thus far
Based off of two assumptions:1.) Memory consists of a number of separate
stores/types The memory stores are seen as components that
operate in conjunction with permanent memory through processes
2.) Memory processes are sequential; one must happen before another
Memory Storage Processes
Attention: Pay attention to sensory input in order to
remember itCoding:
Give material a form that enables you to remember it
Rehearsal: Keeping material active in memory via
repetition until it can be stored
Steps of the Multi-store Model
1. Sensory memory: information from the world Stays here only for seconds and only a small portion
will transfer to STM Modality specific: related to different senses (hearing
& vision)2. Short-term memory (STM) store:
7 item limit for a duration of 6-12 seconds Quickly lost if not given attention
3. Rehearsal is necessary for long-term memory
Long-term Memory (LTM)
Storehouse of informationSince we do not know how much info
can be stored, LTM is believed to have unlimited capacity and for an indefinite duration
Material is not exact (outline) and memory can be distorted due to schemas “filling in gaps”
Working Memory Model
Baddeley & Hitch (1974) based their model off of the multi-store model
Challenged the idea that STM is a single store
STM includes several components Central executive
Episodic buffer Phonological loop Visuospatial sketchpad
Central Executive
Controlling system which monitors and coordinates the operations of the other components (slave systems)
Most important part of the working memory model
Limited capacity and is modality free (can process any sensory information)
Attentional control is the most important job of the central executive
Attentional Control
Happens in two ways:1.) Automatic level:
Based on habit and controlled automatically by stimuli in the environment
Includes routine procedures2.) Supervisory level:
Deals with emergencies or creates new strategies when old ones are no longer sufficient
Reactions
Episodic Buffer
Consciously trying to remember detailsActs as a temporary and passive display store
until the information is needed (similar to a TV screen)
Processing of the information takes place in other parts of the system
Here’s your picture
Phonological Loop
Divided into 2 components1.) Articulatory control system:
Inner voice which holds information in verbal form Remembering a telephone number and repeating it Holds words until you are ready to speak
2.) Phonological store: Inner ear which holds speech-based material in
phonological form Memory only lasts 1.5-2 seconds if it is not refreshed by the
articulatory system Receives info. directly from sensory memory in the form of
auditory material and from LTM in the form of verbal information and the articulatory control system
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Inner eyeDeals with visual and spatial information
from the sensory memory or LTM
Evidence of Working Memory
Most contemporary research accepts the idea of working memory
Experiments using dual-task techniques/interference tasks support the model Participants were asked to carry out a cognitive task
that used most of the capacity of their working memory Telling a story to a person while also trying to learn a list
of numbers If the two tasks interfere with each other so that one
or both are impaired, it is assumed that both tasks use the same component in the STM
Working Memory Model Multi-store Model
More satisfactory explanation of storage and processing than the STM component of the multi-store model
Include active storage and processing which helps understand all sorts of cognitive tasks (reading comprehension and mental math)
Explains the idea of multi-tasking (performing different cognitive tasks at the same time without disruption)
Assumes that mental processes are passive
Working Memory Model vs. Multi-store Model
Working Memory in Children
Pickering & Gathercole (2001) used the Working Memory Test Battery for Children
Found that there is an improvement in performance in working memory capacity from the age of 5 until about 15
Working memory during childhood varies widely across individuals of the same age
Provides evidence that problems with working memory is associated with problems in academic performance
Problems with the phonological loop have been linked to math and reading abilities
Visual and Spatial Memory Linked to Math Skills
Holmes et al. (2008) studied the association between visuospatial sketchpad capacity and math attainment in relation to age
Samples: Ages 7-8 and 9-10Studied age differences in relationship
between visual and spatial memory and the range of math skills
Findings: Math performance could be predicted based off of the performance on the visual patterns test
SOCIOCULTURAL Level of Analysis
Principles of Sociocultural LoA
1. Since humans are social animals, we have the basic need to “belong”
2. Culture influences behavior3. Since humans are social animals, we have
a social self Not only do we have an individual
identity, but also a collective/social identity
4. People’s views of the world are resistant to change (ideological immunity)
Research: Sociocultural LoA
Goal: To see how people interact with each other
Usually it doesn’t make much sense to use experiments Majority is in qualitative methods
Want to study the behavior of “participants” in realistic ways
Naturalistic, “as it really is”; in environments in which the behavior is likely to occur Participant observation Interviews Focus groups
Thoughts Worth Mentioning About Research
In the past, laboratory experiments were used because they were considered the most scientific way of collecting data
Although modern techniques are more “real” they are descriptive data therefore they cannot explain cause-and-effect (causation) relationships
Participant observation is most common to “see the world through the eyes of the people being studied.”
Covert Overt Researcher does not inform
participants that they are being observed
Deceit is used to gain “trust” of members of the group
Intentions are not disclosed and behaviors are recorded without obtaining informed consent
Can’t take notes which causes researcher to rely on memory leading to distortion of data
Interviews can’t be used for fear of being discovered Example: Leon Festinger et al’s When
Prophecy Fails (1956)
Participants know they are being observed
Gain trust of the group being observed
Can use interviews to gather more information Example: O’Reilly
(2000)
Participant Observation
Attribution Theory
Fritz Heider The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (1958)
Attribution: How people interpret and explain casual relationships in the social world
We have a desire to understand why things happen
By observing behaviors we try to make inferences about intentions and responsibility
Actor-observer effect: Making attributions about behavior depending on whether they are performing it themselves or observing someone else doing it
Answering that “WHY” Question
Discussing own behavior
Blaming the situationAnalyzing the person’s
action with regards to the situation he/she is in
Ex: Late work/missing assignments= genuine issue such as a family/personal issue
Observing someone else’s behavior
Blaming the personA person’s behavior is
influenced by internal characteristics
Ex: Late work/missing assignments= Lazy & irresponsible and never finishes work on time
Situational Dispositional
Fundamental Attribution Error
Self-serving Bias (SSB)
Overestimating the role of dispositional factors and underestimating the role of situational factors in an individual’s behavior
When people take credit for their success, attributing them to dispositional factors and dissociate themselves from their failures, attributing them to situational factors
Errors in Attributions
A Deeper look into Fundamental Attribution Error
Reasons why this error is common: Reason #1:
People tend to view themselves as adaptable, flexible, and ever-changing
We don’t like to view ourselves as that “type” of person but when we look at others we don’t have enough information about them to make a rash decision about them so we attribute their behavior to disposition (that’s just who they are)
Looking at our own behavior we believe we would have acted differently under different circumstances
Western Culture Influence
Reason #2: Placing blame is part of Western culture So is people being held accountable for
their action Evil actions are more acceptable when
blamed on evil than to refer to environmental factors as explanations
The judicial system is looking for a satisfactory motive in order to convict someone of murder
Basics of Lee et al. (1977)
Aim: Will student participants make the fundamental attribution error even when they knew actors were playing a role Roles: Host, contestant, audience
Findings: Role was not attributed to the person’s situation and attributed the person’s performance to dispositional factors (intelligence)
Concerns: Sample (student participants)1. Professors seen as authorities2. Not representative of greater population
Conclusion: People with social power usually initiate and control conversations; makes them seem knowledgeable and ideas are not challenged
Reasons why we use the self-serving bias:
#1: Serves as protection (Greenberg et al., 1982): Attribute success to dispositional factors boosts our self-
esteem Attribute failures to situational factors protect our self-esteem
#2: Cognitive factors play a role (Miller & Ross, 1975): Expect to succeed and do skills and ability Expect to succeed and fail bad luck/external factors Expect to fail and do well external factors/good luck Expect to fail and we do dispositional factors
Exception to the above rules: Severely depressed individuals make more dispositional attributions thus blaming themselves for feeling miserable
Cultural Differences in SSB
Modesty Bias: Explaining failures in terms of lacking abilityKashima and Triandis (1986):
Show slides of scenes from unfamiliar countries Americans attributed success to ability Japanese attributed failures to their lack of ability
Chandler et al. (1990) Also observed modesty bias in Japanese students
Watkins & Regmi (1990) Same held true for Nepalese students
Bond, Leung, & Wan (1982) Chinese students that showed modesty bias rather than SSB were more
popular with peers Kashima & Triandis argue this is due to collective societies which derive
self-esteem from group identity as opposed to individual accomplishments