Brevia, Fall 2013

BREVIAV!".

1 I##

$%

3

F&"" 2013

the beauty of bacteria

submitted by Bianca Mulaney

On the cOver: a crystal violet stain of Staphylococcus aureus ELRÀOPV� LQ�D�96-well plate. Under certain conditions, planktonic S. aureus cells ad-KHUH� WR� WKH� ERWWRP� VXUIDFH� RI � WKH� ZHOOV� DQG� DJJUHJDWH� LQWR� ELRÀOPV��Once stained with crystal violet WKH� FHOOV� GLH�� EXW� WKH� ELRÀOP� UHPDLQV �� OHDYLQJ� EHKLQG� D� EHDXWLIXO� VHPEODQFH� RI � D� PLFUR� VXSHURUJDQLVP�

EDITOR’S NOTE

1BREVIA FALL 2013brevia.hcura.org

Wikipedia puts it best. Memory is an organism’s ability to store, retain, and recall information. But it is also a song from Cats, a short story by Stephen King, and a Russian ultra-nationalist organization. It may UHIHU�WR�FRPSXWHU�GDWD�VWRUDJH��EXW�LW�LV�DOVR�D�XVHIXO�FRQFHSW�LQ�LPPXQRORJ\��ODQJXDJH�DFTXLVLWLRQ��DUWLÀFLDO�LQWHOOLJHQFH�� DQG� WKHUDS\� IRU�ZDU� YHWHUDQV��%UHYLD·V� WKLUG� LVVXH³DQG�ÀUVW�RQH� LQ�SULQW³H[SORUHV�KRZ�ZH�shape our memories, and how our memories shape us in turn.

In childhood, illness, and old age, those moments when we have the least control over our minds, our HIIRUWV�WR�UHFRQVWUXFW�PHPRU\�FDQ�ERWK�EULQJ�SHRSOH�WRJHWKHU�DQG�WHDU�WKHP�DSDUW��&KDULVVD�,OXRUH�H[SODLQV�KRZ�IDOVH�PHPRULHV�RI �FKLOGKRRG�WUDXPD�PDNH�WKHLU�ZD\�IURP�WKH�SV\FKRORJLVW·V�RIÀFH�WR�WKH�FULPLQDO�FRXUW-room. Nisreen Shiban questions how one doctor remembers his seven days in a coma, and how it helped him UHFRQFLOH�VFLHQFH�ZLWK�WKH�VXSHUQDWXUDO��0LFKHOOH�*XR�ORRNV�IRU�ZD\V�WR�ÀJKW�ȕ-amyloid peptide fragments from accumulating in an aging brain plagued by Alzheimer’s.

6FLHQWLVWV�PD\�RQH�GD\�PDS�RXW�WKH�H[DFW�DUUDQJHPHQW�RI �V\QDSVHV�WR�VSHOO�RXW�D�SDUWLFXODU�PHPRU\��EXW�until then, the subject remains elusive as ever. Memories persist when we don’t want them to, and they may IDGH�ZKHQ�ZH�QHHG�WKHP�PRVW��(YHQ�DW�WKH�PLFUR�OHYHO��ERG\�FHOOV�WKDW�DUH�DUWLÀFLDOO\�PDGH�LQWR�VWHP�FHOOV�can never fully take on a new form. Generations later, they may still “remember” what they used to be. And at the most abstract of levels, memory embeds itself into languages, which themselves grow and die over time. Once a language like Latin is no longer used to communicate, can we still preserve it as an art form, or perhaps a shared memory of the past?

Less than a year has passed since Brevia’s founding, and its trip down memory lane is decidedly short. ,Q�WKDW�WLPH��ZH�KDYH�H[SDQGHG�IURP�D�EULHI �FROOHFWLRQ�RI �UHVHDUFK�DEVWUDFWV�WR�D�IXOO�SXEOLFDWLRQ�ZLWK�VWXGHQW�SURÀOHV��RS�HGV��DQG�DQ�HYHU�LQFUHDVLQJ�RQOLQH�SUHVHQFH��,�DP�SOHDVHG�WR�SUHVHQW�RXU�ÀUVW�SULQWHG�LVVXH��ZKLFK�turns a critical eye on subjects as varied as genetic testing, TED talks, and the winners of the Nobel prize. -RLQ�XV�LQ�H[SORULQJ�KRZ�UHVHDUFK�FDQ�PDNH�LWV�ZD\�IURP�SHWUL�GLVKHV�DQG�H[FDYDWLRQ�VLWHV�LQWR�WKH�KDQGV�RI �the curious reader. Research can be accessible, even if memory cannot.

Rachel WongEditor-in-Chief

mem•o•ry (noun)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

2 BREVIA FALL 2013 brevia.hcura.org

FEATURES 14

MEMORY 0404 Memory and Trauma: The Power of Suggestion how the malleability of memory in!ltrates our lives, from childhood to the criminal court | Charissa Iluore

06 Proof of Heaven one man’s glimpse of the afterlife | Nisreen Shiban

08 Dead Language, Living Art exploring the beauty of our linguistic past | Jessi Glueck

10 Using Resveratrol to Treat Alzheimer’s Disease !nding a cause and cure for the disease that steals memory | Michelle Guo

11 In a Previous Life: Memory in Stem Cells can induced stem cells recall their previous life as a body cell? | Jenna Zhang

14 The Greatest Naturalist of Our Time honoring Edward O. Wilson for his life-long work on the interaction between humans and the natural world | Jessica Hermann

16 Saving Superman: Alison Kraemer ’12 Takes on Paralysis a Harvard undergraduate’s research in curing paralysis | Charissa Iluore

18 The Man in the Mangrove: Kennedy Warne and the Rainforests of the Sea Brevia’s conversation with a journalist-ecologist about an environmental treasure | Meg Bernhard

20 Big Data Comes to Boston the power of numbers, the problems of a city | Lindsay Overhage

22 Nonverbal Expressions across Cultural Boundaries do eye contact and touch translate? | Linda Zhang

TABLE OF CONTENTS


PRIMARY RESEARCH 32

OPINION 2424 Arti!cial Intelligence: Friend or Foe? predictions for the new age of human-AI interaction | Frances Ding 26 Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing: To Regulate or Not to Regulate? ethical and social implications of genetic screening | Jason Cheng

28 The Organ Donation Problem the challenge and moral dilemma of saving a life | Osaremen Okolo

30 TED Talks Too Mainstream for Scientists? “pop science” and what it means for research scientists | Nishant Kakar

32 British Subjects, Not Citizens how notions of race and culture shaped british imperial policy in Canada and India | Barbara Halla

34 Towards a Vaccine for HIV: Cytokines a molecule with the potential to slow a pandemic | Raul Jordan

00 Brevia Photo Competition Winner: The Beauty of Bacteria research photo submission | Bianca Mulaney

12 Prize-Winning Tweets Brevia’s take on this year’s Nobel Prizes, in 140 characters or less

37 Brevia Photo Competition Winner: Untitled research photo submission | Martina Gandol!

MEMORY


Beth Rutherford, a nurses’ assistant living in Mis-

souri, was so troubled by work-related insom-

nia that she sought the help of a church coun-

selor. In one session with her therapist, Beth admitted

to having a dream about being brutally raped by her

father. Though she did not remember any abuse actu-

ally occurring, Beth was made to recall the dream over

and over again, until something strange happened.

Suddenly, she started to uncover vivid memories of

childhood rape.

As a result, her father, the reverend of the

FKXUFK��ZDV�ÀUHG�IURP�KLV�SRVLWLRQ�DQG�RVWUDFL]HG�E\�the community. He continually proclaimed his inno-

cence—innocence that was supported by the fact that

he had undergone a vasectomy when Beth was just

four years old. But how could Beth have clearly re-

FDOOHG�VXFK�WUDXPDWL]LQJ�HYHQWV�RQO\�WR�EH�SURYHG�XW-terly wrong? The suggestive therapy she had received

at the church made Beth rediscover “repressed mem-

ories” of gruesome parental abuse, even though noth-

LQJ�RI �WKH�NLQG�KDG�HYHU�RFFXUUHG��7KHVH�ÀJPHQWV�RI �the imagination are far from trivial. They can destroy

the lives of people like Beth and her father and pose

a grave danger to our witness testimony-based judicial

system.

Such false memories emerge, in part, due to the

way our brain interprets and consolidates our past,

present, and future. Our minds are not like video

FDPHUDV��ÀOPLQJ�DOO�ZH�VHH�DQG�KHDU��RQO\�WR�UHQGHU�D�

Memory and TraumaThe Power of Suggestion

Charissa Iluore

MEMORY


ÁDZOHVV�UHFRUGLQJ�ZKHQ�ZH�DWWHPSW�WR�GUHGJH�XS�RXU�memories. Instead, our mind develops memory by imposing meaning and context on events, extracting the general gist of our experiences and storing the contents across a wide network of neurons. Thus, the way in which memory is constructed makes it highly susceptible to distortion and suggestion.

)DOVH�PHPRU\�H[SHUW�'U��(OL]DEHWK�/RIWXV�KDV�spent decades conducting research on the frailty of our recollections. “We began to see hundreds of cases where people were accusing others based on FODLPV�RI � UHSUHVVHG�PHPRU\�µ�/RIWXV� WROG�New Sci-entist News. Such repressed memories are often the result of leading therapy and intense psychological interrogation. Because patients often visit psychol-ogists with symptoms of depression or dysfunction, without knowing the root cause, therapists may di-agnose their patients by asking leading questions, “Were you abused as a child?” and “Did you witness something traumatic in the past?” Some psycholo-gists even use hypnosis to uncover such information.

Since our memories are so malleable, howev-er, false information can easily be implanted into our minds and converted into an actual memory. By repeatedly asking patients to recall possible past traumas—and by suggesting what might have hap-pened in their patients’ pasts—therapists can actually construct “repressed memories” in their clients. The clients subconsciously take the therapist’s version of

events and incorporate it into reality, as a way to ex-plain their psychological troubles.

Extraordinary cases, like Beth Rutherford’s, can ruin the lives of both the victims and their families. On a larger scale, “memory misattributions” have dramatic implications for our society’s legal system. Eyewitness testimony is frequently the most com-pelling factor in court decisions—and often the least reliable. Up to “seventy-two percent of post-convic-tion DNA exoneration cases in the United States” were precipitated by witness’ claims that were based on false perceptions or memory. The most likely cause of this phenomenon is that witnesses, during the process of police interrogation, are pressed ex-tensively on details they cannot exactly recall. In ef-fect, the interrogators suggest a plausible scenario and the witness incorporates that scenario into mem-ory—a repressed memory. Thus, the prevalence and unreliability of eyewitness testimony presents a large obstacle to the fair administration of justice in the OHJDO�V\VWHP�E\�VHQGLQJ�LQQRFHQW�FLWL]HQV�WR�SULVRQ�

Memory enables us to relive our most cher-LVKHG�H[SHULHQFHV��EXW�LW�FDQ�DOVR�PLVOHDG��WUDXPDWL]H��and destroy. As Beth Rutherford’s case shows, false recollections are not just harmless musings, limited to the therapist’s armchair and the family photo al-bum. And that is a scary thought: for, if we cannot trust our own memories, what exactly can we trust?

MEMORY


,� UHPHPEHU� YLYLGO\� P\� ÀUVW� HQFRXQWHU� ZLWK�/DWLQ� SRHWU\�� ,W� ZDV� 9HUJLO·V�Aeneid�� DQG� LQLWLDOO\� ,�WKRXJKW�,�ZDV�VWDULQJ�DW�D�MXPEOH�RI �KLJKO\�REVFXUH�YRFDEXODU\� ZLWKRXW� JUDPPDU� RU� VHQVH�� %XW� DIWHU�D� GR]HQ� IDOVH� VWDUWV�� ,� JRW� WKH� LGHD� WKDW�9HUJLO� ZDV�WDONLQJ� DERXW� D� VWRUP³D� ´WHPSHVWDV�µ� WR� XVH� WKH�FRROHU�/DWLQ�ZRUG��,�EHJDQ�WR�SHUFHLYH�WKH�UK\WKP�RI �WKH�ODQJXDJH��WKH�ZD\�WKH�OLQHV�UROOHG�LQWR�HDFK�RWKHU�OLNH�ZDYHV� UROOLQJ�RQWR� D�EHDFK�� WKH�ZD\� WKH�YRZHO�

DQG�FRQVRQDQW�VRXQGV�LPLWDWHG�WKH�VKULOO�ZKLVWOH�RI �ZLQG�RU� WKH� UXPEOH� RI � WKXQGHU��7KLV� VWRUP� DW� VHD�ZDV�LPDJLQDU\�DQG�KDG�EHHQ�FKURQLFOHG�E\�D�PDQ�,�ZRXOG�QHYHU�NQRZ��<HW�WKH�ZKLUOZLQG�URVH�XS�DURXQG�PH��DQG� LW�ZDV�PRUH� UHDO��PRUH�EHDXWLIXO�� WKDQ�DQ\�VWRUP�WKURXJK�ZKLFK�,�KDYH�OLYHG�P\VHOI�

9HUJLO·V�HSLF�LV��RI �FRXUVH��QRW�PHUHO\�ODQJXDJH�EXW�DUW��1R�RQH�WDONV�DERXW�́ GHDG�DUW�µ�:H�GR�QRW�FDOO�WKH�0RQD�/LVD�´RXWGDWHGµ�RU�0LFKHODQJHOR·V�'DYLG�

DEAD LANGUAGE,LIVING ART

jessi glueckthe beauty of our linguistic past

MEMORY


´REVROHWH�µ� �1RU�DUH�WKRVH�WHUPV�DSSOLHG�WR�6KDNH-VSHDUH�RU�WR�0R]DUW��$UW�LV�D�WLPHOHVV�H[SUHVVLRQ�RI �WKH�KXPDQ�GULYH�WR�LPDJLQH�DQG�FUHDWH��:H�GLVFRYHU�LW�DQHZ�HYHU\�WLPH�ZH�OLVWHQ�WR�+DPOHW·V�VROLORTXLHV�DQG� DGPLUH� 'D� 9LQFL·V� EUXVK� VWURNHV�� ,W� GRHV� QRW�PDWWHU� WKDW� WKRVH�ZRUNV�ZHUH� FRPSOHWHG� KXQGUHGV�RI � \HDUV� DJR� DQG� WKDW� WKHLU� FUHDWRUV� DUH� ORQJ�GHDG��:KLOH�ZH�REVHUYH�WKHP��WKH\�EHORQJ�WR�XV�DQG�WR�RXU�RZQ�WLPH�

7KH�DQFLHQWV�� WRR��KDG� WKHLU� DUW³LQ� WKH� IRUP�RI � JUHDW� VFXOSWXUH� DQG� DUFKLWHFWXUH��EXW� DOVR� LQ� WKH�IRUP�RI �OLWHUDWXUH�DQG�SRHWU\��:K\�DUH�ZH�VR�UHDG\��WKHQ��WR�FDOO�ODQJXDJHV�´GHDGµ"�:KDW�LV�LW�DERXW�DQ-FLHQW�OLQJXLVWLF�DUW�WKDW�SXWV�LW�LQ�D�VHSDUDWH�FDWHJRU\�IURP�RWKHU�NLQGV�RI �KXPDQ�FUHDWLYLW\"

2QH�UHDVRQ�LV�WKDW�ODQJXDJHV��ERWK�DQFLHQW�RQHV�DQG�PRGHUQ�RQHV��DUH�GLIÀFXOW��$Q\RQH�FDQ�ORRN�DW�D�JUHDW�SDLQWLQJ�RU�OLVWHQ�WR�D�JUHDW�V\PSKRQ\�DQG�EH�LPSUHVVHG�E\� LWV�DUWLVWLF�VSOHQGRU�� EXW� LI �\RX�GRQ·W�NQRZ�/DWLQ� DQG�\RX� WU\� UHDGLQJ� WKH�Aeneid�� DOO� \RX�ZLOO�VHH�LV�JLEEHULVK��$FFHVVLQJ�WKH�EHDXW\�RI �D�ODQ-JXDJH�SUHVXSSRVHV�D�FHUWDLQ�IDLWK�LQ�WKDW�EHDXW\�

%XW�WKLV�GLIÀFXOW\³WKLV�QHHG�RI �IDLWK³KHLJKW-HQV�WKH�VHQVH�RI �GLVFRYHU\��7KHUH�LV�QRWKLQJ�SDVVLYH�DERXW� DSSUHFLDWLQJ� ODQJXDJH�� HVSHFLDOO\� D� ODQJXDJH�RWKHU�WKDQ�RXU�RZQ��(DFK�WLPH�ZH�WUDQVODWH��ZH�FUH-DWH� WKH� DUW� DQHZ��:H� EHFRPH� SDUWQHUV�� UDWKHU� WKDQ�REVHUYHUV��LQ�WKH�DXWKRULDO�SURFHVV��$QG�ZKHQ�ZH�GR�WKLV�ZLWK�DQFLHQW�ODQJXDJHV��ZH�EHFRPH�SDUWQHUV�ZLWK�VRPHRQH�ZKR�OLYHG�WKRXVDQGV�RI �\HDUV�DJR�LQ�DQ�XW-WHUO\�IRUHLJQ�WLPH�DQG�SODFH��7KHUH�LV�QR�EHWWHU�ZD\�WR�

FRQQHFW�WR�KLVWRU\�WKDQ�WKLV�2I � WKH� DQFLHQW� ODQJXDJHV�� /DWLQ� DQG� $QFLHQW�

*UHHN� LQ� SDUWLFXODU� VXIIHU� IURP� D� VRFLDO� VWLJPD�� LQ�ZKLFK� SHRSOH� DUH� SDUWLFXODUO\� HDJHU� WR� SXVK� WKHP�RII �LQWR�WKH�SDVW��7KH�VSHFWHU�RI �SUHS�VFKRRO�HOLWLVP�UHDUV�LWV�KHDG�EHWZHHQ�XV�DQG�WKH�YLUWXRVLW\�RI ��+R-PHU�DQG�9HUJLO��)RU�FHQWXULHV³DQG�VWLOO��WR�VRPH�GH-JUHH��WRGD\³LW�ZDV�WKH�PDUN�RI �WKH�SULYLOHJHG��ZKLWH�XSSHU�FODVV�WR�KDYH�D�JRRG�JURXQGLQJ�LQ�WKH�FODVVLFV��0DQ\�RI �XV�DUH�XQFRPIRUWDEOH�EHFRPLQJ�SDUW�RI �WKLV�OHJDF\�RI �H[FOXVLRQ�

7KDW� OHJDF\�� WKRXJK�� LV� FKDQJLQJ�� /DVW� VSULQJ��PRUH� WKDQ� �� KLJK� VFKRRO� VWXGHQWV� WRRN� WKH�1DWLRQDO�/DWLQ�([DP�DQG�QHDUO\��WRRN�WKH�1D-WLRQDO�*UHHN�([DP��,Q�FRPSDULVRQ��RQO\��VWX-GHQWV�WRRN�WKH�$3�&RPSXWHU�6FLHQFH�$�H[DP��7KH�DQFLHQW� ODQJXDJHV� DUH�QR� ORQJHU� ORFNHG�XS� LQ� LYRU\�WRZHUV��EXW�DUH�EHLQJ�SURPRWHG�DURXQG�WKH�ZRUOG�DV�D�ZD\�WR�VROLGLI\�JUDPPDU�DQG�IDOO�LQ�ORYH�ZLWK�OLWHU-DWXUH��(GXFDWRUV� DUH� EHJLQQLQJ� WR� UHFRJQL]H� WKDW� LW�GRHV�QRW�WDNH�D�FHUWDLQ� LQFRPH�OHYHO�RU�D�SDUWLFXODU�NLQG�RI �FDU� WR�DSSUHFLDWH� ODQJXDJH�� ,Q� IDFW�� OLQJXLV-WLF�DUW� LV� LQ� VRPH�ZD\V� WKH� OHDVW�FODVV�FRQVFLRXV�DUW�IRUP�WKHUH�LV��WR�UHDG�WDNHV�QR�IDQF\�HTXLSPHQW��EXW�PHUHO\�D�ERRN�DQG�D�GLFWLRQDU\�DQG�GHWHUPLQHG�LQWHO-OHFWXDO�FXULRVLW\�

,Q� WKLV� ZRUOG� RI � IUXVWUDWLQJ� SROLWLFV� DQG�QHDU�SHUSHWXDO�ZDU��ZH�FRXOG�DOO�XVH�D� UHPLQGHU�RI �ZKDW·V�JRRG�DERXW�KXPDQLW\³DQ�H[DPSOH�RI �ZKDW�ZH�JRW�ULJKW��$UW�LV�RQH�VXFK�H[DPSOH��$V�ORQJ�DV�ZH�UHDG�LW�DQG�ORYH�LW��DQFLHQW�OLQJXLVWLF�DUW�ZLOO�QHYHU�GLH��

MEMORY


Near-death experiences are all too common

in popular mythology, but scientists have

long dismissed them as fantasies, dreamed

up by those who are seriously ill or injured. Dr.

Eben Alexander was one such skeptic. But in 2008,

the American neurosurgeon was attacked by a rare

illness, bacterial meningitis, that put him through a

seven-day coma. Less than one in ten million adults

contract bacterial meningitis. The majority of these

victims die, and the few who survive usually remain

in a near-vegetative state for the rest of their lives.

Just as the doctors were about to stop Alexan-

der’s treatment, he opened his eyes. The real miracle,

however, was not his recovery.

Proof of

Heaven

Nisreen Shiban


MEMORY


ZKR� JXLGHG� KLP� RQ� D� ZLQJHG� EXWWHUÁ\� LQWR� WKH�deepest realms of super-physical existence. There, submerged in a primitive, jelly-like substance, he remembers speaking with the Divine source of the universe itself. In his autobiography, Proof of Heaven, published earlier this year, Alexander interprets this being as the all-loving God. The memoir captures in vivid detail the mystery and religiosity of a near-death experience, but it is also an intellectual project, DWWHPSWLQJ�WR�UHFRQFLOH�WKH�VFLHQWLÀF�VNHSWLF�ZLWK�WKH�faithful believer.

�$OH[DQGHU·V�QDUUDWLYH�VKLIWV�ÁXLGO\�EHWZHHQ�KLV�encounters with the after-life and what occurs in the physical world during those seven days on the hospi-tal bed. The clash between his rational, objective, sci-HQWLÀF�REVHUYDWLRQV�DQG�WKH�ZLOG��P\VWLFDO�VRXQGLQJ�world of his near-death experiences gives his mem-RLU�D�VFL�À��DOPRVW�VXUUHDO�TXDOLW\��+H�DUJXHV��KRZHY-er, that his neo-cortex, a part of the brain that inter-prets emotions and controls executive function, was 100% deactivated—a fact corroborated by his hos-pital records. This means that his experiences while FRPDWRVH�FDQQRW�DGHTXDWHO\�EH�H[SODLQHG�DV�D�GUHDP��hallucination, or any other mental phenomenon.

Adding to the memoir’s philosophical heft and personal appeal, Alexander recounts how he once

could not reconcile his knowledge of neuroscience with belief in heaven, God, or the soul. Knowing full well that this book might jeopardize his medical rep-utation, Alexander felt compelled to convince skep-WLFV�� HVSHFLDOO\� WKRVH� LQ�KLV�ÀHOG�� WKDW� DQ� DIWHUZRUOG�could really exist. Science, he insists, simply cannot explain his experience. “Our spirit is not dependent on the brain or body,” he declares. “It is eternal, and no one has one sen-tence worth of hard evidence that it isn’t.”

While Proof of Heaven is an engag-ing read, his appeal to science still leaves PDQ\� TXHVWLRQV� XQ-answered. In partic-ular, his argument is founded on the idea that hallucination can only occur in the neo-cortex. Since his was clinically dead, the ex-perience must there-fore have been genu-ine. But does this process of elimination provide real proof of an afterlife? Or does it simply point to the OLPLWDWLRQV�RI �VFLHQWLÀF�NQRZOHGJH��RU�WKH�SRVVLELOLW\�of a false memory? Alexander may have written this book to persuade skeptics, but the irony may be that it merely caters to those who already believe. Per-KDSV�PRUH�LPSRUWDQW�WKDQ�WKH�HPSLULFDO�TXHVWLRQ�RI �proving heaven’s existence is this philosophical one: where does science end and faith begin? Perhaps the YDOXH�RI �$OH[DQGHU·V�PHPRLU�OLHV�LQ�WKH�TXHVWLRQV�LW�raises, not the ones its claims to answer.

Alexander reported that he had undergone a journey into the after-world where he encountered an an-gelic being—“a beautiful girl with high cheekbones and deep blue eyes”

MEMORY


The leading hypothesis for the cause of Alz-heimer’s disease (AD) is chronically high lev-els of synapse-disrupting ȕ-amyloid peptide

fragments in the brain. A study led by Francesca-Fang Liao has shown that metformin, a drug used to treat type 2 diabetes, may exacerbate the progression of AD by increasing the biogenesis of ȕ-amyloid pep-tides, which are central in AD pathology. Vingtdeux et al. have shown that the natural polyphenol resver-atrol reduces ȕ-amyloid levels in vitro through mod-ulation of AMP-activated protein kinase signaling.

Working with Mrs. Donna Leonardi of the Bergen County Academies, I have studied the indi-vidual and combinatorial effects of metformin and resveratrol on the accumulation and degradation of ȕ-amyloid peptides. Using biochemical assays such as Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISAs), WUDQVPLVVLRQ�HOHFWURQ�PLFURVFRS\��DQG�ÁXRUHVFHQFH�microscopy, I have been able to better understand the mechanisms of action of metformin and resver-atrol in a mouse neuroblastoma cell model, N2a-695, that had been transfected to produce human amyloid precursor protein, which is cleaved by neuronal pro-teases to form ȕ-amyloid.

Originally, I hypothesized that resveratrol, when delivered in combination with metformin, would reduce the constitutive production of ȕ-am-

yloid in N2a-695 neuroblastoma cells. The measure-ment of p62 to quantify autophagy and the activation of AMPK suggested that metformin causes aberrant autophagy, which leads to ȕ-amyloid accumulation. 5HVYHUDWURO� VLJQLÀFDQWO\� UHGXFHG�ȕ-amyloid in cells treated with metformin, however via a pathway inde-pendent of AMPK or autophagy. Preliminary elec-WURQ�PLFURVFRS\� VKRZHG� WKDW� WKHUH�ZDV� QR� VLJQLÀ-cantly greater presence of autophagosomes in cells treated with resveratrol compared to untreated cells.

Qualitative observation of mitochondrial su-SHUR[LGH�WKURXJK�TXDOLWDWLYH�ÁXRUHVFHQFH�PLFURVFR-py revealed that mitochondrial superoxide appeared to be reduced in cells treated with resveratrol and the combinatorial treatment of resveratrol and met-IRUPLQ�� )XUWKHUPRUH�� TXDQWLWDWLYH� ÁXRUHVFHQFH� DV-says indicated that resveratrol causes a decrease in superoxide, a reactive oxygen species, suggesting a contribution of mitochondrial integrity in the abili-ty of cells to degrade ȕ-amyloid peptides. The com-binatorial treatment of resveratrol and metformin caused the decrease of caspases 3/7 suggesting that the combination of the two compounds has neu-URSURWHFWLYH� SURSHUWLHV�� 0\� UHVHDUFK� LGHQWLÀHG� DQ�AMPK-independent pathway through which resver-atrol reduces ȕ-amyloid levels, which may have po-tential as a viable treatment option for AD.

Using Resveratrolto treat Alzheimer’s Disease

Michelle Guo

In a Previous Life: Memory in Stem CellsJenna Zhang


From studying gray matter in Alzheimer’s to ap-preciating Mike Ross’ photographic memory in

Suits, memory has long captured the imaginations of both scientists and the general public. Five years ago, Japanese biologists used a normal adult cell to create WKH�ÀUVW�HYHU�PDQ�PDGH�KXPDQ�SOXULSRWHQW�VWHP�FHOO��The breakthrough gave scientists the hope that we could eventually make pluripotent stem cells—those which can differentiate into any cell in the body—wi-thout having to harvest them from a human embryo. %XW�FDQ�WKHVH�DUWLÀFLDO�VWHP�FHOOV��FDOOHG�LQGXFHG�SOX-ripotent stem (iPS) cells, remember their past?

Two separate research groups in Boston have found that the answer is yes. Dr. George Daley and his team at the Children’s Hospital compared iPS cells to another type of reprogrammed stem cell, somatic nuclear transfer cells (SCNT). By measuring patterns of DNA methylation—epigenetic markers that go-vern a cell’s unique functions—it became clear that iPS cells had not been reset as fully as the SCNT FHOOV��(YHQ�DIWHU�EHLQJ�DUWLÀFDOO\�FRQYHUWHG�LQWR�VWHP�cells, iPS cells still “remembered” their former iden-tities as adult cells.

Not only does an iPS cell carry remnants of its past, but that memory can fade over time. Dr. Kon-rad Hochedlinger’s team at Massachusetts General

Hospital observed that iPS cells that originally came IURP� PXVFOH� FHOOV�� ÀEUREODVWV�� DQG� RWKHU� W\SHV� RI �cells carried a leftover imprint from their past form. %XW� DIWHU� WHQ� WR�ÀIWHHQ� JHQHUDWLRQV� RI � FHOO� UHSOLFD-tion, these different types of iPS cells became vir-tually the same: their patterns of DNA methylation, WUDQVFULSWLRQ��DQG�KLVWRQH�PRGLÀFDWLRQ�ZHUH�DOPRVW�indistinguishable from each other.

If iPS cells have memories, then they would be imperfect replacements for stem cells derived directly from human embryos. Unless the memory has completely faded, an iPS cell would not be able WR�HIÀFLHQWO\�GLIIHUHQWLDWH� LQWR�RWKHU�NLQGV�RI � FHOOV��'HVSLWH� WKH� OLPLWHG� ÁH[LELOLW\��PHPRULHV� FRXOG� VWLOO�be used to streamline the development process. For H[DPSOH�� \RXQJ� L36� FHOOV� GHULYHG� IURP� EORRG� FHOOV�FRXOG� EH� PRUH� HIÀFLHQWO\� GLIIHUHQWLDWHG� LQWR� DGXOW�blood cells than iPS cells made from pancreatic cells. Hochedlinger concludes, “The question of whether iPS cells and embryonic cells are equivalent is still GHEDWHG�LQ�WKH�ÀHOG��:KDW�WKLV�REVHUYDWLRQ�VXJJHVWV�is the importance in comparative studies to use high passage stem cells.” As further details emerge, it be-comes more clear that an understanding of memory underlying iPS cells will be imperative in future stu-GLHV�ZLWKLQ�WKH�ÀHOG�RI �VWHP�FHOO�UHVHDUFK��

NOBEL PRIZE TWITTER


Prize Winning TweetsBrevia’s take on this year’s Nobel Prizes, in 140 characters or less

@GodParticle��\UV�ODWHU��&(51�ÀQDOO\�VPDVKHV�HQRXJK�SDUWLFOHV�WR�SURYH�,�ZDV�ULJKW��DERXWWLPH��QRWELWWHU

@MarKar+WKH�OHJDF\�RI �DQ�ROG�FKHPLVW�QHYHU�

GLHV��LW�MXVW�VWRSV�UHDFWLQJ��WKDW1REHO3UL]H7KR

@MunstaQREHO�ODXUHDWHV�ZULWH�QRYHOV��WKH\�VDLG��

\RX·OO�QHYHU�PDNH�LW��WKH\�VDLG��:KDW1RZ�

@TheMedicalTRJfectaQRZ�WKH\�ZDQW�XV�WR�UHJXODWH�YHKLFOH�WUDIÀF��9HVLFOHV�,�FDQ�GR��EXW�/$"��ORO

NOBEL PRIZE TWITTER


@RJ_Shillerdizzle´,UUDWLRQDO�([XEHUDQFHµ�IRU�WKH�QREHO�SUL]H�LQ�HFRQRPLFV��2K�DQG�UHDG�WKH�ERRN��VKDPHOHVVSOXJ

@OPCWZRUOG·V�PLQG�DW�SHDFH�DV�23&:�DFFHSWV�QREHO�SUL]H��7DNLQJ�RXU�MRE�YHU\�#6\ULD�VO\��3HDFH2I&DNH

#GetTheReference?OppOsite, tOp tO bOttOm��7KH�1REHO�3UL]H�LQ�Physics��DZDUGHG�WR�)UDQoRLV�(QJOHUW�DQG�3HWHU�:��+LJJV�IRU�WKHLU�ZRUN�RQ�WKH�RULJLQ�RI �PDVV�RI �VXEDWRPLF�SDUWLFOHV�7KH�1REHO�3UL]H�LQ�Chemistry��DZDUGHG�WR�0DUWLQ�.DUSOXV��0LFKDHO�/HYLWW��DQG�$ULHK�:DUVKHO�IRU�WKH�GHYHORSPHQW�RI �PXOWLVFDOH�PRGHOV�RI �FRPSOH[�FKHPLFDO�V\VWHPV�7KH�1REHO�3UL]H�LQ�Medicine��DZDUGHG�WR�-DPHV�(��5RWKPDQ��5DQG\�:��6FKHNPDQ��DQG�7KRPDV�&��6�GKRI��IRU�WKH�GLVFRYHU\�RI �PDFKLQHU\�UHJXODWLQJ�YHVLFOH�WUDIÀF��D�WUDQVSRUW�V\VWHP�LQ�RXU�FHOOV�7KH�1REHO�3UL]H� LQ�Literature��DZDUGHG�WR�$OLFH�0XQUR�� WKH�PDVWHU�RI �WKH�FRQWHPSRUDU\�VKRUW�VWRU\�

AbOve, tOp tO bOttOm��7KH�6YHULJHV�5LNVEDQN�3UL]H�LQ�Economics��DZDUGHG�WR�(XJHQH�)��)DPD��/DUV�3HWHU�+DQVHQ��DQG�5REHUW�-��6KLOOHU�IRU�HPSULULFDO�DQDO\VLV�RI �DVVHW�SULFHV�7KH�1REHO�Peace�3UL]H��DZDUGHG�WR�WKH�2UJDQLVDWLRQ�IRU�WKH�3URKLELWLRQ�RI �&KHPLFDO�:HDSRQV��23&:��IRU�LWV�HIIRUWV�WR�HOLPLQDWH�FKHPLFDO�ZHDSRQV�

Contributing Writers: )UDQFHV�'LQJ��-HVVL�*OXHFN��-HVVLFD�+HUPDQQ��2VDUHPHQ�2NROR��5DXO�-RUGDQ��-DVRQ�&KHQJ

FEATURES


In June of this year, the National Geographic Soci-ety recognized three of the world’s most extraordi-QDU\�VFLHQWLÀF�H[SORUHUV�ZLWK�WKH�+XEEDUG�0HGDO��

the Society’s highest honor. Named for Gardiner *UHHQ�+XEEDUG�� WKH�6RFLHW\·V�ÀUVW�SUHVLGHQW�� LW�KDV�EHHQ� DZDUGHG� DQQXDOO\� VLQFH� �� IRU� RXWVWDQGLQJ�FRQWULEXWLRQV� WR� WKH� ÀHOGV� RI � ELRGLYHUVLW\� DQG� HQ-YLURQPHQWDO� LQYHVWLJDWLRQ�� $PRQJ�WKRVH�SUHVHQWHG�with the medal this year was Dr. Edward O. Wilson, UHQRZQHG�DXWKRU��HQWRPRORJLVW��DQG�VRFLRELRORJLVW��DV�ZHOO� DV�+DUYDUG� 3URIHVVRU� HPHULWXV�� 7KH� RWKHU�UHFLSLHQWV� ZHUH� 0LVVLRQ� %OXH� IRXQGHU� DQG� RFHDQ-RJUDSKHU�'U��6\OYLD�(DUOH��DQG�ÀOP�GLUHFWRU�DQG�H[-SORUHU� -DPHV�&DPHURQ�� $V� -RKQ�)DKH\��&(2� DQG�Chairman of NGS, explained at the ceremony, “in this new age of exploration, [our explorers] want to KHOS�QDYLJDWH� WKH� LQFUHDVLQJO\� FRPSOH[� UHODWLRQVKLS�EHWZHHQ�KXPDQLW\·V�QHHGV�DQG�WKH�QDWXUDO�ZRUOG�WKDW�sustains us.” Dr. Wilson’s receipt of the medal is the culmination of a lifelong career dedicated to this REMHFWLYH� From Ants to Human Nature � &RQVLGHUHG�WKH�IDWKHU�RI �PRGHUQ�VRFLRELRO-ogy and the world’s leading expert on ants, Wilson PDGH�KLV�ÀUVW�VFLHQWLÀF�GLVFRYHU\�\RXQJ�DJH�RI �WKLU-WHHQ�ZKHQ�KH�XQFRYHUHG�D�QRQ�QDWLYH�VSHFLHV�RI �ÀUH�DQWV� LQ�$ODEDPD�� +LV� LQWHUHVW� LQ� LQVHFWV� OHG�KLP�WR�SXUVXH�%�$��DQG�0�$��GHJUHHV�DW�WKH�8QLYHUVLW\�RI �$O-

The Greatest Naturalist P

hoto

cre

dit:

Reb

ecca

Hal

e, N

atio

nal G

eogr

aphi

c So

ciet

y

Jessica Herrmann

Dr. Edward O. Wilson accepts his award.

Of Our Time

FEATURES


Enthusiastic Explorers, Informed Citizens

DEDPD��DQG�ODWHU�D�3K�'��IURP�+DUYDUG�8QLYHUVLW\��$V�D�PHPEHU�RI �+DUYDUG·V�IDFXOW\��:LOVRQ�ZDV�UHVSRQ-VLEOH�IRU�WKH�WKHRU\�RI �WKH�WD[RQ�F\FOH³WKH�F\FOH�RI �expansion and contraction of the ecological ranges RFFXSLHG�E\�VSHFLHV³DV�ZHOO�DV�IRU�WKH�FROODERUDWLYH�LGHQWLÀFDWLRQ� RI � SKHURPRQHV� ZLWK� IHOORZ� +DUYDUG�3URIHVVRU� :LOOLDP� +�� %RVVHUW�� +LV� 3XOLW]HU�3UL]H�ZLQQLQJ� ERRN� On Human Nature (1978), has long EHHQ�FRQVLGHUHG�D�IXQGDPHQWDO�WH[W�RI �VRFLRELRORJ\� � $OWKRXJK� :LOVRQ� LV� QRZ� UHWLUHG� IURP� KLV�WHDFKLQJ� SRVLWLRQ� DW�+DUYDUG�� KH� FRQWLQXHV� WR� VXS-SRUW�ELRGLYHUVLW\�WKURXJK�KLV�UROH�DV�&KDLUPDQ�RI �WKH�%RDUG�RI �$GYLVRUV�RI �WKH�(�2��:LOVRQ�%LRGLYHUVLW\�)RXQGDWLRQ�� 7KURXJKRXW� LWV�HLJKW�\HDU�KLVWRU\��WKLV�QRQSURÀW�RUJDQL]DWLRQ�KDV�IRFXVHG�RQ�FRQVHUYLQJ�DQG�HGXFDWLQJ�RWKHUV�DERXW�ELRGLYHUVLW\��2QH�RI �LWV�HDUO\�SURMHFWV�ZDV�WR�FROODERUDWH�ZLWK�$SSOH�WR�GHYHORS�WKH�GLJLWDO�ELRORJ\�WH[WERRN� E.O. Wilson’s Life on Earth. $FFRUGLQJ� WR� 3DXOD� (KUOLFK�� SUHVLGHQW� DQG� &(2�of the foundation, the association’s primary goal LV� WR� ´FRQQHFW� ZLWK� SHRSOH� LQ� ZKDWHYHU� ZD\V� ZH�can to help inform them and foster a new gen-HUDWLRQ� RI � HQWKXVLDVWLF� H[SORUHUV�� HQYLURQPHQWDO�SROLF\� PDNHUV�� DQG� LQIRUPHG� FLWL]HQV�µ� � 6KH� VD\V�WKH� IRXQGDWLRQ� DOVR� VWULYHV� WR� HQJDJH� KLJK�VFKRRO�DQG� FROOHJH� VWXGHQWV� LQ� OHDUQLQJ� DERXW� WKH� HQYL-ronment and raising awareness among their peers. � 7R�WKLV�HQG��WKH�JURXS�KRVWHG�DQ�(�2��:LOVRQ�*OREDO�7RZQ�+DOO�ODVW�'HFHPEHU�WR�HQJDJH�VWXGHQWV�IURP��FODVVURRPV�DFURVV�WKH�JOREH�LQ�D�UHDO�WLPH�FRQYHUVDWLRQ�ZLWK�:LOVRQ�DERXW� WKH�H[SORUDWLRQ�RI �ELRGLYHUVLW\��7KH�IRXQGDWLRQ�DOVR�LQLWLDWHG�DQ�LQWHUDF-WLYH�VWRU\WHOOLQJ�SURMHFW�DW�WKH�1DWLRQDO�3DUN�6HUYLFH�1DWLRQDO�*HRJUDSKLF� 6RFLHW\�VSRQVRUHG�%LR%OLW]�� D�

��KRXU�HYHQW�LQ�ZKLFK�VWXGHQWV�FROODERUDWH�ZLWK�VFL-HQWLVWV�DW�QDWLRQDO�SDUNV�WR�LGHQWLI\�DQG�OHDUQ�DERXW�DV�PDQ\� RI � WKH� SDUNV·� VSHFLHV� DV� SRVVLEOH�� &DUULH�+XWFKLVRQ�� GLUHFWRU� RI �&RPPXQLFDWLRQV��'HYHORS-PHQW��DQG�6SHFLDO�3URMHFWV�DW�1DWLRQDO�*HRJUDSKLF��GHVFULEHG� ERWK� RUJDQL]DWLRQV·� FRPPRQ� REMHFWLYH�DV� ´JHWWLQJ� SHRSOH� LQ� DOO� GLVFLSOLQHV� WR� WKLQN� DERXW�VFLHQFH�DQG�H[SORUDWLRQ�LQ�YDULRXV�ZD\V�µ��7KURXJK�HYHQWV� VXFK� DV� WKH� %LR%OLW]�� WKH� WZR� RUJDQL]DWLRQV�VWULYH�WR�´LQVSLUH�WKH�FXULRXV�SHRSOH�RI �WKH�ZRUOG�µ � 0RVW�UHFHQWO\��WKH�IRXQGDWLRQ�KDV�SDUWQHUHG�ZLWK�WKH�*RURQJRVD�5HVWRUDWLRQ�3URMHFW�WR�VXSSRUW�UHVHDUFK�LQLWLDWLYHV�LQ�WKH�*RURQJRVD�1DWLRQDO�3DUN�LQ�0R]DPELTXH��DQG�LV�FXUUHQWO\�FHOHEUDWLQJ�WKH�ELR-GLYHUVLW\�RI � WKH�0RELOH�7HQVDZ�5LYHU�'HOWD�RI � WKH�8QLWHG� 6WDWHV� WKURXJK� GHYHORSPHQW� RI � D� QHZ� QD-WLRQDO� SDUN� XQLW�� $V�(KUOLFK� H[SODLQV�� ´>WKHVH� VLWHV�DUH@� UHSRVLWRULHV� RI � H[WUDRUGLQDU\� ELRGLYHUVLW\� DQG�QDWLRQDO� KHULWDJH³ERWK� FXOWXUDO� DQG� QDWXUDO�µ� � ,Q�the future, the organization hopes to see WKHVH� SDUNV�� DQG�RWKHUV�� GHYHORSHG� LQWR�sophisticated centers for research and HGXFDWLRQ�� ,Q� D� WHFKQRORJLFDO� HUD� WKDW�RIIHUV� LQVWDQWDQHRXV� DFFHVV� WR� SXEOLF�NQRZOHGJH��LW�LV�HDV\�WR�IRUJHW�WKDW�D�ODUJH�degree of ecological information remains XQGLVFRYHUHG��:LOVRQ�DQG�WKH�IRXQGDWLRQ�ZRXOG�OLNH�WR�FRQWLQXH�WR�SURYLGH�D�IRUXP�IRU� HQYLURQPHQWDO� GLVFXVVLRQ� LQ� RUGHU� WR�DGYDQFH� WKHLU� XQLTXH�PLVVLRQ� RI � FRXSOLQJ�DFWLYH�SUHVHUYDWLRQ�ZLWK�DQ�H[SORUDWLYH�SHU-VSHFWLYH�RI �ELRGLYHUVLW\� LQ�VFLHQFH�DQG�GDLO\�OLIH��7KHLU�ZRUN�KDV�DOUHDG\�VKDSHG�WKH�approach that students and scientists ZLOO�WDNH�WR�ELRGLYHUVLW\�IRU�JHQHUD-tions to come.

FEATURES


Christopher Reeve was a hero. For nearly a de-cade, the talented actor played the role of Superman LQ�D�VHULHV�RI �IRXU�KXJH�ER[�RIÀFH�ÀOPV��+H�SXW�RQ�thirty pounds of muscle for the role and, with his WRZHULQJ� VL[�IRRW�IRXU� ÀJXUH�� KH� GHÀQLWHO\� ORRNHG�the part. When production on the last movie in the IUDQFKLVH� ZUDSSHG�� 5HHYH� EHJDQ� WR� ORRN� IRU� QHZ�ZD\V� WR� RFFXS\� KLV� WLPH�� $IWHU� OHDUQLQJ� KRUVHEDFN�ULGLQJ�IRU�RQH�RI �KLV�RWKHU�ÀOPV��KH�WRRN�XS�WKH�KRE-by almost full time, competing in events nationwide. As with everything else, Reeve was incredibly good DW� ULGLQJ��$W� FKDPSLRQVKLS� ÀQDOV�in Virginia,

Reeve had al-ready captured fourth place out of

twenty-seven in dressage, before he went on to ride the cross-country course.

�5HHYH·V�KRUVH�VWRSSHG�VKRUW�DW�RQH�RI �WKH�ÀUVW�REVWDFOHV�DQG�VHQW�LWV�ULGHU�Á\LQJ�KHDGÀUVW��KLV�VNXOO�meeting the ground with astonishing force. The six-foot-four frame that had served him so well in his UROH�DV�6XSHUPDQ�FROODSVHG�LQWR�WKH�HDUWK�OLNH�DQ�DF-FRUGLRQ��FUXVKLQJ�KLV�ÀUVW�DQG�VHFRQG�YHUWHEUDH��DQG�OHDYLQJ�KLP�SDUDO\]HG�IURP�WKH�QHFN�GRZQ��7KRXJK�seriously injured by the tragedy, Reeve committed to helping others. Until his death in 2004, Reeve ded-icated himself to leading a charitable foundation which he established dedicated to advancing stem cell research to cure paralysis.

Christopher Reeve was a hero, not because he VXLWHG�XS� LQ� D�ÁDVK\�FRVWXPH�DQG�SOD\HG�D� FKDUDF-ter, but because he bravely surmounted all obstacles,

SavingSupermanAlison Kraemer ‘12 Takes On Paralysis

Charissa Iluore


FEATURES


using his accident to inspire good. Among those in-VSLUHG� E\� KLV� FRXUDJH� ZDV�+DUYDUG� DOXPQD� $OLVRQ�.UDHPHU�·��D�+XPDQ�'HYHORSPHQWDO�DQG�5HJHQHU-DWLYH�%LRORJ\�FRQFHQWUDWRU�ZKR�ZRUNHG�DW�'U��3DROD�Arlotta’s lab, which studies the evolution of cortico-spinal neurons—the neurons involved in ailments OLNH� SDUDO\VLV��'XULQJ� KHU� WLPH� DW� WKH� ODE��.UDHPHU�ZRUNHG� WR� FRQYHUW� QRQ�HPEU\RQLF� VWHP� FHOOV� LQWR�neurons found in the spinal cord. “I was trying to differentiate human induced pluripotent stem cells into corticospinal motor neurons—neurons that go from your [cerebral] cortex to your spine,” Kraemer explains. “They are the neurons that allow you to have voluntary motor con-trol. If they are damaged or degenerating, you are going to be paralyzed.”

In the long run, re-searchers are hoping to create a cure for spinal damage, but more research remains to be done about these conditions’ origins and processes. Kraemer’s goal was to observe the SURFHVV�RI �/RX�*HKULJ·V�'LVHDVH��$/6��DV� LW�GHYHO-oped within a cell. She would begin by causing a mu-tation in the gene controlling ALS for cells that had not yet developed into neurons. “When you differen-tiate those cells, you end up with corticospinal neu-rons that are infected with ALS,” Kraemer says. She could then watch in real time as the precursor cells turned into diseased neurons carrying ALS.

Kraemer’s three years of research culminated in a senior thesis on the topic, but her project was ultimately unsuccessful. It is still unclear how to turn

preneural cells into mature corticospinal neurons. (YHQ�ZKHQ�.UDHPHU·V� ODE�RU� RWKHU� VFLHQWLVWV�PDNH�D�EUHDNWKURXJK�LQ�WKLV�DUHD��WKHUH�LV�QR�FOHDU�SURFH-dure for using those neurons to cure spinal degener-ative diseases. “You could try to target neurons in the cortex where they would grow down into the spinal FRUG��EXW�WKDW�ZRXOG�EH�ULVN\�VLQFH�\RX�ZRXOG�EH�LQ-jecting cells directly into the brain,” Kraemer says. But injecting neurons directly into the spine is no less WULFN\��7KRXJK�WKH�QHXURQV�FRXOG�LQ�WKHRU\�EH�XVHG�at a “neural bridge” to re-connect damaged parts of the spinal cord, sections of the neuron might span

large parts of the human ERG\�� PDNLQJ� WUDQVSODQ-tation almost impossible. After all, only the axons of the neuron—the ex-tensions of the cell which send messages to muscles and other neurons—are found in the spinal cord.

Beyond practical GLIÀFXOWLHV�� WKHUH� DUH� WKH�ethical problems associat-

ed with stem cell treatment. “There are all of these societal questions about how we far we are willing to manipulate our bodies, how far we are willing to manipulate the cells that grow into full humans,” Kraemer says. “It is important that we do not lose sight of the societal implications while we are doing science.” The heroic, red-and-blue world of Christo-pher Reeves’ Superman gives way to the gradients of PLFURVFRSH�VOLGHV� LQ� ODEV� OLNH�.UDHPHU·V��ZKHUH� WKH�PLVVLRQ�RI �ÀJKWLQJ�SDUDO\VLV�FROOLGHV�ZLWK�WKH�HWKLFV�of experimentation.

“It is important that we do not lose sight of the societal implications

while we are doing science.”

FEATURES


BREVIA: John Steinbeck once described an encoun-

ter with mangroves, writing, “we felt we were watch-

ing something horrible. No one likes mangroves.”

I’m guessing you’re an exception to Steinbeck’s

observation. What inspired you to begin research-

ing mangroves, and how would you respond to the

aforementioned quote?

KW: ,�DP�PRVW�GHÀQLWHO\�DQ�H[FHSWLRQ�WR�WKDW�VWDWH-ment. In New Zealand we have one species of man-

grove…and I live in the northern part of the country

ZKHUH�WKH\�ÁRXULVK��$V�D�FKLOG��,�XVHG�WR�SLFN�XS�WKHLU�plump green propagules at the beach, where they

washed up in their thousands. Each was an eight-

page leaf book that I pretended to read. Maybe I got

Kennedy Warne is an ecologist and journalist from Auckland, NZ. In 1988, he co-founded New Zealand Geographic and since then has contributed to National Geographic and Smithsonian, among other travel magazines. Warne published Let Them Eat Shrimp — The Tragic Disappearance of the Rainforests of the Sea in 2011, writing about the need to preserve mangroves in the face of big shrimp industry.

THE MAN IN THE MANGROVEKENNEDY WARNE AND THE RAINFORESTS OF THE SEA

MEG BERNHARD

FEATURES


my love of reading from mangroves too! Later, as editor of New Zealand Geographic, I commissioned a lengthy feature on mangroves—their physiological adaptations to an extreme environment, their many ecological roles in terrestrial and marine ecosys-tems—never left me.I’ve always found it strange that Steinbeck was so derogatory about mangroves. People in Central and /DWLQ�$PHULFD�ORYH�PDQJURYHV��IRU�FRDVWDO�SHRSOH�LQ�the tropics, mangroves are truly the supermarkets of the poor.

BREVIA: How would you describe the coastal peo-ples’ interaction with mangroves?

KW: I imagine it is similar to the interaction of an $PD]RQLDQ� WULEH� ZLWK� D� WHUUHVWULDO� UDLQIRUHVW�� LQ-timate, multifaceted, sustaining. This is one of the reasons I refer to mangroves as “rainforests of the sea.” Not only do mangroves supply coastal people with food, provisions and livelihoods, they provide the sense of place that is so closely linked to a per-son’s identity. I love the expression they use in Latin $PHULFD�� ´ORV� SXHEORV� GHO� PDQJODUHVµ³SHRSOH� RI �the mangroves. They identify as people who are part of the mangrove ecosystem. It is their world.

BREVIA: Of the many reasons people should care about mangroves—in-cluding their environmental impact, biodiversity, and wealth of natural

resources—which do you think would persuade

shrimp consumers, especially those in the developed

world, to advocate mangrove preservation?

KW: If the person cares about social justice, and became aware that shrimp farming has been re-sponsible for massive displacement and suffering to coastal communities in the developing world, he or she might decide not to be part of that cycle of in-justice by refusing to buy or eat farmed shrimp. On the other hand, if the person is concerned about the environment, then letting him or her know that man-grove forests are fantastic sequesterers of carbon (and therefore play a role in slowing climate change) PLJKW�LQÁXHQFH�D�GHFLVLRQ�WR�NHHS�WKRVH�IRUHVWV�DOLYH�and healthy, rather than be complicit in their destruc-tion.

BREVIA: In a review of your book, Let Them Eat Shrimp��$DURQ�(OOLVRQ��D�+DUYDUG�HFRORJLVW��FDOOHG�\RX�a “21st century Lorax,” referring to the famous char-acter created by Dr. Seuss. What are your thoughts on this statement?

KW: It’s all there in that little book—the causes and catastrophes of modern consumer culture, the myth of endless growth, the destructive dominance of in-GXVWU\�� 6R��RI � FRXUVH�� ,�ZDV� LPPHQVHO\�ÁDWWHUHG� WR�EH�FRPSDUHG�WR�VXFK�D�WRZHULQJ�ÀJXUH�DV�WKH�/RUD[��But I would say it is a mistake to look to individuals to “speak for the trees” on our behalf. Sure, media culture craves heroes and stars, environmental or otherwise, but we all have a “loraxical” role to play. Each of us has been entrusted with “the last of the Truffula Seeds,” so to speak. We who are living have the stewardship of the planet as our responsibility, and we can either step up to that role or not.

This interview has been edited and condensed.

20 brevia.hcura.org

In the perfect sociological experiment, condi-tions would be constant, with the experimenter act-LQJ�DV�QRWKLQJ�PRUH� WKDQ�DQ�RPQLVFLHQW�Á\�RQ� WKH�wall. At the Boston Area Research Initiative (BARI), D� QHZ� VFLHQWLÀF�PHWKRG� FRPHV� VWDUWOLQJO\� FORVH� WR�this ideal. Without knowing it, Boston residents KDYH�EHHQ�VKRZLQJ�WKDW�DOO�NQRZLQJ�Á\�DURXQG�WKHLU�homes, streets, and neighborhoods for months—HDFK� WLPH� WKH\�PDNH� DQ� DGGUHVV�EDVHG� UHTXHVW� IRU�FLW\�VHUYLFHV��3HUKDSV�WKH�RQO\�GHYLDWLRQ�LV�WKDW�WKH�Á\�LV�VLWWLQJ�EHKLQG�D�FRPSXWHU�VFUHHQ�IXOO�RI �QXP-bers, and his name is Big Data.

7HQ� \HDUV� DJR�� D� SURSRVDO� WR� SK\VLFDOO\� PDS�´GLVRUGHUµ�IRU�DQ�HQWLUH�FLW\�DW�RQH�SRLQW�LQ�WLPH�UH-TXLUHG�D�YDQ�IXOO�RI �FDPHUDV�WR�GULYH��PSK��EDFNHG�E\�D�VPDOO�DUP\�RI �VWXGHQWV�ZKR�DQDO\]HG�WKH�IRRW-DJH��7KH�RQO\�FLW\�WR�PDQDJH�WKLV�IHDW�WZLFH�ZDV�&KL-cago. Now, ecometrics in the age of big data offers a QHZ�DSSURDFK��%LJ�'DWD��D�EX]]ZRUG�IRU�H[SHULPHQ-WDO�PHWKRGV� WKDW� DQDO\]H�H[LVWLQJ� ODUJH� VHWV�RI �GDWD�FXUUHQWO\�EHLQJ�XQGHUXWLOL]HG�� LV� FDWDO\]LQJ�D�PRYH-PHQW�DZD\�IURP�GDWD�FROOHFWLRQ�DQG�WRZDUGV�DQDO\VLV�of existing pools. Using existing administrative data, D� UHVHDUFK� WHDP� OHG� E\� 3URIHVVRU�'DQ�2·%ULHQ� RI �WKH�5DGFOLIIH�,QVWLWXWH�IRU�$GYDQFHG�6WXG\�FUHDWHG�D�comprehensive map of disorder in Boston that can EH�XSGDWHG�HYHU\�WZR�PRQWKV��7KH�VWXG\�LV�VXSSRUW-HG�E\�WKH�LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\�DQG�LQWHU�XQLYHUVLW\�%$5,��DQG�DLPV�WR�JLYH�&LW\�+DOO�UHDO�WLPH�GDWD�RQ�LWV�FRQ-VWLWXHQF\�

The starting point was computer data from �� DGGUHVV�EDVHG� UHTXHVWV� IRU� FLW\� VHUYLFHV��JUDIÀWL�UHPRYDO��WUDVK�SLFNXS��HWF��WKDW�ZHUH�UHSRUW-ed via phone calls, online entries, and smartphone

1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 B I G 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 D A T A 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 C O M E S 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 T O 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 B O S T O N 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

LINDSAYOVERHAGE

FEATURES


applications. In open-source calculations now avail-able to the public, the team divided the data into cen-VXV�EORFN�JURXSV�DYHUDJLQJ��FLWL]HQV��D�TXDUWHU�WKH�VL]H�RI �WKRVH�XVHG�LQ�SUHYLRXV�VWXGLHV��DQG�WKHQ�GLYLGHG� LW� LQWR� �� FDVH� W\SHV� DQG� ÀYH� NH\� LVVXHV��+RXVLQJ�LVVXHV��´XQFLYLOµ�XVH�RI �VSDFH��ELJ�EXLOGLQJ�FRPSODLQWV�� JUDIÀWL�� DQG� WUDVK��$IWHU� FRUUHFWLQJ� IRU�KRZ�OLNHO\�HDFK�QHLJKERUKRRG�ZDV�WR�UHSRUW�D�SURE-OHP��WKH\�FUHDWHG�D�OD\HUHG��FRORU�FRGHG�*RRJOH�0DS�

$YDLODEOH� RQ� %$5,·V� ZHEVLWH�� WKH�PDS� VKRZV�VHYHQ�PHDVXUHV�RI �SK\VLFDO�GLVRUGHU�DORQJ�ZLWK�GH-mographic information, such as high school dropout rate, and median income. The map makes surprising FRUUHODWLRQV��H[SHFWHG�RU�QRW��FLYLF�HQJDJHPHQW��IRU�H[DPSOH�� LV� QRW� QHFHVVDULO\� KLJKHU� LQ�PRUH� DIÁXHQW�areas.

BARI goes further than reaching out to others LQ�DFDGHPLD��5HVHDUFK�DFFRXQWV�IRU�RQO\�KDOI �RI �LWV�mission—the other half is ensuring that data makes LWV�ZD\�LQWR�WKH�KDQGV�RI �GHFLVLRQ�PDNHUV�DQG�DQ\RQH�HOVH�ZKR�PLJKW�PDNH�XVH�RI �LW��2·%ULHQ�VD\V��´>%$5,�DLPV�WR@�EULQJ�WRJHWKHU�DOO�RI �WKH�VFKRODUO\�H[SHUWLVH�LQ� WKH�DUHD� DQG�DOO�RI � WKH� UHDOO\�JUHDW� HQHUJ\�JRLQJ�

RQ�LQ�WKH�SXEOLF�VHFWRU�ULJKW�QRZ�µ�2·%ULHQ�EHOLHYHV�it works because, “here in Boston…we want to look at these data resources and we want to know how to do things better.”

1RZ�� 2·%ULHQ� VD\V�� %$5,� KRSHV� WR� XVH� WKH�V\VWHP�LQ�SODFH�WR�WHVW�K\SRWKHVHV�DQG�ROG�WKHRULHV��ZRUNLQJ�ZLWK�SROLF\PDNHUV�WR�VHH�KRZ�SROLF\�LQÁX-HQFHV� RXWFRPHV�� 2QH� VLPSOH� H[DPSOH� RI � WKLV� UH-VSRQVH�ZDV� WKH�XVH�RI �Á\HUV�HQFRXUDJLQJ� UHVLGHQWV�WR�XVH�UHSRUWLQJ�VHUYLFHV��)O\HUV�WKDW�DVNHG�UHVLGHQWV�´WR�KHOS�FOHDQ�XS�%RVWRQµ�GLG�QRW�KDYH�DQ\�QRWLFH-able effect, while those that exchanged “Boston” IRU�WKH�QDPH�RI �D�VSHFLÀF�QHLJKERUKRRG��H�J��'XG-OH\� 6TXDUH�� GLG� LQFUHDVH� UHVSRQVH� UDWHV��:KLOH� WKLV�DORQH�PD\� QRW� VHHP� UHPDUNDEOH�� LW·V� D� ÀUVW� VWHS� WR�WHVW�D�FKDQJH�DW�WKH�SROLF\�OHYHO��2·%ULHQ�VD\V��´ZH·UH�thinking small instead of thinking big. :KDW·V�UHDOO\�IXQ�DERXW� WKLV�SURMHFW� LV� LW·V�VPDOO� UHVHDUFK�SURMHFWV�leading to kind of small ideas in terms of how to implement these ideas and how to redesign how the FLW\� LQWHUIDFHV�ZLWK� LWV�FRQVWLWXHQWV��$QG�DW� WKH�HQG�RI �WKH�GD\��WKHVH�OLWWOH�FKDQJHV�VWDUW�WR�EXLOG�XS�LQWR�D�greater volume of long term collaboration.”

The “Seeing” Neighborhoods through Citizen Calls project at BARI can map, among other things, the amount of trash generat-ed in Boston neighborhoods.

FEATURES


Nonverbal Expressions Across Cultural Boundaries

Do Eye Contact and Touch Translate?Linda Zhang

An Assuring smile. A fleeting frown. A plAy-ful wink. A friendly pat on the back. These are ex-

amples of nonverbal expressions that often occur

without conscious awareness, without premeditated

thought, and yet they can function better than words

to communicate meaning between people. On the

ÁLS�VLGH��WKH\�FDQ�DOVR�SDFN�PRUH�QXDQFH�DQG�FRQWUR-

versy than the words we say.

My research hones in on how nonverbal ex-

SUHVVLRQV�� VSHFLÀFDOO\� WKH� XQGHU�H[SORUHG� DUHDV� RI �eye contact and touch, can translate across different

cultures. Are they interpreted the same universally,

RU�DUH� WKH\�FXOWXUH�VSHFLÀF"�1RZKHUH�DUH� WKHVH�H[-changes more high-stakes than in the interaction be-

tween a doctor and patient. The Empathy and Rela-

tional Science program I work with at Massachusetts

General Hospital has done extensive research into

the neurobiology and physiology of empathy, and

how they can be leveraged to improve relationships

with patients.

We are conducting a literature review that has

combed through scores of databases for papers with

keywords “empathy”, “culture”, “eye contact” or

“touch”, with the plan of submitting a critical review

of the research conducted up to date. Here is a snap-

VKRW�RI �RXU�ÀQGLQJV�VR�IDU��American psychologist Paul Ekman has found

that facial expressions, even though they seem to be

learned and reinforced through social interactions,

are actually universal. When he showed pictures of

Americans showing a range of facial expressions to

people Japan, Chile, Argentina, and even isolated

FRPPXQLWLHV�LQ�3DSXD�1HZ�*XLQHD��KLV�VXEMHFWV�DU-rived at remarkably similar conclusions. Interpreting

facial expressions, however, becomes more compli-

nonverbal.indd 2 11/12/13 12:32 PM

FEATURES


cated in social settings. Ekman found that Japanese and Americans showed the same facial expressions while watching a gory video, but when seated beside a scientist, Japanese participants were more likely than Americans to conceal their negative emotions with a smile. The principle underlying this is known as display rules, which posits that management of expressions in public settings is socially learned and depends on local culture.

Many nonverbal expressions may be deeply in-grained in our biology. Children who are born blind FDQ�VPLOH�� ODXJK��DQG�FODS� WKHLU�KDQGV� IRU� MR\��HYHQ�WKRXJK�WKH\·YH�QHYHU�VHHQ�DQ\RQH�HOVH�H[SUHVVLQJ�MR\��7KLV� UDLVHV� WKH�TXHVWLRQ��DUH�H\H�FRQWDFW�DQG� WRXFK�also universal, or are they governed by ‘display rules,’ which can change depending on social setting and FXOWXUH"

A series of research studies have looked into how strangers are able to communicate universal emotions (ie. anger, fear, disgust, love, gratitude, sympathy) and prosocial emotions (happiness, sad-ness, surprise) through touch alone. In an experi-

ment where the toucher was instructed only to touch WKH�VXEMHFW·V�DUP��SDUWLFLSDQWV� VXFFHVVIXOO\�FRPPX-nicated universal emotions. When not restricted to the arm alone, both universal and prosocial emotions were effectively communicated.

In clinical settings, there are generally two types RI �WRXFK��GLDJQRVWLF�DQG�WKHUDSHXWLF��:KLOH�GLDJQRV-tic touch serves a clinical purpose, such as placing the stethoscope on a patient’s chest, therapeutic touch can be a handshake or a pat on the back. In a pre-liminary study, researchers found that therapeutic touch was positively correlated with how connected patients felt with their clinicians. However, the fre-quency of therapeutic touch per consultation only increased ratings to a certain point. Further research could pinpoint exactly how much touch would make for the ideal doctor-patient relationship.

Upon completion of the review, we plan to test some hypotheses ourselves on the cross-cultural per-ception of empathy through nonverbal expressions, which would contribute to an understudied area that remains crucial to the patient experience.

nonverbal.indd 3 11/12/13 12:32 PM


A!"#$

#%#

&' I(")

''#*)(%): F!#)(+ ,! F,)?

Fifty years ago, no one would have predicted that a machine could defeat a chess grandmaster or win a Jeopardy championship. Then, Deep Blue in 1997 and Watson in 2011 performed the unimag-inable. But despite the incredible accomplishments RI � $UWLÀFLDO� ,QWHOOLJHQFH� �$,�� UHVHDUFKHUV�� WKH� LGHD�of replicating human-like general intelligence has re-PDLQHG�VWXEERUQO\�RXW�RI �UHDFK��)RU�\HDUV�WKH�ÀHOG�lagged as researchers focused on making machines SHUIRUP� VSHFLÀF�� OLPLWHG� WDVNV�� 1RZ�� VFLHQWLVWV� DUH�UHYLVLWLQJ�WKLV�FKDOOHQJH��7KH�1DWLRQDO�6FLHQFH�)RXQ-dation has recently funded the creation of a new in-WHUGLVFLSOLQDU\�UHVHDUFK�FHQWHU�DW�0,7�DLPHG�DW�SUR-GXFLQJ�UHDO��KXPDQ�FRPSDUDEOH�DUWLÀFLDO�LQWHOOLJHQFH�

P-./#(* H-0&( L#0#".Most computer scientists are rightly optimis-

WLF� DERXW� WKH� SRWHQWLDO� IRU� DUWLÀFLDO� LQWHOOLJHQFH� WR�improve the quality of life for humans across the globe. With smarter machines, more processes could

be automated, freeing humans from repetitive labor DQG�LPSURYLQJ�VDIHW\�LQ�WKH�ZRUNSODFH��,PDJLQH�FRQ-struction sites run by robots, self-driving cars, and ultra-precise surgeries. Almost all aspects of mod-ern life could be optimized with the introduction of PRUH�LQWHOOLJHQW�PDFKLQHU\��:LWK�WKLV�HIÀFLHQF\�DQG�automation, people would be able to invest more of their time in creative pursuits.

� $UWLÀFLDO�LQWHOOLJHQFH�PD\�QRW�UHPDLQ�LQ�WKH�external environment, either—it could be incor-SRUDWHG� LQWR� KXPDQ� ERGLHV�� ,QWHOOLJHQW� SURVWKHWLFV�could match the function of human organs and al-ORZ�IRU�LQGHÀQLWH�UHSDLU�RI �QDWXUDO�DJLQJ�SURFHVVHV��These prosthetics would also not have the same bi-RORJLFDO�OLPLWDWLRQV�DV�QDWXUDO�RUJDQV³$,�FRXOG�JLYH�humans camera-like eyesight and memory, stronger DQG�PRUH�ÁH[LEOH�PXVFOHV�� DQG�PRUH�FRPSOHWH� LP-munity. A world in which “human error” disappears is a beautiful one indeed.

There are, however, those more hesitant

F!&(%). D#(*

OPINION


WR� HPEUDFH� DUWLÀFLDO� LQWHOOLJHQFH�� FLWLQJ� YDOLG� FRQ-FHUQV� DERXW� SRVVLEOH� FDWDVWURSKLF� XVHV� RI � DUWLÀFLDO�intelligence. These concerns generally center on the SRVVLELOLW\�WKDW�DUWLÀFLDO� LQWHOOLJHQFH�PDFKLQHV�FRXOG�surpass and subvert the human race, or that people themselves will lose their innate humanity in the pro-FHVV�RI �FRPELQLQJ�ZLWK�DUWLÀFLDO�LQWHOOLJHQFH�URERWV��While these scenarios are possible, there are ways to PLWLJDWH�WKHP��DQG�WKH�SRWHQWLDO�EHQHÀWV�RI �DUWLÀFLDO�intelligence greatly outweigh the potential costs.

R!"#$%&' " S%&'()"*%+,6LQJXODULW\�� D� WHUP�SRSXODUL]HG�E\� WKH� VFLHQFH�

ÀFWLRQ�ZULWHU�9HUQRU�9LQJH��UHIHUV�WR�WKH�K\SRWKHW-LFDO�SRLQW�DW�ZKLFK�DUWLÀFLDO� LQWHOOLJHQFH�ZLOO�DFKLHYH�greater-than-human standards. At this point, one ZRXOG� UHDVRQDEO\� SUHGLFW� WKDW� WKH� DUWLÀFLDOO\� LQWHO-ligent being would be able to improve upon itself even more effectively than humans can. From this, WKH�IHDU�DULVHV�WKDW�$,�EHLQJV�PD\�ZDJH�ZDU�DJDLQVW�humans, enslave us, or eradicate us entirely. A fright-ening prospect, but is it the most plausible outcome? ,Q�WKH�KXPDQ�UDFH��WKHUH�DUH�LQGLYLGXDOV�ZKR�ZRXOG�not deliberately harm others, even if they had the FDSDELOLW\��,W�VHHPV�SRVVLEOH�WR�FRQVWUXFW�FRGH�IRU�$,�that would match this rationale and morality, and be, in a nutshell, “friendly”, as computer scientists such as Eliezer Yudkowsky, term it. “‘Friendly’ refers to $,�FUHDWHG�ZLWK�VSHFLÀHG�PRWLYDWLRQV�µ�<XGNRZVN\�explained.

,W� VHHPV�� LQGHHG�� WKDW�ZH�FRXOG�SURJUDP�DUWL-ÀFLDO� LQWHOOLJHQFH�PDFKLQHV�ZLWK� VWULFW�PRUDO� FRGHV��7KXV� ZH� ZRXOG� DYRLG� FUHDWLQJ� PDOLFLRXV� $,� DQG�only construct “friendly” ones. What happens if the )ULHQGO\�$,�GHFLGHV�WR�PRGLI\�LWVHOI �WR�VWDUW�GHVLULQJ�the destruction of humans? That’s unlikely to hap-

SHQ��EHFDXVH�LQ�WKDW�FDVH�WKH�$,�PXVW�VRPHKRZ�KDYH�begun with an inclination to harm humans that mo-tivates it to self-modify. This would reveal that the initial programmers must have erred. With a proper construction of the status quo of generally accepted PRUDO�SULQFLSOHV��RQH�ZRXOG�H[SHFW�WKH�IULHQGO\�$,�WR�maintain this idea of morality.

S- W$"+ H"..!&/ +- U/?6RPH�DUJXH� WKDW�HYHQ� LQ� WKH�FDVH�RI �)ULHQGO\�

$,��KXPDQV·�QHZ�UHODWLRQVKLS�WR�VXFK�$,�ZRXOG�SHU-PDQHQWO\�DOWHU� WKH�HVVHQFH�RI �KXPDQLW\��6LQJXODULW\�FRXOG�UHVXOW�LQ�WRWDO�KXPDQ�FRPELQDWLRQ�ZLWK�$,��LQ�which humans would essentially upload their minds to computers and substitute all biological compo-QHQWV�RI �WKHLU�ERG\�IRU�RSWLPL]HG�SURVWKHWLFV��6NHS-tics note that changing our biology fundamentally alters the human experience, and that certain aspects of humanity we celebrate, such as courage and love, DUH�SURGXFWV�RI �WKH�ÀQLWHQHVV�RI �KXPDQ�OLIH�

However, material suffering from disease and aging need not be a requirement of human exis-tence. The “human experience” is constantly evolv-LQJ��DQG�UHIXVLQJ�WR�DGYDQFH�$,�IRU�IHDU�RI �DOWHULQJ�such experiences might be akin to opposing vaccines RU�DQWLELRWLFV�IRU�WKHLU�GHÀDQFH�RI �GHVWLQ\��:LWK�UHDO�DUWLÀFLDO� LQWHOOLJHQFH�� DOO� KXPDQV·� PHQWDO� SURFHVV-es could theoretically be mapped to constructible machinery, allowing for distinct minds to continue learning and developing as if they were in a normal body. Although the environment of the future may look different, humans would still continue to wit-ness events, process details, make connections, and build relationships with in a uniquely human way. The only difference? We would be healthier, better, faster, and stronger.

OPINION


G, A, T, C: these four letters comprise the lan-guage of DNA, and each represents a piece of the genetic code that makes us who we are. Until recent-ly, we have been unable to read this genetic language, but our newfound literacy comes with dangerous side effects that must be controlled through strict regulation.

The Human Genome Project was the Rosetta Stone for a golden age of genomics. Over 3 billion nucleotides of the human genome were sequenced, RSHQLQJ� XS� QHZ� DYHQXHV� RI � VFLHQWLÀF� XQGHUVWDQG-ing. Its implications are wide-ranging: multiple genes have already been linked to diseases that can be de-tected through genetic screening.

Diagnostic genetic screening has traditionally EHHQ� FRQÀQHG� WR� SURIHVVLRQDO� ODERUDWRULHV�� $� QHZ�breed of personalized, direct-to-consumer (DTC) genetic tests seeks to democratize access to this in-formation. But while the developments seem prom-ising, DTC genetic testing will need to overcome both practical limitations and ethical issues before it is ready to enter the mass market.

DTC genetic tests collect biological samples, which are then analyzed using SNP genotyping, looking for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) LQ� VHFWLRQV� RI �'1$��(VVHQWLDOO\�� WKH� WHVW� LGHQWLÀHV�variations in individual nucleotides of DNA, which are then correlated to certain traits. 23andMe, a pop-ular DTC genetics company, offers a report that in-cludes everything from vital health metrics to earwax type.

The problem with SNP genotyping is that, E\� GHÀQLWLRQ�� LW� GRHV� QRW� FRYHU� WKH� HQWLUH� JHQRPH�or account for many environmental factors, and at the molecular level, it fails to capture the complex relationship between coding sequences, promoter regions, and other biological mechanisms. Further complicating this fact is that results are often given as percentages of likelihood, rather than as absolutes. For example, to test for breast cancer, genetic tests analyze point mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. While mutations in these genes are correlated with a higher likelihood for breast cancer, having a mutation in these genes does not mean that an indi-

Direct-to-ConsumerGenetic Testing

To Regulate or Not To Regulate?Jason Cheng

OPINION


vidual will have breast cancer, nor does not having a mutation mean that an individual will not have can-cer.

Compounding this problem are the social and moral consequences of unregulated access to and marketing of genetic testing. In traditional testing, results are presented in an informed and supportive manner, often accompanied by a thought-out medi-cal plan of action. Many hospitals have in-house ge-netic counselors and physicians. DTC tests lack this professional support structure, which could poten-tially lead to mental distress and even rash courses of action.

Beyond the uncer-tainty that at-home testing would generate, there are also important moral con-cerns. As a society, are we prepared to handle this deluge of data? Gattaca portrays a bleak, dystopian future in which society is di-vided between those who are “genetically superior” and those who are not. This have and have-not di-lemma is further exacerbated by the recent intrusion of DTC testing into the realm of childbirth. In the real world, the company 23andMe acquired a patent in October for “gamete donor selection,” allowing prospective parents to choose what traits they desire in their children. Suddenly, Gattaca doesn’t seem all that far-fetched.

In light of these problems, DTC testing should be regulated strictly. Already, at a state level, thirteen states explicitly prohibit it and twelve states restrict the marketing of certain categories of tests. Federal regulation must extend beyond U.S. Food and Drug

Administration (FDA) evaluation, which merely en-sures that they work as claimed, to the curbing the often manipulative manner in which these tests are DGYHUWLVHG��$�+DVWLQJV�&HQWHU� FDVH� VWXG\� LGHQWLÀHG�the following advertisement targeted at women, which comes quite close to fear-mongering: “If you could discover your risk for a second breast cancer or for ovarian cancer, would you?... Knowing your fam-ily history is neither enough, nor is it always accurate. This test is.”

Both the FDA and the Federal Trade Com-mission need to work together to ensure that DTC

genetic tests are advertised in responsible ways. Comprehen-sive genetic counseling options and disclaimers about their ac-curacy should also accompany these tests. Additionally, genet-ic privacy and non-discrimina-tion needs to be safeguarded with a more stringent applica-tion of HIPAA privacy rules

that extends to these test providers. Finally, embry-onic genetic testing for reasons other than disease screening should be prohibited.

'1$�ZDV�ÀUVW�LVRODWHG�LQ��1HDUO\�D�KXQ-GUHG�\HDUV� ODWHU��:DWVRQ�DQG�&ULFN� LGHQWLÀHG� LWV� ID-PRXV� GRXEOH�KHOL[� VWUXFWXUH�� $QRWKHU� ÀIW\� \HDUV�passed before the human genome was sequenced, EXW�RQO\�ÀYH�\HDUV�ODWHU��WKH�ÀUVW�GLUHFW�WR�FRQVXPHU�tests were available. There is no doubt that the rate of genetic technology and its accessibility is acceler-ating exponentially. This knowledge is a useful tool in disease screening, prevention, and treatment, but DTC tests must become more accurate in their anal-yses and be more stringently regulated.

If you could discover your risk for a second breast cancer or for

ovarian cancer, would you?


Organ donation remains an oxymoron. We marvel at the advancements of modern medicine, yet we distance ourselves from the actual process of donation itself. An estimated 90% of Americans support organ donation, yet only 42.7% of adult US residents have registered to be organ and tissue do-nors. Why the discrepancy?

The most important factor affecting the amount of registered donors is the manner in which one becomes a donor in the United States. According to the current system, would-be donors can either FKHFN�¶\HV·�WR�RUJDQ�DQG�WLVVXH�GRQDWLRQ�ZKLOH�ÀOOLQJ�RXW�WKHLU�GULYHU·V�OLFHQVH�DSSOLFDWLRQV��RU�WKH\�FDQ�ÀOO�out a donor registration card. There is no doubt that quite a few US license-seekers simply skip over the organ donation section, eager to get their long-await-

ed cards. There are also US residents who can’t be bothered to seek out donor registration cards. But that still doesn’t account for an almost 50-point dif-ference between the organ donation approval rating and the actual donation rate. I’d guess that most WHHQDJHUV� RU� RWKHU� ÀUVW�WLPH� OLFHQVH� DSSOLFDQWV� GR�take the time to consider organ donation as they go through the transformative moment of becoming a licensed driver. But for one reason or another, many people are simply passing up the chance to have that red heart icon on the corner of their newly printed licenses.

My best friend signed up to be an organ do-nor when she was only sixteen. This summer, she was biking across the country with a group when she was struck by a driver, texting at the wheel. The next

The Conundrum of Organ Donation

Osaremen Okolo

28 BREVIA FALL 2013

Imag

e cre

dit:

Fran

ce A

dot,

cam

paign

for o

rgan

don

ation

OPINION


day she succumbed to her sustained injuries and was declared brain dead. Each of her organs was donat-ed to the highest match on the United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) list. Even after death, she VDYHG� VR�PDQ\³,�PDUYHO� WKDW� WKH� VHOÁHVVQHVV� WKDW�marked her eighteen years persisted even beyond the very end.

I myself, however, am not an organ donor. Un-der Massachusetts law, I needed parental consent to check off the box on my license application, and my mother and father would not approve of any status that might “encourage” declared death should, God forbid, a brain damage-inducing accident ever occur. I’m still deciding whether I will become an organ donor in the future; the blind spot all humans have about their own deaths seems to be holding me back. What if a surgeon discovered one last procedure to potentially restore neurological function just after they shut the ventilator off to begin organ harvest-ing? What if my kidney was rejected by the trans-plant recipient, leading to his death when he could have still survived on dialysis?

Given doubts like these, I do see a tremendous upside to the organ donation method proposed by New York Assemblyman Richard Brodsky in 2010. Under this system, already practiced by many Euro-pean countries, people are automatically registered as donors unless they choose to opt out. Opting out of organ donation through written consent would certainly be less likely for most than not opting in: donation would become a societal norm and simple convenience. Furthermore, my next of kin—alive and alert with the ability to gauge the situation—could say “no” to donation were a no needed. And if that no were unnecessary, my fear wouldn’t outlive me and prevent potentially lifesaving transplants. I suppose my next prayer should be for a calm, mature

next of kin to be my palliative decision maker.6WLOO�� ZH� PXVW� UHPHPEHU� ÀUVW� DQG� IRUHPRVW�

that there is no intrinsic downside to saving a life. States should not push to register every resident as an organ donor without consent; the controversy and potential litigation (I’d expect to see ‘Land of the FREE’ and ‘Don’t Tread on ME’ on quite a few placards surrounding our nation’s statehouses) could be so explosive that it might not only overshadow the positive nature of organ donation, but also tem-porarily prevent donation all together. Instead, each state should embark on a public relations effort to alleviate the worries surrounding organ donation. As I read UNOS’ statements relating that “the need for organs and tissues is vastly greater than the number available for transplantation,” “all major religions in the United States support organ, eye and tissue do-QDWLRQ�DQG�VHH�LW�DV�WKH�ÀQDO�DFW�RI �ORYH�DQG�JHQHU-osity toward others,” and “an open casket funeral is possible for organ, eye and tissue donors; through the entire donation process the body is treated with care, respect and dignity,” I inch closer and closer to checking that box when I next renew my driver’s license.

Inundate the public, but don’t coerce. That’s the difference between maintaining the 90% ap-proval rating of organ and tissue donation or turn-ing donation into another story of the government overstepping its boundaries. And perhaps once over 50% of United States residents are registered as or-gan and tissue donors or the needs of the UNOS OLVW� DUH� PRUH� HIÀFLHQWO\� PHW�� RXU� JRYHUQPHQW� FDQ�move towards encouraging Americans to also con-sider donating their bodies to research as well. After all, modern medicine could one day advance to the point where organs can be regularly prevented from failing at all.

OPINION


“Bill Nye the Science Guy” has become the call-ing card of the most popular scientist in an elementa-ry school kid’s world. Without Bill Nye, science would have remained a vague and distant realm for my child-hood self, one full of bland symbols and numbers—anything but creative and fun. But does Bill Nye win Nobel Prizes for his work? No. Does he even play a UROH� LQ�DGYDQFLQJ� WKH�VFLHQWLÀF�ÀHOG"�3UREDEO\�QRW��Yet, his presence, along with other popular scientists, LV� YLWDO� IRU� WKH� KHDOWK� RI � WKH� VFLHQWLÀF� FRPPXQLW\��

Popular scientists maintain the balance be-tween privatized research and public knowledge. 2Q�RQH� KDQG�� OHW·V� QRW� IRUJHW� KRZ�PXFK� VFLHQWLÀF�research relies on tax dollars. Without public en-

gagement, federal funding would wither away as yet another unpopular government scheme. On the other hand, if research were done solely for public recognition, then academic scientists would become mere panderers. Researchers would focus on popularizing his or her work for the next na-tional bestseller, rather than spend another day at lab, washing beakers for the next thankless experi-ment. So while the role of popular scientists—se-curing both the public’s support and their ongoing education—may differ from that of their academ-ic counterparts, that role isn’t any less important.

It follows that popular scientists should be com-mended for their success. Yet fellow scientists don’t

Are TED Talks Too Mainstream for

Scientists?

Nishant Kakar

OPINION


seem to agree: they criticize popular scientists for ‘dumbing down’ their talks and for putting too much emphasis on entertainment value. TED talks are a typical example. Despite the success of the program, a study by Indiana University Library and Informa-tion Science professor Cassidy Sugimoto found that TED presenters with backgrounds in academia do not get cited more often by fellow sci-entists. In fact, they are often ostracized by their colleagues, who often wonder whether they have ulterior motives. Even members of the public may ac-cuse TED talkers for harboring their own agendas. Joshua Keating, a blogger at Foreign Policy mag-azine, claims that 7('�´JORULÀHV�LGHDV�for their own sake, and rewards snappy presentation over rigorous thought or intellectual debate.”

These crit-icisms may be valid, but TED-talking academic researchers who popularize science are still vital WR� WKHLU� HQWLUH� ÀHOG�� /HW�PH� H[SODLQ�ZK\� The idea behind TED talks is to engage the public with in-triguing ideas, without overwhelming them with the technical details. It is not a stage for research-ers to communicate their work to fellow experts—

in this respect, the study by Sugimoto misses the point. Entertainment value aside, TED talks help restore the public’s faith that researchers really DUH� PDNLQJ� SURJUHVV� LQ� FXWWLQJ�HGJH� ÀHOGV�� 0RUH�importantly, they also inspire young research-ers to become the next generation of innovators.

,Q�D�GLJLWDO�DJH��WKH�VFLHQWLÀF�FRPPXQLW\�FDQ-not shy away from using social media to increase their reach. This new connectivity has en-abled researchers to broadcast on TED, YouTube, and news networks, to name a few, which can only boost national fund-ing for their work. Popular scientists may be ridiculed by “pure” academics, but those academ-ics may do well to remember that their own funding must come from the taxpayer’s pocket.

W i t h o u t popular scientists,

research would be attacked as a hopelessly inac-cessible ivory tower. Bill Nye’s rhymes and jingles might sound silly to your average scientist, just as TED-talkers might sound like fame-grabbing sell-outs, but it wasn’t the American Journal of Physics WKDW� ÀUVW� JRW�PH� LQWHUHVWHG� LQ� VXEDWRPLF� SDUWLFOHV��electricity, or distant stars. It was the Science Guy.

Image credit: TEDx Youth


There is a certain truth to the expression that “the sun never sets on the British Empire,” though it does not always refer to the size of its territori-al expansion. The British Empire ruled people, not mere territories, and because of the racial and cultur-al differences between the rulers and the ruled, their governance was tainted with rebellion and unease. It ZDV�DURXQG��V�WKDW�WKH�%ULWLVK�ÀQDOO\�GHFLGHG�WR�change the form of their rule to meet the needs and differences of the different colonies. My research fo-cuses on the idea that the British crafted a more le-nient and democratic policy when it came to regions with similar population and culture, like Canada, but decided to take a more aggressive and reforming stance when dealing with the Indian subcontinent.

Despite the fact that the British had ruled both Canada and India for almost 150 years, it was only after a rebellion started in Upper Canada in 1837 WKDW�WKH�%ULWLVK�FRORQLDO�RIÀFHUV�EHJDQ�FRQVLGHULQJ�D�

policy change. After sending the Earl of Durham to review the situation in Canada, a report offered the restless dominion a chance for autonomy through “responsible government.” At the local level, the Canadian provinces would have the chance to rule themselves and choose their representatives, though their foreign policy would still remain in the hands of the crown. Admittedly imperfect, this was still a step forward from traditional British imperial poli-cy—one that was offered only to the colonies with a predominantly white population and British culture.

Despite being a colony, Canada was heavily populated by descendants of British settlers. The culture was a hybrid of that of mainland Britain, yet still undeniably white. As such, the Canadians were brothers to the British, not just subjects. That be-OLHI � VKDSHG� WKH� OHQLHQW� ,PSHULDO�3ROLF\� WKDW�GHÀQHG�the Durham Report and responsible government. In the Indian sub-continent, the British faced a tougher

BRITISH SUBJECTS,

PRIMARY RESEARCH

british.indd 2 11/12/13 12:32 PM

PRIMARY RESEARCH


TXHVWLRQ��KRZ�WR�GHÀQH�WKHLU�VXEMHFWV�DQG�WKHLU�UROH"�In the light of the writing of Richard Burton and new racial theories that were but the misinterpreta-tion of Darwin’s “Theory of Evolution,” the British crown had to not only decide on how to rule in these regions, but also to reconsider its mission. If they were not to merely rule the Indian population, did WKH\�DOVR�KDYH�WR�´FLYLOL]Hµ�LW"�,I �&DQDGD�ZDV�WKHLU�GL-rect offspring, India and the Indians were their bur-dens. As Kipling would later describe it, the “white man’s burden.”

Following the presentation in the British Par-liament by Thomas Macaulay of “Minute on Edu-cation,” the response became clear. If in Canada and Australia, which the British had repopulated, were offered the chance to have a responsible gov-ernment, India just had to accept direct crown rule, topped with a radical and aggressive civilizing mis-sion. All subjects had to learn English, and all affairs

in the region had to be conducted in English. Angli-FDQLVP�ZRXOG�EH� WKH�RIÀFLDO� UHOLJLRQ��DQG�WKH�/RQ-don Missionary Society had the duty to spread and teach the main doctrines of Christianity to the locals. Unlike Canada, the rule of the British in India suf-fered from its policies, as the British refused to adapt to the Hindu and Muslim cultures that had ruled in India for centuries. This led to the Indian Mutiny of 1857, which presented one of the toughest challeng-es the British had to contend with in their long rule in the subcontinent.

The British celebrated their Imperial Apogee in the early 20th century, after a century of rebellions and challenges to both their authority and identity as an empire. Despite the troubles brewing from Cana-da to India, the British Empire’s survival was mostly due to their new and improved policies. However, in the end, these policies were not enough to ensure the survival of the British Empire after World War II.

NOT CITIZENS

BARBARA HALLA

british.indd 3 11/12/13 12:32 PM

PRIMARY RESEARCH


While long-standing attempts at developing a vaccine for HIV have met with little success, new-er experiments have explored ways to help people achieve immunity through proteins. My research focuses on molecules called cytokines, proteins that regulate hormones and help cells communicate with each other. By stimulating cytokine receptors to pro-GXFH�+,9�ÀJKWLQJ�SURWHLQV�OLNH�WUDQVIRUPLQJ�JURZWK�factor (TGF), high concentrations of one particular F\WRNLQH�� ,/�� FDQ�DFWXDOO\� FDXVH�D� VLJQLÀFDQW�GH-crease in HIV virus.

Under the mentorship of immunologist Dr. Jose Villareal at the Centro de Salud in San Pedro, Honduras, I used protein imaging software to map out the structure of IL-16 and analyze exactly how it acts on other cytokine receptors. I found that the protein could stimulate the production of the other cytokines, but that could also affect the production of the protein, due to the characteristic helix bundle shape of IL-16. This might hold implications for the hopes of immunology against HIV/AIDS. By stim-ulating the conformational shape of IL-16 through an engineered “vaccine”, it could be possible for an individual to develop immunity to HIV-1 by cell-me-diated cytokine interaction patterns that involve large concentrations of this IL-16.

Raul E. Jordan

CYTOKINEStowards a vaccine for hiv:

Part of my research also involved taking peri-odic samples of the plasma serum of a set of HIV positive individuals’ blood and determining whether white blood cell counts would rise if they had higher IL-16 levels in their immune system. Indeed, an over-all high concentration of IL-16 helped stabilize the amount of white blood cells. Individuals with higher concentrations of IL-16 had white blood cell counts that did not decrease as quickly as in individuals with lower IL-16 concentrations. However, this was a re-sult of a coordinated effort of many cytokines, and this strategy to tackle HIV would only work if all these interactions are IL-16 mediated. One of the greatest breakthroughs for this phenomenon would be to determine the exact location and time of the production of these cytokines in order to compre-hend the mechanism better.

I am currently developing possible methods of implementing the stimulated production of IL-16 in the immune system. By using PYMOL and studying biophysical interactions such as the progression and rates of occurrence behind the different cytokine signaling pathways, I hope to obtain a better under-VWDQGLQJ� RI � WKHLU� FRRUGLQDWHG� EHKDYLRU� LQ� ÀJKWLQJ�the HIV-1 virus. While many comparative studies have been made on rhesus monkeys infected with

cytokines_final.indd 2 11/12/13 12:32 PM

PRIMARY RESEARCH


The structure of ß-cytokine IL-16

Works Cited

1. Uchil, Pradeep D., Angelika Hinz, and Steven Siegel. “TRIM Protein-Mediated Regulation of In-ÁDPPDWRU\� DQG� ,QQDWH� ,PPXQH� 6LJQDOLQJ� DQG� ,WV�$VVRFLDWLRQ�ZLWK�$QWLUHWURYLUDO�$FWLYLW\�µ�-RXUQDO�RI �9LURORJ\�� Q��SDJ�� -YL�DVP�RUJ��$PHULFDQ�6RFLHW\�IRU�0LFURELRORJ\��:HE��-XQH��

��.QR[��5LFKDUG��´)DLOXUH�2I �/DWHVW�+,9�9DFFLQH�7HVW�� $� ¶+XJH� 'LVDSSRLQWPHQW·µ� 135�� 135�� Q�G��:HE��2FW��

��$PLHO��&RULQQH��(GLWK�'DUFLVVDF��´,QWHUOHXNLQ�16 �,/�� ,QKLELWV� +XPDQ� ,PPXQRGHÀFLHQF\� 9LUXV�5HSOLFDWLRQ�LQ�&HOOV�IURP�,QIHFWHG�6XEMHFWV��DQG�6H-UXP� ,/�� 'URS� ZLWK�'LVHDVH� 3URJUHVVLRQ�µ� 7KH�-RXUQDO�RI � ,QIHFWLRXV�'LVHDVHV�� :HE�

��/DLUPRUH��0��'��$LPHH�$��3RVW��&\QWKLD�6��*ROG-VPLWK��DQG�7��0��)RONV��´&\WRNLQH�(QKDQFHPHQW�RI �6LPLDQ�,PPXQRGHÀFLHQF\�9LUXV� �6,9�PDF�� IURP�D�&KURQLFDOO\�,QIHFWHG�&ORQHG�7�FHOO�/LQH��+X7��µ�$UFKLYHV�RI �9LURORJ\��:HE�

WKH�6LPLDQ�,PPXQRGHÀFLHQF\�9LUXV�DQG�WKHLU�UHDF-tion to cytokine-mediated immunity, there are not as many analyses of the quantitative biophysics be-hind this interaction in humans. As new technologies emerge, immunity to HIV-1 might someday become a phenomenon that will change the world in ways previously unimaginable.

cytokines_final.indd 3 11/12/13 12:32 PM

MASTHEAD


Brevia Fall 2013 Masthead

Auburn LeeBarbara HallaCaroline JuangCharissa IluoreJenna ZhangJessica HerrmannKavya PathakKelwen Peng

Lindsay OverhageMahnoor KhanNatalia WojcikNishant KakarNisreen ShibanOsaremen OkoloSahar AshrafzadehShreya Vardhan

Editor-in-ChiefRachel Wong

Primary ResearchClaire Atwood, EditorMichelle Guo, Associate Editor

FeaturesOla Topczewska, EditorLily Zhang, Associate Editor

OpinionMeg Bernhard, EditorJessi Glueck, Associate Editor

Sta! Writers

DesignLydia Chen, EditorFrances DingMonica ChaoMolly ZhaoJessica Herrmann

A Publication of the Harvard College Undergraduate Research Association

Ankit GuptaChristine HamadaniDanny KramerFrances DingGray PutnamHirsh Jain

Jason ChengLinda ZhangLucy Nam

Contributing Writers

untitled

VXEPLWWHG�E\�0DUWLQD�*DQGROÀ

The reason why I picked this photo is written in the eyes of this child. They shine like stars and they can express huge emotions and in-tense feelings. They want to show what it means to be happy with-RXW� DQ\WKLQJ�� WR�ÀJKW� HYHU\� GD\�EHFDXVH� life is a precious and rare gift.

BreviaVolume 1 • Issue 3 • Fall 2013

brevia.hcura.org

Documents

Brevia, Fall 2013