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By: Susan M. Pojer By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia adapted by Kathryn Raia

By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

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Page 1: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

By: Susan M. PojerBy: Susan M. Pojeradapted by Kathryn Raia adapted by Kathryn Raia

By: Susan M. PojerBy: Susan M. Pojeradapted by Kathryn Raia adapted by Kathryn Raia

Page 2: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850)

The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) A sense of a shared vision among the

Romantics.

Early support of the French Revolution.

Rise of the individual alienation.

Dehumanization of industrialization.

Radical poetics / politics an obsessionwith violent change.

A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics.

Early support of the French Revolution.

Rise of the individual alienation.

Dehumanization of industrialization.

Radical poetics / politics an obsessionwith violent change.

Page 3: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the
Page 4: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Enlightenment

EnlightenmentSociety is good, curbing

violent impulses!Society is good, curbing violent impulses!

Civilization corrupts!Civilization corrupts!

Romanticism

Romanticism

Early19c

Early19c

A Growing Distrust of Reason

A Growing Distrust of Reason

The essence of human experience is subjective and emotional.

Human knowledge is a puny thing compared to other great historical forces.

“Individual rights” are dangerous efforts at selfishness the community is more important.

The essence of human experience is subjective and emotional.

Human knowledge is a puny thing compared to other great historical forces.

“Individual rights” are dangerous efforts at selfishness the community is more important.

Page 5: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Romantic MovementThe Romantic Movement Began in the 1790s and peaked in the 1820s.

Mostly in Northern Europe, especially in Britain and Germany.

A reaction against classicism.

The “Romantic Hero:”

Greatest example was Lord Byron

Tremendously popular among the European reading public.

Youth imitated his haughtiness and rebelliousness.

Began in the 1790s and peaked in the 1820s.

Mostly in Northern Europe, especially in Britain and Germany.

A reaction against classicism.

The “Romantic Hero:”

Greatest example was Lord Byron

Tremendously popular among the European reading public.

Youth imitated his haughtiness and rebelliousness.

Page 6: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Characteristics of Romanticism

Characteristics of Romanticism

The Engaged & Enraged Artist: The artist apart from society.

The artist as social critic/revolutionary.

The artist as genius.

The Engaged & Enraged Artist: The artist apart from society.

The artist as social critic/revolutionary.

The artist as genius.

Page 7: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Wandering Above the Sea of Fog

Caspar David Friedrich,

1818

Wandering Above the Sea of Fog

Caspar David Friedrich,

1818

Page 8: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the
Page 9: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Characteristics of Romanticism

Characteristics of Romanticism

The Individual/ The Dreamer: Individuals have unique, endless

potential.

Self-realization comes through art Artists are the true philosophers.

The Individual/ The Dreamer: Individuals have unique, endless

potential.

Self-realization comes through art Artists are the true philosophers.

Page 10: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Dreamer Gaspar David Friedrich, 1835

The Dreamer Gaspar David Friedrich, 1835

Page 11: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Solitary Tree Caspar David Friedrich, 1823

Solitary Tree Caspar David Friedrich, 1823

Page 12: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the
Page 13: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Characteristics of Romanticism

Characteristics of Romanticism

Glorification of Nature: Peaceful, restorative qualities

[an escape from industrialization and the dehumanization it creates].

Awesome, powerful, horrifying aspects of nature.

Indifferent to the fate of humans.

Overwhelming power of nature.

Glorification of Nature: Peaceful, restorative qualities

[an escape from industrialization and the dehumanization it creates].

Awesome, powerful, horrifying aspects of nature.

Indifferent to the fate of humans.

Overwhelming power of nature.

Page 14: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

An Avalanche in the AlpsPhilip James de Loutherbourg,

1803

An Avalanche in the AlpsPhilip James de Loutherbourg,

1803

Page 15: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Sunset After a Storm On the Coast of Sicily – Andreas

Achenbach, 1853

Sunset After a Storm On the Coast of Sicily – Andreas

Achenbach, 1853

Page 16: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The DelugeFrancis Danby, 1840

The DelugeFrancis Danby, 1840

Page 17: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Tree of CrowsCaspar David Friedrich, 1822

Tree of CrowsCaspar David Friedrich, 1822

Page 18: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Shipwreck – Joseph Turner, 1805

Shipwreck – Joseph Turner, 1805

Page 19: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Raft of the MedusaThéodore Géricault, 1819The Raft of the MedusaThéodore Géricault, 1819

Page 20: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the
Page 21: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Isaac Newton – William Blake, 1795

Isaac Newton – William Blake, 1795

Page 22: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the
Page 23: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Rain, Steam, and SpeedJoseph Mallord William Turner,

1844

Rain, Steam, and SpeedJoseph Mallord William Turner,

1844

Page 24: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Rain, Steam,

& Speed

(details)

Rain, Steam,

& Speed

(details)

Page 25: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the
Page 26: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Corn Field

John Constable,

1826

The Corn Field

John Constable,

1826

Page 27: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Hay Wain - John Constable, 1821

The Hay Wain - John Constable, 1821

Page 28: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the
Page 29: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Characteristics of Romanticism

Characteristics of Romanticism

Revival of Past Styles: Gothic & Romanesque revival.

“Neo-Gothic” architectural style.

Medieval ruins were a favorite theme for art and poetry.

Revival of Past Styles: Gothic & Romanesque revival.

“Neo-Gothic” architectural style.

Medieval ruins were a favorite theme for art and poetry.

Page 30: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop’s Ground

John Constable, 1825

Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop’s Ground

John Constable, 1825

Page 31: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows

John Constable, 1831

Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows

John Constable, 1831

Page 32: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Eldena RuinGaspar David Friedrich, 1825

Eldena RuinGaspar David Friedrich, 1825

Page 33: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Winter Landscape with ChurchGaspar David Friedrich, 1811

Winter Landscape with ChurchGaspar David Friedrich, 1811

Page 34: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

British Houses of Parliament1840-1865

British Houses of Parliament1840-1865

Page 35: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the
Page 36: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Characteristics of Romanticism

Characteristics of Romanticism

The Supernatural: Ghosts, fairies, witches, demons.

The shadows of the mind—dreams & madness.

The romantics rejected materialism in pursuit of spiritual self-awareness.

They yearned for the unknown and the unknowable.

The Supernatural: Ghosts, fairies, witches, demons.

The shadows of the mind—dreams & madness.

The romantics rejected materialism in pursuit of spiritual self-awareness.

They yearned for the unknown and the unknowable.

Page 37: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Cloister Cemetery in the SnowCaspar David Friedrich, 1817-

1819

Cloister Cemetery in the SnowCaspar David Friedrich, 1817-

1819

Page 38: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Abbey in an Oak ForestCaspar David Friedrich, 1809-

1810

Abbey in an Oak ForestCaspar David Friedrich, 1809-

1810

Page 39: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Mad Woman With a Mania of Envy

TheodoreGericault, 1822-1823

Mad Woman With a Mania of Envy

TheodoreGericault, 1822-1823

Page 40: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Great Red

Dragon and the Woman

Clothed with the Sun

William Blake,

1808-1810

The Great Red

Dragon and the Woman

Clothed with the Sun

William Blake,

1808-1810

Page 41: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Nightmare (The Incubus)Henry Fuseli, 1781

Nightmare (The Incubus)Henry Fuseli, 1781

Page 42: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Manfred and the Witch of the Alps

John Martin - 1837

Manfred and the Witch of the Alps

John Martin - 1837

Page 43: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Witches Sabbath

Francisco Goya,1798

Witches Sabbath

Francisco Goya,1798

Page 44: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Procession of Flagellants on Good Friday

Francisco Goya, 1793

Procession of Flagellants on Good Friday

Francisco Goya, 1793

Page 45: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Saturn DevoursHis Son

Francisco Goya,

1819-1823

Saturn DevoursHis Son

Francisco Goya,

1819-1823

Page 46: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the
Page 47: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi

Eugène Delacroix,

1827

Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi

Eugène Delacroix,

1827

Page 48: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Liberty Leading the People Eugène Delacroix, 1830

Liberty Leading the People Eugène Delacroix, 1830

Page 49: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Detail of theMusket Bearer

Delacoix, himself

Detail of theMusket Bearer

Delacoix, himself

Page 50: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

His Majesty’s Ship, “Victory”(Trafalgar) - John Constable, 1806His Majesty’s Ship, “Victory”

(Trafalgar) - John Constable, 1806

Page 51: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

An Officer of the Imperial Horse Guard

Théodore Géricault, 1814

An Officer of the Imperial Horse Guard

Théodore Géricault, 1814

Page 52: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Napoleonat the

St. BernardPass

David,1803

Napoleonat the

St. BernardPass

David,1803

Page 53: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Shooting of May 3, 1808Francisco Goya, 1815

The Shooting of May 3, 1808Francisco Goya, 1815

Page 54: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Pandemonium - John Martin, 1841

Pandemonium - John Martin, 1841

Page 55: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the
Page 56: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Characteristics of Romanticism

Characteristics of Romanticism

Exoticism: The sexy “other.”

A sense of escape from reality.

A psychological/moral justification of imperialism?

Exoticism: The sexy “other.”

A sense of escape from reality.

A psychological/moral justification of imperialism?

Page 57: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Massacre of Chios - Eugène Delacroix, 1824

Massacre of Chios - Eugène Delacroix, 1824

Page 58: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Fanatics of TangiersEugène Delacroix, 1837-1838The Fanatics of Tangiers

Eugène Delacroix, 1837-1838

Page 59: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Sultan of Morocco and His Entourage

Eugène Delacroix, 1845

The Sultan of Morocco and His Entourage

Eugène Delacroix, 1845

Page 60: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Women of Algiers in Their Apartment

Eugène Delacroix, 1834

Women of Algiers in Their Apartment

Eugène Delacroix, 1834

Page 61: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Bullfight - Francisco GoyaThe Bullfight - Francisco Goya

Page 62: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Charge of the Mamelukes, May 2nd, 1808

Francisco Goya, 1814

Charge of the Mamelukes, May 2nd, 1808

Francisco Goya, 1814

Page 63: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Royal Pavillion at BrightonJohn Nash, 1815-1823

The Royal Pavillion at BrightonJohn Nash, 1815-1823

Page 64: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the
Page 65: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Elohim Creating AbrahamWilliam Blake, 1805

Elohim Creating AbrahamWilliam Blake, 1805

Page 66: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Faust and MephistophelesEugène Delacroix, 1826-1827Faust and MephistophelesEugène Delacroix, 1826-1827

Page 67: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Cathedral

Gaspar DavidFriedrich,

1818

The Cathedral

Gaspar DavidFriedrich,

1818

Page 68: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Cathedral(details)

Gaspar DavidFriedrich,

1818

The Cathedral(details)

Gaspar DavidFriedrich,

1818

Page 69: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Great Age of the Novel

The Great Age of the Novel Gothic Novel:

Jane Eyre - Charlotte Bronte (1847) Wuthering Heights - Emily Bronte (1847)

Historical Novel: Ivanhoe - Sir Walter Scott (1819) Les Miserables - Victor Hugo (1862) The Three Musketeers – Alexander Dumas (1844)

Gothic Novel: Jane Eyre - Charlotte Bronte (1847) Wuthering Heights - Emily Bronte (1847)

Historical Novel: Ivanhoe - Sir Walter Scott (1819) Les Miserables - Victor Hugo (1862) The Three Musketeers – Alexander Dumas (1844)

Page 70: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Great Age of the Novel

The Great Age of the Novel

Science Fiction Novel: Frankenstein - Mary Shelley (1817) Dracula – Bramm Stoker (1897)

Novel of Purpose: Hugh Trevar - Thomas Holcroft (1794)

Science Fiction Novel: Frankenstein - Mary Shelley (1817) Dracula – Bramm Stoker (1897)

Novel of Purpose: Hugh Trevar - Thomas Holcroft (1794)

Page 71: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the
Page 72: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Other Romantic Writers

Other Romantic Writers

Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm - Grimm’s Fairy Tales (1814-1816)

Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm - Grimm’s Fairy Tales (1814-1816)

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Faust (1806-1832)

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Faust (1806-1832)

Page 73: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Romantic PoetsThe Romantic Poets Percy Byssche Shelley

Lord Byron (George Gordon)

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

William Wordsworth

John Keats

William Blake

Percy Byssche Shelley

Lord Byron (George Gordon)

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

William Wordsworth

John Keats

William Blake

Page 74: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

Romantic Music• Strong Connection with emotion as well as

nationalism (as seen in folk songs)– Beethoven– Schubert– Chopin– Liszt– Verdi– Wagner– Tchaikovsky

Page 75: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the
Page 76: By: Susan M. Pojer adapted by Kathryn Raia The Spirit of the Age (1790-1850) e A sense of a shared vision among the Romantics. e Early support of the

The Political ImplicationsThe Political Implications

Romanticism could reinforce the greatest themes of political liberalism or political conservatism.

Contributed to growing nationalist movements.

The concepts of the Volk and the Volkgeist.

The uniqueness of cultures was emphasized.

Romanticism could reinforce the greatest themes of political liberalism or political conservatism.

Contributed to growing nationalist movements.

The concepts of the Volk and the Volkgeist.

The uniqueness of cultures was emphasized.


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