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Chapter8

AmericaSecedesfromtheEmpire,1775–1783

I.CongressDraftsGeorgeWashington

• SecondContinentalCongressmeetsinPhiladelphiaonMay10,1775:–Mostimportantsingleaction—selectedGeorgeWashingtontoheadarmy:• Choicewasmadewithconsiderablemisgivings• Heneverroseabovetherankofcolonel• Hislargestcommandhadnumberedonly1,200• Fallingshortoftruemilitarygenius,hewouldactuallylosemorebattlesthanhewon

I.CongressDraftsGeorgeWashington(cont.)

• Hewasgiftedwithoutstandingpowersofleadershipandimmensestrengthofcharacter• Heradiatedpatience,courage,self-discipline,andasenseofjustice• Hewastrustedandinsistedonservingwithoutpay• Hekept,however,acarefullistofexpenses-$100,000.

• ContinentalCongresschosemorewiselythanitknew.

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II.BunkerHillandHessianHirelings

• Warofinconsistencywasfoughtfor14months—April1775toJuly1776—beforefatefulplungeintoindependence.

• Graduallytempoofwarfareincreased:–May1775EthanAllenandBenedictArnoldcapturedgarrisonsatTiconderogaandCrownPointinupperNewYork

– June1775thecolonistsseizedBunkerHill

II.BunkerHillandHessianHirelings(cont.)

• July1775,CongressadoptedOliveBranchPetition:– professedloyaltytocrownandbeggedkingtopreventfurtherhostilities

• KingGeorgeIIIslammeddooronallhopeofreconciliation:– August1775heproclaimedcoloniesinrebellion– skirmisheswerenowtreason,ahangingcrime

II.BunkerHillandHessianHirelings(cont.)

• Henexthired1000sofGermantroops• GeorgeIIIneededthemen• BecausemostofthesesoldierscamefromGermanprincipalityofHesse,AmericanscalledallEuropeanmercenariesHessians

• NewsofHessiandealshockedcolonists• Hessianhirelingsprovedgoodsoldiers

III.TheAbortiveConquestofCanada

• October1775,BritishburnedFalmouth(Portland),Maine

• Inautumn,rebelsundertookatwo-prongedinvasionofCanada:– SuccessfulassaultonCanadawouldadda14thcolonyanddepriveBritainofvaluablebaseforstrikingthecoloniesinrevolt

– Invasionnorthwasundisguisedoffensivewarfare

III.TheAbortiveConquestofCanada(cont.)

• InvasionofCanadaalmostsuccessful(Map8.1)– GeneralRichardMontgomerycapturedMontreal– AtQuebec,hewasjoinedbyarmyofGeneralBenedictArnold

– AssaultonQuebecwaslaunchedonlastdayof1775

–Montgomerywaskilled– Arnoldwaswounded

III.TheAbortiveConquestofCanada(cont.)

– Bitterfightingpersistedincolonies:• January1776BritishsetfiretoNorfolk,Va.• March1776BritishforcedtoevacuateBoston

– InSouth,rebelswontwovictories:• February1776against15,000LoyalistsatMoore’sCreekBridgeinNorthCarolina• June1776againstaninvadingfleetatCharlestonharbor

IV.ThomasPainePreachesCommonSense

• Loyaltytotheempirewasdeeplyingrained:– Americanscontinuedtobelievetheywerepartofatransatlanticcommunity

– Colonialunitywasweak– Openrebellionwasdangerous– AslateasJanuary1776,theking’shealthwasbeingtoasted—“Godsavetheking”

• Graduallycolonistswereshockedintorecognizingnecessitytoseparate.

IV.ThomasPainePreachesCommonSense(cont.)

• 1776CommonSensebyThomasPaine:– Oneofmostinfluentialpamphletseverpublished– Beganwithtreatiseonnatureofgovernment– Arguedonlylawfulstateswerethosethatderive“theirjustpowersfromtheconsentofthegoverned”

– Asforking,hewasnothingbut“theRoyalBruteofGreatBritain”

– 120,000copiesweresoldinoneweek

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• Triedtoconvincecoloniststhattruecausewasindependence,notreconciliationwithBritain:– Nowhereinphysicaluniversedidsmallerheavenlybodiescontrollargerones

– SowhyshouldtinyislandofBritaincontrolvastcontinentofAmerica


• Painedraftedfoundationaldocument:– Americanindependence– Americanforeignpolicy– Onlywithindependence,couldcolonieshopetogainforeignassistance

V.PaineandtheIdeaof“Republicanism”(cont.)

• Painealsocalledforarepublic:– Creationofanewkindofpoliticalsocietywherepowerflowedfromthepeople

– Inbiblicalimagery,hearguedallgovernmentofficials—governors,senators,judges—shouldderiveauthorityfrompopularconsent


• Painewasnotfirsttochampionrepublicangovernment:– ClassicalGreeceandRome– Revivedin17thcenturyRenaissance– AppealedtoBritishpoliticianscriticalofexcessivepowerinhandsofkingandhisadvisers

– Americancolonistsinterpretedroyalactsaspartofmonarchicalconspiracy


• Paine’ssummonstocreatearepublicfellonreceptiveears:– NewEnglanderspracticedakindofrepublicanismintownmeetingsandannualelections

• MostAmericansconsideredcitizen“virtue”fundamentaltoanysuccessfulrepublicangovernment


• Individualsinarepublic:–mustsacrificepersonalself-interesttopublicgood

– collectivegoodof“thepeople”matteredmorethanprivaterightsandinterestsofindividuals

• PaineinspiredcontemporariestoviewAmericaasfertilegroundforcultivationofcivicvirtue.

V.PaineandtheIdeaofRepublicanism(cont.)

• NotallPatriotsagreedwithPaine’sultra-democraticrepublicanism:– Somefavoredrepublicruledbya“naturalaristocracy”oftalent• wantedanendtohereditaryaristocracy,butnotanendtoallsocialhierarchy• wereconservativerepublicanswhowantedstabilityofsocialorder

• ContestoverAmericanrepublicanismwouldcontinuefornext100years

VI.Jefferson’s “Explanation”ofIndependence

• OnJune7,1776,RichardHenryLeeofVirginiamoved:– “theseUnitedColoniesare,andofrightoughttobefreeandindependentstates”

–motionwasadoptedonJuly2,1776–motionwasformal“declaration”ofindependencebycolonies

VI.Jefferson’s“Explanation”ofIndependence(cont.)

• Aninspirationalappealwasneeded:– ToenlistotherBritishcoloniesintheAmericas– Toinviteassistancefromforeignnations– Torallyresistanceathome

• Congressappointedacommitteetoprepareaformalstatement:– TaskofdraftingfelltoThomasJefferson– Hewasfullyqualifiedforit

VI.Jefferson’s“ExplanationofIndependence(cont.)

• TheDeclarationofIndependence:– FormallyapprovedbyCongressonJuly4,1776– Haduniversalappealbyinvoking“naturalrights”ofhumankind—notjustBritishrights

– Arguedthatbecausekinghadfloutedtheserights,thecolonistswerejustifiedincuttingties

– SetforthlonglistofpresumablytyrannousmisdeedsofGeorgeIII

– Declarationhaduniversalimpact

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VII.PatriotsandLoyalists

• WarofIndependencewasawarwithinawar:– Loyalists—colonistsloyaltokingwhofoughtAmericanrebels• called“Tories”afterdominantpoliticalfactionsinBritain

– Patriots—rebelswhoalsofoughtBritishredcoats• called“Whigs”afteroppositionfactionsinBritain

VII.PatriotsandLoyalists(cont.)

• AmericanRevolutionwasaminoritymovement:–Manycolonistseitherapatheticorneutral– Patriotmilitiasplayedcriticalrole:• tookontaskof“politicaleducation,”sometimesbycoercion• servedasagentsofRevolutionaryideas


• Loyalists:– About16percentofAmericanpeople– Familieswereoftensplit–Manywerepeopleofeducationandwealth–Morenumerousamongoldergeneration– Includedking’sofficersandbeneficiaries– IncludedAnglicanclergyandcongregations• Virginiawasnotableexception


• Loyalistsentrenchedin:– aristocraticNewYorkCityandCharlestown– QuakerPennsylvaniaandNewJersey– werelessnumerousinNewEngland

• RebelsmostnumerouswherePresbyterianismandCongregationalismflourished

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VIII.TheLoyalistExodus

• BeforeDeclarationin1776,persecutionofLoyalistswasrelativelymild:– Somefacedbrutality(tarringandfeathering;ridingastridefencerails)

– HarshertreatmentbeganafterDeclaration• wereregardedastraitors• wereroughlyhandled;someimprisoned;afewnoncombatantshung

– Nowholesalereignofterror

VIII.TheLoyalistsExodus(cont.)

• 80thousandLoyalistsweredrivenoutorfled• Severalhundredthousandwerepermittedtostay

• Estatesoffugitiveswereconfiscatedandsold• Some50,000LoyalistsfoughtforBritish:– HelpedKing’scausebyservingasspies– byincitingIndians

• BritishdidnotmakeeffectiveuseofLoyalists

IX.GeneralWashingtonatBay

• Washington:– Couldonlymuster18,000ill-trainedtroopstomeetBritishinvadersatNewYork,March1776

– DisasterbefellAmericansatBattleofLongIsland,summerandfallof1776

–WashingtonescapedtoManhattanIsland,finallyreachingDelawareRiver

– Patriotcausewasatlowebbasrebelsfledacrossriver

IX.GeneralWashingtonatBay(cont.)

– GeneralWilliamHowedidnotspeedilycrushdemoralizedAmericanforces

–WashingtonstealthilyrecrossedDelawareRiveratTrentononDecember26,1776

– Surprisedandcaptured1,000Hessians– AweeklaterhedefeatedsmallBritishforceatPrinceton

– Thesetwolifesavingvictoriesrevealed“OldFox”Washingtonathismilitarybest

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X.Burgoyne’sBlunderingInvasion

• LondonofficialsadoptedintricateschemetocaptureHudsonRivervalleyin1777:– Ifsuccessful,wouldseverNewEnglandfromrestofthestatesandparalyzeAmericancause:• GeneralJohnBurgoynewouldpushdownLakeChamplainroutefromCanada• GeneralHowe’stroopswouldadvanceupHudsonandmeetBurgoynenearAlbany• Athirdforce,underColonelBarrySt.Leger,wouldcomefromwestviaLakeOntarioandMohawkvalley

Map 8.1 p138

X.Burgoyne’sBlunderingInvasion(cont.)

• BritishdidnotreckonwithGeneralArnold:– camealongSt.LawrencetoLakeChamplainareawhereheassembledasmallfleet

– hisfleetwasdestroyed,buttimehadbeenwon

• WithoutArnold,BritishwouldhaverecapturedFortTiconderoga:– ifBurgoynecouldhavestartedthere(insteadofMontreal)hewouldhavebeensuccessful

X.Burgoyne’BlunderingInvasion(cont.)

• WashingtontransferredarmytovicinityofPhiladelphia:– TherehewasdefeatedintwobattlesatBrandywineCreekandatGermantown• GeneralHowesettleddowninPhiladelphiaandleftBurgoynetoflounderinupperNewYork• WashingtonretiredtoValleyForge

• Trapped,BurgoynesurrenderedatSaratogatoGen.HoratioGatesonOctober17,1777

X.Burgoyne’sBlunderingInvasion(cont.)

• SaratogarankshighamongdecisivebattlesofbothAmericaandworldhistory:– Victoryrevivedfalteringcolonialcause– Evenmoreimportant,madepossibleurgentlyneededforeignaidfromFrance,whichinturnhelpedensureAmericanindependence

XI.RevolutioninDiplomacy?

• France’sroleintheRevolution:– Francehopedtoregainformerprestige:• lossinSevenYears’Warrankleddeeply

– America’srevolutionariesbadlyneededhelptothrowoffBritish:• neededtosealanalliancewithFranceagainstcommonfoe

XI.RevolutioninDiplomacy? (cont.)

• Americanrebelsalsoharboredrevolutionaryideasaboutinternationalaffairs:– wantedendtocolonialismandmercantilism– supportedfreetradeandfreedomofseas– wantedruleoflaw,notrawpower,toarbitrateaffairsofnations


• Summerof1776,ContinentalCongressdraftedaModelTreaty:– GuidecommissionersdispatchedtoFrance– JohnAdams,oneofchiefauthors,describedbasicprinciples:• “1.Nopoliticalconnection...2.Nomilitaryconnection...3.Onlyacommercialconnection.”• Thesewereremarkableself-denyingrestrictions• InfusedidealismintoAmericanforeignpolicy


• BenjaminFranklinnegotiatedtreatyinParis:– Hewasdeterminedthathisappearanceshouldheralddiplomaticrevolution

– Heshockedroyalcourt– OrdinaryParisiansadoredhimasaspecimenofnewdemocraticsocialorder

• TheBritishnowofferedameasureallowingAmericanhomerulewithintheempire

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Thiswasessentiallywhatcolonistshadaskedfor—exceptindependence:• OnFebruary6,1778,Franceofferedatreatyofalliance• Youngrepublicconcludeditsfirstentanglingmilitaryallianceandwouldsoonregretit• TreatywithFranceconstitutedofficialrecognitionofAmerica’sindependence• BothboundthemselvestosecureAmerica’sfreedom

XII.TheColonialWarBecomesaWiderWar

• EnglandandFrancecametoblowsin1778• ShotfiredatLexingtonwidenedintoglobalconflagration:– Spainenteredin1779asdidHolland– weakmaritimeneutralsofEuropebegantodemandtheirrights(seeTable8.1)• Russia’sCatherinetheGreatorganizedArmedNeutrality—linedupremainingEuropeanneutralsinanattitudeofpassivehostilitytowardBritain

Table 8.1 p150

XII.TheColonialWarBecomesaWiderWar(cont.)

• FightinginEuropeandNorthAmericaaswellasSouthAmerica,Caribbean,andAsia:– Americansdeservecreditforkeepingwargoinguntil1778withsecretFrenchaid

– theirindependencenotachieveduntilconflictbecameamultipowerworldwartoomuchforBritaintohandle

– from1778to1783,Franceprovidedrebelswithguns,money,equipment,andarmedforces

XII.TheColonialWarBecomesaWiderWar(cont.)

– France’sentrance:• ForcedBritishtochangebasicstrategy• Theyhadcountedonblockadingcolonialcoastandcommandingseas• FrenchnowhadpowerfulfleetinAmericanwaters• BritishdecidedtoevacuatePhiladelphiaandconcentratestrengthinNewYorkCity• InJune1778,redcoatswereattackedbyWashington• BattlewasindecisiveandWashingtonremainedinNewYorkarea

XIII.BlowandCounterblow

• 1780:Frencharmyof6000regulartroops,undercommanderComtedeRochambeauarrivedinNewport– Frenchgoldandgoodwillhelpmeltsuspicions– NorealmilitaryadvantageyetfromFrenchreinforcements

– 1780GeneralBenedictArnoldturnedtraitor– Britishplannedtorollupcolonies,startinginLoyalistSouth(SeeMap8.2).

Map 8.2 p151

XIII.BlowandCounterblow(cont.)

– Georgiaoverrunin1778-1779– Charlestonfellin1780–WarfareintensifiedinCarolinas– 1781:AmericanriflemenwipedoutBritishatKing’sMountain,thendefeatedasmallerforceatCowpens

– InCarolinacampaign,GeneralNathanielGreenedistinguishedhimselfbystrategyofdelay

XIII.BlowandCounterblow(cont.)

– Bystandingandthenretreating,heexhaustedhisfoe,GeneralCornwallis,invainpursuit

– GreenesucceededinclearingmostofGeorgiaandSouthCarolinaofBritishtroops

XIV.TheLandFrontierandtheSeaFrontier

• Westwasablazeduringwar:– IndianalliesofEnglandattackedcolonists– 1777wasknownas“bloodyyear”onfrontier:• TwonationsofIroquoisConfederacy,OneidasandTuscarora,sidedwithAmericans• Senecas,Mohawks,Cayugas,andOnondagasjoinedBritish– EncouragedbychiefJosephBrant,whobelievedvictoriousBritainwouldrestrainwhiteexpansionwest

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XIV.TheLandFrontierandtheSeaFrontier(cont.)

• In1784,pro-BritishIroquoisforcedtosignTreatyofFortStanwix:– FirsttreatybetweenUnitedStatesandanIndiannation

– Underitsterms,Indianscededmostoftheirland


• InIllinois,Britishwerevulnerabletoattack:• TheyheldonlyscatteredpostscapturedfromFrench• GeorgeRogersClarkconceivedideaofseizingthesefortsbysurprise• 1778-1779,hequicklycapturedKaskaskia,Cahokia,andVincennes(seeMap8.3)• Clark’sadmirershavearguedhissuccesslaterforcedBritishtocederegionnorthofOhioRivertoUnitedStatesatpeacetableinParis

Map 8.3 p152


• America’sinfantnavyunderScotsmanJohnPaulJones:

• TinyforcenevermadedentinBritain’smassivefleet• ChiefcontributionwasdestroyingBritishmerchantshipping• CarriedwarintowatersaroundBritishIsles


• Privateers:– Privatelyownedarmedships—legalizedpirates– AuthorizedbyCongresstoattackenemyships– 1,000Americanprivateersrespondedtocallofpatriotismandprofit,withabout70,000men

– Capturedsome600Britishprizes,whileBritishcapturedsamenumberofmerchantmenandprivateers


• Privateeringwasnotanunalloyedasset:• Divertedmanpowerfrommainwar• InvolvedAmericansinspeculationandgraft

• Privateeringwasalsogood:• Broughtinurgentlyneededgold• Harassedenemy• RaisedAmericanmorale• RuinedBritishshipping

– Shippersandmanufacturerswantedtoendwar

XV.YorktownandtheFinalCurtain

• Oneofdarkestperiodsofwarwas1780-1781,beforelastdecisivevictory:– Governmentwasvirtuallybankrupt• declareditwouldrepaydebtatonly2.5centsperdollar

– Despairprevailed:• senseofunitywithered• mutinoussentimentsinfectedarmy

XV.YorktownandtheFinalCurtain(cont.)

• Cornwallisblunderedintoatrap:– AfterfutileoperationsinVirginia,hefellbacktoChesapeakeBayatYorktown:• Awaitedseabornesuppliesandreinforcements• AssumedBritainstillcontrolledseas• DuringthisperiodBritishnavalsuperiorityslippedaway


• Frenchactions:– AdmiraldeGrasseinformedAmericanshecouldjointhemagainstCornwallisatYorktown

–Washingtonmakesaswiftmarchof300milesfromNewYorktoChesapeake

– AccompaniedbyRochambeau’sFrencharmy,WashingtonbesetsBritishatland

–WhiledeGrasseblockadedsea

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• Cornered,Cornwallissurrenderedentireforceof7000menonOctober19,1781

• GeorgeIIIplannedtocontinuestruggle:– FightingcontinuedforayearafterYorktown,withsavagePatriot-LoyalistwarfareinSouth

–Washington’smostvaluablecontributionsweretokeepcausealive,armyinthefield,andstatestogether

XVI.PeaceatParis

• Aftermathofwar:–ManyBritonswearyofwar– SufferedlosesinIndiaandWestIndies– IslandofMinorcainMediterraneanfell– LordNorth’sministrycollapsedinMarch1782temporarilyendingGeorgeIII’spersonalrule

–Whigministry,favorabletoAmericans,replacedToryregimeofLordNorth

XVI.PeaceatParis(cont.)

• AmericannegotiatorsBenjaminFranklin,JohnAdams,andJohnJaygatheredatParis:

• InstructedtomakenoseparatepeaceandtoconsultwithFrenchalliesatallstages• Americanrepresentativeschafedunderdirective• KnewithadbeenwrittenbysubservientCongressunderpressurefromFrenchForeignOffice


• Franceindifficultposition:• HadinducedSpaintoenterwar• Spaincovetedimmensetrans-Alleghenyarea• FrancedesiredindependentUnitedStates,butwantedtokeepNewRepubliceastofAlleghenyMountains• AweakAmericawouldbeeasiertomanageinpromotingFrenchinterestsandpolicy• FrancewaspayingheavypricetowinAmerica’sindependenceandwantedhermoney’sworth


JohnJaywasunwillingtoplayFrenchgame:• SecretlymadeoverturestoLondon• LondoncametotermswithAmericans• Preliminarytreatysignedin1782

FormalTreatyofParissignedin1783:• BritainrecognizedindependenceofUnitedStates• Grantedgenerousboundaries:toMississippi(west),toGreatLakes(north),andtoSpanishFlorida(south)• YankeesretainedaccesstofisheriesofNewfoundland


– Americanconcessions:• Loyalistsnottobefurtherpersecuted• Congresswastorecommendtostatesthat:

– confiscatedLoyalistpropertyberestored– debtsowedtoBritishcreditorsbepaid

– Britishconcessions:• AcceptdefeatinNorthAmerica• EndingwarallowedEnglandtorebuild

XVII.ANewNationLegitimized

• Britishtermswereliberal:– Grantedenormoustrans-Appalachianarea– Inspirit,Americansmadeaseparatepeace—contrarytoFrenchalliance

– Francerelievedwithendofcostlyconflict– Americaalonegainedfromworld-girdlingwar:• Begannationalcareerwithsplendidterritorialbirthrightandpricelessheritage

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