Industrialization

Chapter 17 The Expansion of Europe

Changes1650-1800

Exploration and colonies have created a new economy- but in the 1700s the vast majority of Europeans were still farmers- and their daily work had changed very little since the middle ages

18c will bring remarkable technology and change to dramatically reform European life.

Working the Land

80% of Europeans were farmers (some countries lower, some higher %- Netherlands/England only places where they were not clear majority)

Agricultural yields really no better than they had been in ancient world- and every 8-10 years they crops would fail altogether. Cycle of hunger often left populations weak- susceptible to disease. Population of Euro has been fairly steady (with ups and downs) for 100s of years

Open Field System

Land around village (owned by nobles) divided into long narrow strips w/no fences etc… rotated on a 3 year cycle (wheat, beans, fallow)

Commons: open fields of hay/pasture land used by all.

After harvest livestock pastured in the fields- gleaners allowed to pick up what was left behind

Not an overly efficient system- but traditional and workable. People didn’t see a big reason to change it- but changing it will allow growth

Stressed value of community – people worked together, and those without land could “glean”, or gather wood/ food from woodlands

Regional DifferencesEastern Europe further behind than

Western- still using forced labor (Russia so far behind they only ADDED serfs in 1649)

All over Europe nobles own vast majority of landNobility/Serfdom provided short term profits for landlords- but stifled econ development

New Methods of Agriculture

There was a break from past ways of farming during the 18c. Didn’t happen all at once.

Began as bread prices began to rise from inflation of 1600s- created greater profit for farmers- gave them

motivation to achieve better crops.Characterized by

experimentation, new crops, and technology

Crops from new world create a revolution in the European diet.

Most important were potatoes and corn (they had been feeding them to animals, but not so much to people) as staple crops, but also began to grow tomatoes, beans, peppers etc…

Potatoes key crop for poor- 1 acre can produce enough food for a family of 4.

Columbian Exchange

Landlords consolidated (and fenced/grew hedges) their fields for greater production. Common/strip fields replaced by large blocks.

Peasants unhappy- fought enclosure (sometimes won) Peasants became tenant farmers, or were driven off the land altogether.

Adopted 1st in Low Countries and England

Enclosure

Low Countries

Netherlands, Belgium, LuxembourgTiny area- and really tough to farm (much

below sea level- esp. in Holland) they had to WORK to make it happen-so began to farm scientifically (helps that Netherlands big in Sci Rev)

Began Enclosure movement- pioneered drainage techniques to expand farmland

1st country to show you could get more food in less space by farming with a plan

England

Adapted Dutch ideas Jethro Tull- created iron plows to turn soil more deeply and seed drill to plant (rather than cast) wheat.

New fertilizers, crop rotation eliminated fallow period, began scientific breeding of livestock for size (they then made more manure)

Charles Townsend (Turnip Townsend) : ambassador to Netherlands- notice crop rotation- Dutch used turnips/clover to replenish field rather than fallow period.

Robert Blakewell- scientific breeding of livestock for a variety of products- meat, wool, leather etc….

Over 300 Laws passed between 1760-1815 dealing with enclosure etc…

to benefit landowners. (capitalism rules)High tariffs on foreign grain- keep food prices high.

Controversial (at the time and now) because it hurt the poor to help the rich

Peasants moved to towns and cities looking for labor (leads them right into being the workforce of the IR.)

Women could no longer raise animals on common land and live off product (milk, cheese) began to work in cottage industries (spinning, weaving) instead

Corn Laws

Demography: Study of population growth and movement- esp. as relates to

environment and natural resources. 18c Euro will undergo significant agricultural

change- their first in a long time

The Beginning of the Population

Explosion

Long Standing ObstaclesBefore 1700 there

was a predictable cycle- population would grow for several generations, then there would be crop failure or an outbreak of disease (or both) which would create a drop, and you would start all over

Some changes bigger than others- took until 1550 for population to reach what it had been in before Black Death hit in 1347,

Population estimates before 1800 are generally unreliable- but one can safely estimate that the population of Euro grew from 100/120 million in 1700 to 180/190 million in 1800. Breaks the old cycle. Why?

More about the decline of death rates than the rise of birthrates at this point- people marrying later, having smaller families, but more survives

Advances in medicine not significant yet- except for Smallpox inoculation introduced in Eng by William Jenner

New Patterns: Population Growth

Planned water supplies/sewer systems significantly improved health (reduce dysentery, typhoid, typhus)

Enclosure and urbanization often led to draining of swampland for expansion- limited disease carrying mosquitos etc…

Population of Europe doubled

Disease: Black death as reappeared sporadically (never as bad, but always an issue). Last outbreak 1720 in Marseilles- but strict quarantine measures keep it from spreading- those become standard practice.

Also, the Brown rat (from Asia, and NOT a carrier of plague) overruns the Black rat

Disease Sanitation

Misc

Pop. Of Euro is better nourished than ever before. Milder climate period creates better crop yield

Also, there is better transportation (yeah for absolutist states and building projects) of farm goods (roads, canals etc…) so people in cities eating better as well

And while there are lots of wars – they tend to be more contained- and better organized, so they don’t disrupt civilian life as much (don’t worry, we’ll get back to disrupting later)

Rural industry became a major segment in econ of 18th century. Rural people wanted

$$, capitalists eager to circumvent guilds in towns,

most manufacturing still done by hand w/ common tools. Pop. is growing, and people are getting pushed of land

(enclosure) contributed to the development of cottage

industry in Eng.

Growth of Rural Industry

Putting Out System- merchant “put out” raw materials to workers, who processed it in their homes and returned a finished product. Textiles, housewares, buttons, gloves, instruments

Rural workers (esp. women) use this to supplement income

Early improvements John Kay: flying shuttle 1733 James Hargreaves: spinning Jenny 1764Richard Arkwright: Water frame 1769

Putting Out System

One room cottage where you work, cook, and sleep. Largest piece of furniture often the loom, spinning wheel, shuttle etc (depends on your stage)

Whole family would work on products- “spinsters” unmarried girls of family- needed 4-5 spinners to create enough thread to keep 1 weaver (Dad) busy. Women paid less than men for same job b/c they weren’t supposed to be primary breadwinners- which could be hard on widows or single women.

Investors however felt they HAD to keep wages low for there to be an “incentive” to work. (agricultural calendar often disrupted production - harvest etc)

The Lives of Rural Textile Workers

Your book calls it this to distinguish from what happens in 1800s (also sometimes called “Second Industrial Revolution” - big Factories) the 1700s also sometimes gets called “proto industrialization”.

Really about the idea that work is changing- heading for wage work (rather than farming) as primary way people make a living. Whole family still working (as they did on farms)

Interesting elements- even though wages were low, people bought more, b/c they don’t have time to make for themselves. Women make less $$, but the fact that they ARE being paid gives them more econ influence in family.

The “Industrious” Revolution

Still Controlled production in

towns/cities – which is why investors did

cottage industry, it was unregulated. Said guilds

stood in the way of progress. Guilds said they protected their

members

The Debate Over Urban Guilds

Forerunners of today’s unions. Started in middle ages, but reached peak during 1600/1700s.

Guilds controlled right to produce “licensed” product- oversaw training and standards. Also provided social services to members.

BUT- it was hard to join (enforced scarcity) had to be related/recommended to get in. Did not protect all professions (servants) most did not allow women

Urban Guilds

Advocated Free Trade. Said guilds, and state monopolies (common in absolutist era) hurt econ overall.

Said gov’t should do 3 things: 1. defend against foreign invasion 2. maintain civil order (police/laws) Sponsor public works (won’t make profit)

Economic Liberalism: the pursuit of self interest in a competitive free market will produce the best (richest) society.

Liked efficiency – including division of labor. Did not like exploitation of poor (often associated with “pure” capitalism) but feared it was inevitable

Will replace Mercantilism….eventually

Adam Smith and Economic Liberalism

The Atlantic World

Global Trade

Atlantic trade routes became even more important as need for markets and raw materials expands (trade still dominates 18c- industry will take over in 19c)

Decline in supply of gold/silver meant gov’ts often short of $$. Est. public and private banks- began wider circulation of paper $$. Bank of England (banknotes) est 1694

Bullionism: Countries sought to create and protect reserves of gold/silver- try to avoid paying with those- use paper currency (which they control) instead

Majority of trade is still done in Europe (wheat, timber, wine, wool) but those with overseas empires had an edge.

At the beginning of 1700s Spain was already far behind, England and France are starting a battle for dominance that will shape foreign and economic policy for a century. Dutch begin to lose steam.

A country’s goal- through their colonies- was to be self sufficient, you wanted a “favorable balance of trade” (more going out than coming in)

Sugar, tobacco, cotton, indigo major products. Only England sending large #s of people to LIVE in their

colonies at this point

Mercantilism and Colonial Competition

Created by England to increase colonial mercantile control. Original goal was to steal Dutch carrying trade- came to say that colonies could ONLY trade w/Eng and transport on Eng ships

It’s Econ Warfare – and it worked pretty darn well. At the beginning of the 17c the Netherlands was

the leading merchant maritime power. Age of Louis XIV challenging for them- get sucked into frequent wars

Anglo Dutch Wars: 1652-1674 fought 3 wars with England which damaged their colonial power (ex. lost New Amsterdam in 1664)

As Eng and Fr take over more trade- they go into finance. 1st country to perfect paper $$ (though not 1st to issue) 1st “stockmarket” in Euro in Amsterdam

Navigation Acts

England fought for colonial dominance. Peace of Utrecht 1713 (end of wars of xiv)

Gave part of Canada to England, and Spain lost the Asiento (slave trade) to England.

Seven Years war ( Treaty of Paris 1763) have Britain ALL of Canada as well as control of trade in India

By 1815 the English Navy is unrivaled around the world. In fact, the only places they seem to lose wars are with US (1781 and 1812) and that is primarily b/c we are less important than we think we are

Wars

The Atlantic Economy

Age of Exploration had connected East and West hemispheres. Colonial products (some which originated in new world- like tobacco, some which came from old, but were grown in new- like sugar) came to be major features in world econ.

Sugar- 1st really important agricultural “industry” (has to be processed) slave labor, plantation system

Spain

Though never again the powerhouse they had been in the 1500s, they did have a surge in the 1700s. (Primarily b/c they sided with England during wars) Got Louisiana after 7 years war

Not big into slavery - but “serfdom” still common- now called Debt Peonage: (sharecropping) Landowner would “loan” $$, food, tools while crops grew, then take part of crop as payment…. But debts never quite paid off, so workers were still in bondage.

Atlantic Circuit

Clockwise pattern of sea routes- “triangle trade”.

Europe->Africa: guns, cotton cloth, manufactured goods. Buy gold, ivory and SLAVES. Africa-> New World (Caribbean): Slaves. Pick up raw materials, esp. sugar and tobacco. New World -> Euro: raw materials taken to Euro and processed to start over again

Main areas involved: West Indies, Eng/Fr, West Coast of Africa.

New world provided raw materials like fish, timber, fur, and rice

Caribbean provided sugar, molasses, rum

VERY profitable- didn’t always follow Navigation Acts

Slavery wasn’t new to Africa, or to Europe (though it had never been a major feature there) Muslims loved African slaves (exotic)

But the wide scale transport WAS new. Europeans didn’t usually capture slaves, had other Africans do it for them

Portuguese traded- but British transported- about ½ of all slaves came on Eng ships. 20-30% died en route (more before 1700- scientific studies commissioned to discover proper techniques, ratios etc….

Trade heaviest from 1650-1750, dwindled after 1780, outlawed in 1820. Approx. 10-15 million Africans brought to new world- vast majority to Caribbean

The Slave Trade

Identities and Communities of the Atlantic World

We’ve already blended ecosystems (Columbian exchange) in many parts of new world we blend ethnicity as well.

Creoles: Europeans born in colonies. Copied Europeans culture, and often got annoyed when people IN Europe looked down on them. Mestizo and Mulatto (mixed race) common too. Spanish tended to free children by slaves – sizable free mixed race population (some became rich and owned slaves themselves) British not so much.

Conversion of native population to Catholicism was VERY successful in Iberian colonies.

Colonies will actually be the place where enlightenment ideals are put to the test. But we are not radicals. Favor approaches that emphasize self improvement, ethical conduct, and of course natural rights/social contract

Ben Franklin and Thomas Jefferson can both be qualified as Enlightenment thinkers

Colonial Enlightenment

Portuguese had been 1st to est trade in Asia (1500-1600) then came the Dutch

1602 Dutch East India Co founded, took control of spice trade and kicked Port. Out of Indian ocean trade.

But again, British were determined to take control in 1700s- eventually establishing exclusive rights to trade in India with the Mughal dynasty (which they had to fight French to get)Britain will lose part of North America in 1700s (they keep Canada) but gain something more valuable- India.

Also claim Australia in 1770 (est a penal colony)

Trade and Empire in Asia and the Pacific