CHAPTER 1876–1900 An Industrial Nation

An IndustrialAn IndustrialNationNation

1879Thomas Edisoninvents the first

lightbulb.

1876German engineerNikolaus A. Otto perfects agasoline-powered engine.

CHAPTER18 1876–1900

570 CHAPTER 18

1870

FOCUS ON WRITING

A Memo You are a writer at a television network, and you have an idea for a TV drama series set in the late 1800s. Draft a memo to your boss telling her about your story idea. As you read this chapter, gather information about the people, places, and events of this time period. Then write your memo. Tell about the basic plot, the cast of characters, and the setting of your series.

California StandardsHistory–Social Science8.12 Students analyze the transformation of the Americaneconomy and the changing social and political conditions inthe United States in response to the Industrial Revolution.

Analysis SkillsHI 6 Students interpret basic indications of economicperformance.

English–Language Arts

Writing 8.2.0 Write documents related to career development.

Reading 8.2.0 Students read and understand grade-levelappropriate materials.

1883 The island volcano ofKrakatau in the Pacific Oceanerupts in one of the world’sgreatest natural disasters.

1889The Eiffel Toweris built in Paris.

571

1890Congress passes the Sherman Antitrust Act.1886

The AmericanFederation ofLabor is formedon December 8.

1892On June 29 the Homestead strike begins. CarnegieSteel Company refuses to negotiate with the union.

HOLT

History’s Impactvideo seriesWatch the video to under-stand the impact of the UnitedStates as the world’s mostpowerful industrial nation.

▲

1898 Frenchscientists Pierreand Marie Curiediscover radium.

19001880 1890

In this chapter you will learn about how the United States became an industrial power in the late 1800s. A new wave of immigrants provided the labor, and the combination of industry and immigration led to increased urbanization of the country. Cities like San Francisco, shown here, began to take the shape that they still have today. In fact, much of what we know as modern America developed during this important period.

What You Will Learn…

572 CHAPTER 00572 CHAPTER 18

Religion

Reading Social Studies by Kylene Beers

Focus on Reading How are clothes organized in a departmentstore? How are fi les arranged in a fi le cabinet? Clear organizationhelps us fi nd the product we need, and it also helps us fi nd facts andinformation.

Understanding Structural Patterns Writers use structural patternsto organize information in sentences or paragraphs. What’s a structuralpattern? It’s simply a way of organizing information. Learning to recog-nize those patterns will make it easier for you to read and understandsocial studies texts.

Focus on Themes In this chapter, you will read

about the advancements in transportation and com-

munication made during what is called the Second

Industrial Revolution. You will learn about the rise

of powerful corporations. You will also read about

the immigrants who arrived in the late 1800s and

will see what happened to the cities as these immi-

grants moved in record numbers into urban areas.

Throughout the chapter, you will see how society

was affected by the changing economy.

Geography PoliticsEconomics Society

and Culture

Science andTechnology

Additional readingsupport can be

found in the

Organization of Facts and Information

To use text structure to improveyour understanding, followthese steps:

1. Look for the main idea of thepassage you are reading.

2. Then look for clues that signala specifi c pattern.

3. Look for other importantideas and think about howthe ideas connect. Is thereany obvious pattern?

4. Use a graphic organizer tomap the relationships amongthe facts and details.

Patterns of Organization

Pattern Clue Words Graphic Organizer

Cause-effectshows how onething leads toanother

as a result,therefore,because,therefore,this led to

ChronologicalOrder showsthe sequence ofevents or actions.

after, before,fi rst, then, notlong after,fi nally

Comparison-contrast pointsour similaritiesand/or differences.

although, but,however, onthe other hand,similarly, also

Listing presentsinformation incategories such assize, location orimportance.

also, mostimportant,for example,in fact

Category• Fact• Fact• Fact

EffectEffect

Effect

LastFirst Next

Differences

Similarities

Cause

SECTION TITLE 573AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 573

Key TermsKey Termsand Peopleand People

You Try It!The following passages are from the chapter you are about to read.As you read each set of sentences, ask yourself what structural patternthe writer used to organize the information.

Recognizing Structural Patterns(A) “Great advances in communications technologies

took place in the late 1800s. By 1861, telegraph wiresconnected the East and West coasts. Five years later, atelegraph cable on the fl oor of the Atlantic Ocean con-nected the United States and Great Britain.” (p. 577)

(B) “Many business leaders justifi ed their business meth-ods through their belief in social Darwinism . . . Otherbusiness leaders, however, believed that the rich hada duty to aid the poor.” (p. 581)

(C) “During the late 1800s, several factors led to a declinein the quality of working conditions. Machines run byunskilled workers were eliminating the jobs of manyskilled craftspeople. These low-paid workers could bereplaced easily.” (p. 584)

After you read the passages, answer the questions below:

1. Reread passage A. What structural pattern did the writer use toorganize this information? How can you tell?

2. Reread passage B. What structural pattern did the writer use toorganize this information? How can you tell? Why do you thinkthe writer chose this pattern?

3. Reread passage C. What structural pattern did the writer use toorganize this information? How can you tell? Why do you thinkthe writer chose this pattern?

Chapter 18Section 1Second Industrial Revolution (p. 575)Bessemer process (p. 575)Thomas Alva Edison (p. 576)patents (p. 576)Alexander Graham Bell (p. 577)Henry Ford (p. 577)Wilbur and Orville Wright (p. 578)

Section 2corporations (p. 579)Andrew Carnegie (p. 580)vertical integration (p. 580)John D. Rockefeller (p. 580)horizontal integration (p. 581)trust (p. 581)Leland Stanford (p. 581)social Darwinism (p. 581)monopoly (p. 582)Sherman Antitrust Act (p. 582)

Section 3Frederick W. Taylor (p. 584)Knights of Labor (p. 585)Terence W. Powderly (p. 585)Samuel Gompers (p. 585)American Federation of Labor (p. 585)collective bargaining (p. 586)Mary Harris Jones (p. 586)Haymarket Riot (p. 586)Homestead Strike (p. 587)Pullman Strike (p. 587)

Section 4old immigrants (p. 588)new immigrants (p. 588)steerage (p. 589)benevolent societies (p. 591)Chinese Exclusion Act (p. 593)Immigration Restriction League (p. 593)

Section 5mass transit (p. 595)suburbs (p. 595)mass culture (p. 595)department stores (p. 596)settlement houses (p. 597)Hull House (p. 597)Jane Addams (p. 597)

Academic VocabularyIn this chapter, you will learn thefollowing academic words:implement (p. 577); acquire (p. 580)policy (p. 593)

As you read Chapter 18, think about theorganization of the ideas. Ask yourselfwhy the writer chose to organize theinformation in this way.

ELA Reading 8.2.0 Describe and connect essential ideas,arguments, and perspectives of text using knowledge oftext structure, organization, and purpose.

SECTION1

Key Terms and PeopleSecond Industrial Revolution,

p. 575Bessemer process, p. 575Thomas Edison, p. 576patents, p. 576Alexander Graham Bell, p. 577Henry Ford, p. 577Wilbur and Orville Wright, p. 578


The Second Industrial Revolutionled to new sources of powerand advances in transportationand communication.

The Big Idea

1. Breakthroughs in steelprocessing led to a boomin railroad construction.

2. Advances in the use of oil andelectricity improved commu-nications and transportation.

3. A rush of inventions changedthe lives of Americans.

Main Ideas

You live in a small town but are visiting an aunt in the city in the

1890s. You are amazed when your aunt pushes a button on the

wall to turn on electric lights. At home you still use kerosene lamps.

You hear a clatter outside and see an electric streetcar traveling

down the street. You are shocked when a telephone rings, and

your aunt speaks to someone miles away!

Which of these inventions would you fi nd most amazing?

BUILDING BACKGROUND The first Industrial Revolution inAmerica began in the early 1800s. It changed the way products weremade, from handwork to machines. It moved the workplace fromcottages to factories. Later, it brought advances in transportationand communication. The Second Industrial Revolution built on thesechanges, introducing new technology and new sources of power.

If YOU were there...

The Second Industrial Revolution

574 CHAPTER 18

HSS 8.12.1 Trace patterns of agri-cultural and industrial development asthey relate to climate, use of naturalresources, markets, and trade andlocate such development on a map.

8.12.9 Name the signifi cant inventorsand their inventions and identify howthey improved the quality of life (e.g.,Thomas Edison, Alexander GrahamBell, Orville and Wilbur Wright).

Breakthroughs in SteelProcessingTechnological advances were important tothe Second Industrial RevolutionSecond Industrial Revolution,, a perioda periodof rapid growth in U.S. manufacturing inof rapid growth in U.S. manufacturing inthe late 1800s.the late 1800s. By the mid-1890s, the UnitedStates had become the world’s industrialleader.

The Steel IndustrySome of the most important advances intechnology happened in the steel industry.Steel is iron that has been made stronger byheat and the addition of other metals. InInthe mid-1850s Henry Bessemer invented thethe mid-1850s Henry Bessemer invented theBessemerBessemer process process ,, a way to manufacturea way to manufacturesteel quickly and cheaply by blasting hotsteel quickly and cheaply by blasting hotair through melted iron to quickly removeair through melted iron to quickly removeimpurities.impurities. Before, turning several tons of ironore into steel took a day or more. The Besse-mer process took only 10 to 20 minutes.

The Bessemer process helped increasesteel production. U.S. mills had produced77,000 tons of steel in 1870. By 1879 produc-tion had risen to more than 1 million tons inone year.

575

Riding the RailsAs steel dropped in price,so did the cost of buildingrailroads. Companies builtthousands of miles of newsteel track. The designof elegant passenger andsleeping cars improvedpassenger service. Manu-facturers and farmers sentproducts to market fasterthan ever by rail. Citieswhere major rail linescrossed, such as Chicago,grew rapidly. Railroads also increased west-ern growth by offering free tickets to settlers.Rail travel made the journey west faster andsafer. Finally, as rail travel and shippingincreased, railroads and related industriesbegan employing more people.

READING CHECK Identifying Cause andEffect How did steel processing change in the1850s, and how did this affect the United States?

Factors AffectingIndustrial Growth• Greater ability to use natural

resources• A growing population• Transportation advances• Rising immigration• Inventions and innovations• Increasing business

investment• Government policies assisting

business, such as protectivetariffs

Steel mills like this one in Homestead,Pennsylvania, were the center of the newsteel industry that led to advancementsin rail travel. Workers used the Bessemerprocess to make steel more quickly.

How do you think mills like this oneaffected the surrounding area?

Homestead Steel Mill

Use of Oil and ElectricityThe Second Industrial Revolution was char-acterized by dramatic developments in theuse and distribution of oil and electricity.These power sources fueled other changes.

Oil as a Power SourceAn important technological breakthroughin the late 1800s was the use of petroleum,or oil, as a power source. People had knownabout oil for many years but had discoveredfew ways to use it. However, in the 1850s,chemists invented a way to convert crude, orunprocessed, oil into a fuel called kerosene.Kerosene could be used for cooking, heating,and lighting. Suddenly there was a demandfor oil.

As demand grew, people began search-ing for a reliable source for oil. In 1859Edwin L. Drake proved that it was possibleto pump crude oil from the ground. Soon,wildcatters, or oil prospectors, drilled for oilin Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia.Oil became a big business as these statesbegan producing millions of barrels peryear. Oil companies built refineries to turnthe crude oil into finished products likekerosene. One oil company supervisorreferred to oil workers as “men who aresupplying light for the world.”

Electricity SpreadsIn addition to kerosene, electricity becamea critical source of light and power duringthe Second Industrial Revolution. The pos-sible uses of electricity interested inventorslike Thomas Edison. His research center inMenlo Park, New Jersey, was called an inven-tion factory. Edison explained his practicalapproach to science.

“I do not regard myself as a pure scientist, as somany persons have insisted that I am. I do notsearch for the laws of nature . . . for the purposeof learning truth. I am only a professional inven-tor . . . with the object [goal] of inventing thatwhich will have commercial utility [use].”

—Thomas Edison, quoted in American Made,by Harold C. Livesay

Edison eventually held more than 1,000patentspatents , exclusive rights to make or sell, exclusive rights to make or sellinventions.inventions. Patents allowed inventors toprotect their inventions from being manu-factured by others.

In 1878 Edison announced that he wouldsoon invent a practical electric light. By theend of 1879 Edison and his team of inventorshad created the electric lightbulb. The pub-lic was excited. However, Edison had a prob-lem. At the time, few homes or businessescould get electricity. Edison therefore built apower plant that began supplying electricityto dozens of New York City buildings in

576 CHAPTER 18

The Spirit of Innovation

Time Line

1850

© Collection of the New York

Historical Society

1852 Elisha Otis invents the elevator safety brake, making elevators safe for people.

1854 Henry Bessemer patents a method for making cast steel.

FOCUS ON READINGHow does thisparagraph showthe cause andeffect structure?

1860

1869 John Roebling begins work on the Brooklyn Bridge.

September 1882. The New York Times reportedthat with electric lighting in the newspaperoffi ces, “it seemed almost like writing by day-light.” However, Edison’s equipment couldnot send electricity over long distances. As aresult, his power company, Edison Electric,provided electricity mainly to central cities.

In the late 1880s, George Westinghousebuilt a power system that could send elec-tricity across many miles. As Edison andWestinghouse competed, the use of elec-tricity spread rapidly in the nation’s cities.After a while, electricity soon lit homes andbusinesses and powered city factories. Elec-tricity also was used to power streetcars incities across the nation.

READING CHECK Drawing ConclusionsWhy did people begin to pump oil from the ground?

Rush of InventionsIn the late 1800s, inventors focused on fi nd-ing solutions to practical problems. Commu-nication and transportation took the lead.

Advances in CommunicationGreat advances in communication technolo-gies took place in the late 1800s. By 1861,telegraph wires connected the East and Westcoasts. Five years later, a telegraph cable on

the fl oor of the Atlantic Ocean connectedthe United States and Great Britain.

However, the telegraph carried only writ-ten messages and was diffi cult for untrainedpeople to use. These problems were solvedin March 1876, when inventor AlexanderGraham Bell patented the telephone. Bellwas a Scottish-born speech teacher whostudied the science of sound. He called thetelephone a “talking telegraph.”

Telephone companies raced to laythousands of miles of phone lines. By 1880there were about 55,000 telephones in theUnited States, and by 1900 there were almost1.5 million.

Automobiles and PlanesIn 1876 a German engineer invented anengine powered by gasoline, another fuelmade from oil. In 1893 Charles and J. FrankDuryea used a gasoline engine to build thefi rst practical motorcar in the United States.By the early 1900s, thousands of cars werebeing built in the United States.

At fi rst, only the wealthy could buy theseearly cars. Henry Ford introduced the ModelT in 1908. Ford was the fi rst to implementthe moving assembly line in manufactur-ing, a process that greatly reduced the cost ofbuilding a product, thus making cars moreaffordable.

AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 577

1876 Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone.

1879 Thomas Edison creates a durable electric lightbulb.

1893 Frank and Charles Duryea successfully test their first gasoline-powered automobile.

AT&T Corpora-tion is a directdescendant ofBell’s originalcompany. AT&Tpioneered theuse of telephonecables across theoceans, satellitecommunica-tions, and a radarsystem for theU.S. DefenseDepartment.

THE IMPACT

TODAY

1870 1880 1890

ACADEMIC VOCABULARYimplementto put in place

1872 Elijah McCoy receives the patent for his device that oiled machine engines.

1887 Harriet Strong receives a patent for her advances in dam and reservoir construction.

SUMMARY AND PREVIEW The SecondIndustrial Revolution led to advancesin energy sources, communication, andtransportation. In the next section you willlearn about the growth of big business.

Section 1 Assessment

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People 1. a. Describe What was the Bessemer

process?b. Summarize How did improvements torailroads affect the economy and transportationin the United States?c. Elaborate What do you think was the mostimportant effect of the Bessemer process? Why?

2. a. Identify What is kerosene, and for what couldit be used?b. Explain What problem did Thomas Edison faceregarding the use of electricity, and how did hesolve it?

3. a. Recall What contribution did Wilbur andOrville Wright make to transportation?b. Draw Conclusions How did Alexander GrahamBell’s invention improve life in the United States?c. Elaborate Why do you think there was a rush ofinventions in the late 1800s?

Critical Thinking 4. Analyzing Copy the chart below and use it to identify

important inventors of the Second Industrial Revolu-tion, their contributions, and why each was important.

FOCUS ON WRITING

5. Taking Notes about Inventors In your notebook,write a list of the inventors and their inventionsmentioned in this section. How might you includethem in your TV series?

KEYWORD: SS8 HP18

Online Quiz

New engine technology helped makeanother breakthrough in transportationpossible—air fl ight. Brothers Wilbur andOrville Wright built a lightweight airplane thatused a small, gas-powered engine. In KittyHawk, North Carolina, Orville Wright madethe fi rst piloted fl ight in a gas-powered planeon December 17, 1903. This invention wouldchange the way that many Americans traveledin the future and would increase the demandfor oil production.

READING CHECK Comparing What new inven-tions excited the public in the 1800s, and how werethey used?

578 CHAPTER 18

Person Work Importance

Time Line

The Spirit of Innovation 1903 Orville Wright makes the first flight in a motorized airplane.

1900

1893 George Ferris displays the first Ferris Wheel at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago.

READING TIME LINES

When was the telephone invented?

ANALYSIS

SKILL

HSS 8.12.1,8.12.9

Big BusinessIf YOU were there...It is 1895, and your town is home to a large corporation. The

company’s founder and owner, a wealthy man, lives in a mansion

on a hill. He is a fair employer but not especially generous. Many

townspeople work in his factory. You and other town leaders feel

that he should contribute more to local charities and community

organizations.

How could this business leader help the town more?

BUILDING BACKGROUND Advanced technology along with the useof oil and electric power helped American businesses grow. Soon theshape of the American economy changed. Some companies grew solarge that they began to dominate entire industries.

Dominance of Big BusinessIn the late 1800s many entrepreneurs formed their businesses ascorporationscorporations ,, or businesses that sell portions of ownership calledor businesses that sell portions of ownership calledstock shares.stock shares. The leaders of these corporations were some of the mostwidely respected members of American society in the late 1800s.Political leaders praised prosperous businesspeople as examples ofAmerican hard work, talent, and success.


SECTION2

Key Terms and Peoplecorporations, p. 579Andrew Carnegie, p. 580vertical integration, p. 580John D. Rockefeller, p. 580horizontal integration, p. 581trust, p. 581Leland Stanford, p. 581social Darwinism, p. 581monopoly, p. 582Sherman Antitrust Act, p. 582

The growth of big businessin the late 1800s led to thecreation of monopolies.

The Big Idea

1. The rise of corporations andpowerful business leaders ledto the dominance of big busi-ness in the United States.

2. People and the governmentbegan to question the meth-ods of big business.

Main Ideas

579

New sales techniques like those taught by John H.Patterson helped change business practices.

HSS 8.12.4 Discuss entrepre-neurs, industrialists, and bankersin politics, commerce, and industry(e.g., Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rock-efeller, Leland Stanford).

8.12.6 Discuss child labor, workingconditions, and laissez-faire policiestoward big business and examine thelabor movement, including its leaders(e.g., Samuel Gompers), its demand forcollective bargaining, and its strikesand protests over labor conditions.

Corporations Generate WealthSuccessful corporations reward not only thepeople who found them but also investorswho hold stock. Stockholders in a corpo-ration typically get a percentage of profi tsbased on the amount of stock they own.Although stockholders actually own the cor-poration, they do not run its day-to-day busi-ness. Instead, they elect a board of directorsthat chooses the corporation’s main leaders,such as the president.

Corporations provided several importantadvantages over earlier business forms. Stock-holders in a corporation are not responsiblefor business debts. If a corporation fails fi nan-cially, the stockholders lose only the moneythat they invested. Stockholders are alsousually free to sell their stock to whomeverthey want, whenever they want. As a result,corporations encouraged more investment inbusinesses. By 1900 more than 100 millionshares per year were being traded on the NewYork Stock Exchange.

Business LeadersCountless entrepreneurs and industrialistsbecame wealthy, powerful, and famous because

of the business boom. Andrew Carnegie wasone of the most admired businesspeople of thetime. Born in Scotland, Carnegie came to theUnited States as a poor immigrant. As a teen-ager he took a job with a railroad company andquickly worked his way up to the position ofrailroad superintendent.

In 1873, he focused his efforts on steel-making. Carnegie expanded his business bybuying out competitors when steel priceswere low. By 1901 Carnegie’s mills were pro-ducing more steel than all of Great Britain’smills combined. Carnegie’s businesses suc-ceeded largely through vertical integrationvertical integration ,,or ownership of businesses involved in eachor ownership of businesses involved in eachstep of a manufacturing processstep of a manufacturing process. For exam-ple, to lower production costs, Carnegieacquired the iron ore mines, coalfi elds, andrailroads needed to supply and support hissteel mills.

John D. Rockefeller was also successfulin consolidating, or combining, businesses.By age 21, while a partner in a wholesalebusiness, he decided to start an oil-refi ningcompany. In only 10 years his Standard OilCompany was the country’s largest oil refi n-er. Like Carnegie, Rockefeller used vertical

580 CHAPTER 18

ACADEMIC VOCABULARYacquire to get

Investors purchased stock in corporationsin record numbers in the late 1800s. Theyreceived stock certificates, like the one shownhere, to document their part ownership incorporations. Corporations used the moneyraised by selling stocks to expand. StandardOil Company financed the building of thisrefinery in Richmond, California, by sellingstock.

Why did investors buy stock?

The Rise of Investing

integration. For example, the company con-trolled most of the pipelines it used.

Rockefeller’s company also developedhorizontalhorizontal integrationintegration ,, or owning all busi-or owning all busi-nesses in a certain fi eld.nesses in a certain fi eld. By 1880 his compa-nies controlled about 90 percent of the oilrefi ning business in the United States. He alsoformed a trusttrust ,, a legal arrangement group-a legal arrangement group-ing together a number of companies undering together a number of companies undera single board of directors.a single board of directors. To earn moremoney, trusts often tried to get rid of compe-tition and to control production.

Leland Stanford, another important busi-ness leader of the late 1800s, made a fortuneselling equipment to miners. While gover-nor of California, he cofounded the CentralPacifi c railroad. He also founded StanfordUniversity.

Late in life, Stanford argued that indus-tries should be owned and managed coop-eratively by workers. He believed this wouldbe the fulfi llment of democracy.

READING CHECK Comparing and ContrastingWhy did Andrew Carnegie use vertical integration?

Questioning the Methodsof Big BusinessBy the late 1800s, people and the govern-ment were becoming uncomfortable with

child labor, low wages, and poor workingconditions. They began to view big businessas a problem.

Social DarwinismCritics of big business claimed that busi-ness leaders justifi ed unfair business prac-tices through socialsocial DarwinismDarwinism ,, a view ofa view ofsociety based on scientist Charles Darwin’ssociety based on scientist Charles Darwin’stheory of natural selection.theory of natural selection. Social Darwin-ists thought that Darwin’s “survival of thefi ttest” theory decided which human beingswould succeed in business and in life ingeneral. But in fact, almost all business lead-ers ignored social Darwinist philosophyand justifi ed prevailing business practicesas providing opportunity for individualself-improvement.

Other business leaders, however, believedthat the rich had a duty to aid the poor.These leaders tried to help the less fortu-nate through philanthropy, or the giving ofmoney to charities. Carnegie, Rockefeller,Stanford, and other business leaders gaveaway large sums. Carnegie alone gave awaymore than $350 million to charities, about$60 million of which went to fund publiclibraries to expand access to books. By thelate 1800s, various charities had receivedmillions of dollars from philanthropists.


POLITICAL CARTOON

AntitrustThe wealth and size of trusts such as Standard Oil made many Americans fear the influence of business leaders over government.

Primary Source

What does the position of the White House suggest?

What do you think the smokestacks on the Capitol building represent?

© Collection of the New York Historical Society

ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES

How does the cartoonist show Rockefeller’s power?

ANALYSIS

SKI LL


Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People 1. a. Identify What are horizontal and

vertical integration?b. Explain What are the benefi ts of investingin corporations?c. Evaluate What do you think about the businessmethods of Carnegie, Rockefeller, and Stanford?

2. a. Describe What is social Darwinism?b. Summarize What concerns did critics of bigbusiness have regarding trusts?c. Evaluate Was the Sherman Antitrust Actsuccessful? Why or why not?

Critical Thinking 3. Contrasting Copy the graphic organizer shown

at right. Use it to contrast the views of business

leaders who favored monopolies with those ofAmericans who opposed monopolies.

FOCUS ON WRITING

4. Describing Business Leaders Add the businessleaders described in this section to your notes.Think about what role they might play in yourdrama series.

KEYWORD: SS8 HP18

Online Quiz

The Antitrust MovementCritics of big business said that many busi-ness leaders earned their fortunes throughunfair business practices. These criticismsgrew stronger in the 1880s as corporationsbecame more powerful. Large corporationsoften used their size and strength to drivesmaller competitors out of business. Carn-egie and Rockefeller, for example, pressuredrailroads to charge their companies lowershipping rates. Powerful trusts also arrangedto sell goods and services below marketvalue. Smaller competitors went out ofbusiness trying to match those prices. Thenthe trusts raised prices again.

Some people became concerned when atrust gained a monopolymonopoly, or total ownership, or total ownershipof a product or service.of a product or service. Critics argued thatmonopolies reduced necessary competition.Competition, they believed, kept prices lowand the quality of goods and services high.

Some Americans also worried aboutthe political power of wealthy trusts. Laborleader John W. Hayes called trusts “the com-mon enemy of society.” Many citizens andsmall businesses wanted the government tohelp control monopolies and trusts. People

who favored trusts responded that trustswere more effi cient and gave the consumerdependable products or services.

Many members of Congress favored bigbusiness. However, elected offi cials could notignore the concerns of voters. In July 1890Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust ActSherman Antitrust Act ,,a law that made it illegal to create monopo-a law that made it illegal to create monopo-lies or trusts that restrained trade.lies or trusts that restrained trade. It statedthat any “attempt to monopolize . . . anypart of the trade or commerce among theseveral States” was a crime. However, the actdid not clearly defi ne a trust in legal terms.The antitrust laws were therefore diffi cult toenforce. Corporations and trusts kept grow-ing in size and power.

READING CHECK Analyzing How did concernsabout trusts lead to the Sherman Antitrust Act?

582 CHAPTER 18

Business Leaders’ Views of People Views Against Monopolies

vs.

SUMMARY AND PREVIEW In the late1800s some corporations became monop-olies that dominated industries suchas oil. In the next section you will learnabout how industrial workers organized toimprove working conditions.

HSS 8.12.4,8.12.6

B I O G R A P H Y

KEY EVENTS

How would you go about building an industry?Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919) Born in Scotland, Carnegie rose to become a multibillionaire in the steel industry. He brought new technologies to his steel mills and made them extremely effi cient. In 1901 he sold Carnegie Steel Company for $250 billion, making him the richest man in the world.

John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937) Rockefeller got his start in the oil business in Cleveland, Ohio. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company quickly bought out its competitors throughout the United States. To better control oil production and delivery, Rockefeller also bought railroad rights, terminals, and pipelines.

Leland Stanford (1825–1893) Leland Stanford was born to a New York farming family that sent him to excellent private schools. After practicing law in Wisconsin, he made his career in California. Stanford was instrumental in building the western section of the transcontinental railroad. He then plunged into politics, serving one term as governor. His political connections helped him obtain huge state land grants and other benefi ts for his railroad companies. As president of Central Pacifi c and Southern Pacifi c, he oversaw the laying of thousands of miles of track throughout the West.

Why are they so important? Carnegie, Rockefeller, and Stanford helped make America the world’s greatest industrial power by the end of the 1800s. They built giant industries that made goods cheaply by keeping workers’ wages low. They also engaged in ruthless business practices to defeat their competition and create monopolies. The Sherman Antitrust Act was passed in reaction to the Standard Oil monopoly. Later in life, all three men became philanthropists, people devoted to charity work. Rockefeller’s philanthropies gave out $500 million in his lifetime. Carnegie spent $350 million, funding educational grants, concert halls, and nearly 3,000 public libraries. Stanford founded Stanford University in 1884.

Finding Main Ideas Why are these three men important figures in U.S. History?

Rockefeller


CarnegieStanford

Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, and Leland Stanford

SECTION3

Key Terms and PeopleFrederick W. Taylor, p. 584Knights of Labor, p. 585Terence V. Powderly, p. 585Samuel Gompers, p. 585American Federation of

Labor, p. 585collective bargaining, p. 586Mary Harris Jones, p. 586Haymarket Riot, p. 586Homestead Strike, p. 587Pullman Strike, p. 587


Changes in the workplace ledto a rise in labor unions andworkers’ strikes.

The Big Idea

1. The desire to maximizeprofits and become moreefficient led to poorworking conditions.

2. Workers began to organizeand demand improvements inworking conditions and pay.

3. Labor strikes often turnedviolent and failed toaccomplish their goals.

Main Ideas

You run a button machine in a clothing factory in the 1890s. You

work from 7:00 in the morning until 6:00 at night, every day

except Sunday. Your only break is 15 minutes for lunch. Now you

hear about a movement to start a workers’ union to bargain with

your employer. Union members will ask for an eight-hour workday.

But you think your employer might fi re you if you join.

Would you join the union?

BUILDING BACKGROUND The rise of corporations and the estab-lishment of monopolies gave big business a great deal of power. Anantitrust movement arose to try to limit the power of trusts. Workersthemselves began to organize and take action against bad workingconditions and other problems.

Maximizing Profits and EfficiencyDuring the late 1800s, several factors led to a decline in the quality ofworking conditions. Machines run by unskilled workers were elimi-nating the jobs of many skilled craftspeople. These low-paid workerscould be replaced easily. Factories began to focus on specialization, orworkers repeating a single step again and again. Specialization broughtcosts down and caused production to rise. But it also made workerstired, bored, and more likely to be injured. Specialization allowed forHenry Ford’s idea of a moving assembly line to speed production.Ford’s use of the moving assembly line allowed automobiles to bemade more quickly and cheaply. Automobiles soon became avail-able to a wider segment of the population than ever before.

In 1909 Frederick W. Taylor, an effi ciency engineer, published apopular book called The Principles of Scientifi c Management. He encour-aged managers to view workers as interchangeable parts of the pro-duction process. In factories, managers infl uenced by Taylor paid lessattention to working conditions. Injuries increased, and as condi-tions grew worse, workers looked for ways to bring about change.

READING CHECK Identifying Cause and Effect Why did companiesbegin to use scientific management, and how did it affect workers?


Industrial Workers

584 CHAPTER 18

HSS 8.12.6 Discuss child labor,working conditions, and laissez-faire policies toward big businessand examine the labor movement,including its leaders (e.g., SamuelGompers), its demand for collectivebargaining, and its strikes and pro-tests over labor conditions.

Workers OrganizeWorkers formed labor unions to get betterwages and working conditions for all workersin a factory or industry. The fi rst nationalThe fi rst nationallabor union, thelabor union, the Knights of LaborKnights of Labor,, waswasfounded in the 1870s.founded in the 1870s. It pushed for an eight-hour workday, equal pay for equal work, andan end to child labor. Union members alsowanted the government to regulate trusts.Unlike most unions at the time, the Knightsincluded both skilled and unskilled workers.The Knights of Labor was originally organizedmuch like a secret society. In 1879, TerenceV. Powderly became leader of the Knights.He ended all secrecy, creating the fi rst trulynational labor union in the United States.

Another early labor union was theAnother early labor union was theAmerican Federation of Labor (AFL)American Federation of Labor (AFL), led by, led bySamuel GompersSamuel Gompers. Unlike the Knights, the. Unlike the Knights, theAmericanAmerican FederationFederation ofof LaborLabor organizedorganizedindividual national unions, such as theindividual national unions, such as themineworkers’ and steelworkers’ unions.mineworkers’ and steelworkers’ unions. The


Small, crowded rooms. Stuffy air. Unsafeworkplaces. Long hours. Low pay. No jobsecurity. These were the facts of workinglife for millions of Americans during theSecond Industrial Revolution.

How did workers respond to theseconditions?

Poor Working Conditions

B I O G R A P H Y

Samuel Gompers1850–1924

Samuel Gompers was born in London. He came to the United States with his parents in 1863 at age 13. He worked as a cigar maker and joined a local union, eventually becoming its president. The Cigarmakers Union was reorganized and later joined the American Federation of Labor. Gompers became the AFL’s first president and remained so, except for the year 1895, until his death. He cam-paigned for basic trade-union rights, such as the right to picket and to organize boycotts and strikes. His efforts on behalf of workers helped organized labor to gain respect.

Summarizing How did Samuel Gompers helpthe labor-union movement?

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Union Membership, 1880–1900

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Knights of LaborAmerican Railway UnionAFL (Organized in 1886)

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586 CHAPTER 18

AFL also limited its membership to skilledworkers. This gave the union great bargain-ing power but left out most workers. TheAFL tried to get better wages, hours, andworking conditions for laborers. By 1890 theAFL’s membership was larger than that ofthe Knights. WithWith collective bargaining—collective bargaining—all workers acted collectively, or together—all workers acted collectively, or together—workers had a much greater chance of suc-workers had a much greater chance of suc-cess in negotiating with managementcess in negotiating with management.. Mostemployers opposed collective bargaining.One company president said, “I shall nevergive in. I would rather go out of business.”

Many women took active roles in unions.For example, Mary Harris Jones, an Irishimmigrant, worked for better conditions forminers. A fi ery speaker, she organized strikesand helped educate workers.

READING CHECK Contrasting How did theKnights of Labor and the AFL differ?

Labor StrikesBy the late 1800s, other unions weregaining strength. Major workers’ strikesswept the country and included minersin Colorado, steel workers in Pennsylvania,and railroad workers in Illinois and Cali-fornia. The fi rst major labor strike began in1886 in Chicago.

In May 1886, thousands of union mem-bers in Chicago went on strike because theywanted an eight-hour workday. Two strikerswere killed in a fi ght with police. The nextnight, workers met at Haymarket Square toprotest the killings. In what became knownIn what became knownas theas the Haymarket Riot,Haymarket Riot, someone threw a someone threw abomb that wounded many police offi cersbomb that wounded many police offi cersand killed eight. The police fi red into theand killed eight. The police fi red into thecrowd, killing several people and woundingcrowd, killing several people and wounding100 others.100 others.

In 1955 the AFLmerged with

the Congressof Industrial

Organizations tobecome the AFL-

CIO. Today theorganization has

more than 13million members.

THE IMPACT

TODAY

Haymarket Riot In May 1886 the Haymar-ket Riot erupted between protesters andpolice in Chicago. It resulted in the declineof the Knights of Labor.

Homestead Strike In 1892 a strikeoccurred at Carnegie Steel Company inHomestead, Pennsylvania. The resulting fightleft workers and Pinkerton guards dead.

Colorado Miners’ Strike In the summerof 1893, gold miners at Cripple Creek,Colorado, went on strike for higher wagesand a shorter workday.

Pullman Strike The Pullman strike of1894 began with workers who madePullman train cars. It soon spread toworkers who worked on trains pulling thesleeper cars.

California Railroad Strike In 1894 rail-road workers in Oakland went on strike inthe Bay Area’s first major strike. SupportingChicago Pullman workers, they halted pas-senger, freight, and mail trains for months.

Major Labor Strikes, Late 1800s

53

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1

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Interactive Map

ANALYZING INFORMATIONANALYSIS

SKILLHow did conflicts between striking workers and authoritiesaffect union membership?

KEYWORD: SS8 CH18

Interactive Map


Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People 1. a. Recall Why did conditions in factories

begin to decline?b. Draw Conclusions How were workers affectedby specialization and scientifi c management?c. Evaluate Do you think scientifi c managementmade businesses more successful? Explain.

2. a. Identify What role did Mary Harris Jones playin the labor movement?b. Analyze Why did workers demand collectivebargaining, and why did business ownersoppose it?c. Elaborate Do you think the demands madeby labor unions were reasonable? Explain youranswer.

3. a. Describe What major labor strikes took placein the late 1800s?b. Evaluate Do you think President Cleveland wasright to use federal troops to end the Pullmanstrike? Explain.

Critical Thinking 4. Analyzing Copy the chart below. Use it to list

the major labor confl icts of the late 1800s, theircauses, and their outcomes.

FOCUS ON WRITING

5. Taking Notes on the Labor Movement Takenotes about what life was like for workers duringthis time. How might you include the labor move-ment in your series?

KEYWORD: SS8 HP18

Online Quiz

Eight people, some of whom were notat the riot, were arrested and convicted ofconspiracy. One of them had a Knights ofLabor membership card. Though Knightsleadership had not supported the strike, sev-eral local chapters had. Membership in theKnights fell quickly.

Sometimes, business owners succeededin breaking up unions. In 1892, a violentIn 1892, a violentstrike called thestrike called the Homestead strikeHomestead strike tooktookplace at Andrew Carnegie’s Homestead steelplace at Andrew Carnegie’s Homestead steelfactory in Pennsylvania. Union membersfactory in Pennsylvania. Union membersthere protested a plan to buy new machinerythere protested a plan to buy new machineryand cut jobs.and cut jobs. The company refused to negoti-ate with the union and locked workers outof the plant. The workers responded by seiz-ing control of the plant. Gunfi re erupted onJuly 6, when the Pinkerton detectives—hiredby the company to break the union—triedto enter the plant. A fi erce battle raged for14 hours, leaving 16 people dead. The gov-ernor called out the state militia to restoreorder. Continuing for four more months, theunion was eventually defeated.

Another major strike happened at GeorgePullman’s Pullman Palace Car Company inthe company town of Pullman, Illinois. Mostof the company workers lived there, pay-ing high rents. During the depression thatbegan in 1893, Pullman laid off about half ofthe workers and cut pay for those that wereleft, without lowering their rents. On MayOn May11, 1894, workers began the11, 1894, workers began the Pullman strikePullman strikewhich stopped traffi c on many railroad lineswhich stopped traffi c on many railroad linesuntil federal courts ordered the workers tountil federal courts ordered the workers toreturn to their jobs.return to their jobs. President Grover Cleve-land sent federal troops to Chicago to stopthe strike. Such defeats seriously damaged thelabor movement for years.

READING CHECK Analyzing What were theeffects of early major strikes on workers?


Date Confl ict Causes Outcome

May 1886

June 1892

May 1894

SUMMARY AND PREVIEW Workers formedunions to fi ght for better conditions andto keep their jobs. In the next section, youwill learn about a new wave of immigrantsin the late 1800s.

HSS 8.12.6

SECTION4

Key Terms and Peopleold immigrants, p. 588new immigrants, p. 588steerage, p. 589benevolent societies, p. 591Chinese Exclusion Act, p. 593Immigration Restriction

League, p. 593


A new wave of immigrationin the late 1800s brought largenumbers of immigrants to theUnited States.

The Big Idea

1. The late 1800s brought awave of new immigrants fromsouthern and eastern Europeand Mexico.

2. Some Americans opposedimmigration and tried to enactrestrictions against it.

Main Ideas You and your family live in northern Mexico in the 1890s. Your

father is a skilled carpenter, while your mother is a wonderful

cook. You can do many jobs too, though you are still in school. But

there is not much work where you live. Your parents talk about

moving to California, where you have cousins.

What might it be like to leave your home and move to California?

BUILDING BACKGROUND Since its beginnings, America hasattracted people from many parts of the world. They came for land,jobs, religious freedom, and the chance to start new lives. In the late1800s, rapid economic growth created jobs and opportunities thatdrew new groups of immigrants.

New ImmigrantsDuring the late 1800s, immigrants continued to come to theUnited States by the millions. Immigration patterns, however,began to change. Immigrants who had arrived before the 1880sImmigrants who had arrived before the 1880swere now calledwere now called old immigrantsold immigrants.. They were mostly from GreatBritain, Germany, Ireland, and Scandinavia. Most of them were Prot-estants, except for the Irish and some Germans who were Catholic.Many were skilled workers who spoke English. Often the old immi-grants settled in the rural areas outside cities and became farmers.

After 1880, many more immigrants came to the United States,and they came from many different places. More than 5 millioncame during the 1880s, as had come between 1800 and 1860.Increasing numbers of theseIncreasing numbers of these new immigrantsnew immigrants, who came during, who came duringand after the 1880s, were from southern and eastern Europe.and after the 1880s, were from southern and eastern Europe. Thou-sands of Czechs, Greeks, Hungarians, Italians, Poles, Russians, andSlovaks came to the United States looking for new opportunitiesand better lives. Southern Italy sent large numbers of immigrants.Immigrant Miriam Zunser hoped “for all manner of miracles [in] astrange, wonderful land!”


A New Wave of Immigration

588 CHAPTER 18

HSS 8.12.7 Identify the newsources of large-scale immigrationand the contributions of immigrantsto the building of cities and theeconomy; explain the ways in whichnew social and economic patternsencouraged assimilation of newcom-ers into the mainstream amidst grow-ing cultural diversity; and discuss thenew wave of nativism.


Many were seeking economic opportu-nity in the industrial boom of the late 1800s.Others were escaping political or religiouspersecution. Most brought new cultural prac-tices with them. The immigrants includedEastern Orthodox Christians, Roman Catho-lics, and Jews.

Many immigrants were eager for the jobopportunities that arose during the indus-trial boom of the late 1800s. Before comingto America, many had received encourag-ing letters from friends and relatives whohad immigrated earlier. Those earlier immi-grants not only sent letters to their rela-tives and friends back home, but often theysent money to help pay for the journey tothe United States. To attract immigrants,railroad and steamship companies hiredbusiness agents who tended to paint unre-alistic pictures of easy wealth and happinessin the United States.

Immigrants usually faced a diffi cult jour-ney to America. Most traveled in steeragesteerage,,an area below a ship’s deckan area below a ship’s deck where steeringmechanisms were located. In these cramped

conditions, passengers often experiencedseasickness and sometimes death.

New arrivals had to go to immigrationprocessing centers run by state and localgovernments. In 1892 a receiving offi ce wasopened on Ellis Island in New York Harbor.Over the next 40 years, millions of immi-grants came through the Ellis Island center.

In the processing centers, offi cials inter-viewed immigrants to decide whetherto let them enter the country. Offi cials alsoconducted physical examinations. They didnot allow those who carried an infectiousdisease to enter. Most immigrants wereadmitted. After admission, they enteredthe United States to fi nd work and buildnew lives.

Towering over New York Harbor, the Statueof Liberty, shown here, has welcomedmillions of immigrants to the UnitedStates. The statue, a gift from France,was constructed in Paris, disassembled,and shipped to the United States. It wascompleted in 1886. Workers in the Pari-sian studio of sculptor Frederic Bartholdiassembled the statue.

Why do you think France gave the statueto the United States?

Symbol of Freedom

During thelate 1800s andearly 1900s, manyAsian Indiansimmigrated to theUnited States.Some of theseimmigrants camefrom Punjab,a province inpresent-day Indiaand Pakistan, andwere members ofthe Sikh religion.Sikhs settled inCalifornia by thethousands andworked initiallyin the railroadand lumberindustries. Todaytheir descendantsrun successfulfarms and otherbusinesses.

THE IMPACT

TODAY

clothing industry, these workplaces werecalled sweatshops because of long hours andhot, unhealthy working conditions.

Immigrants with appropriate skills some-times found work in a wide range of occu-pations. Some immigrants worked as bakers,cooks, carpenters, masons, metalworkers, orskilled machinists. Other immigrants saved,shared, or borrowed money to open smallbusinesses, such as barbershops, laundries,restaurants, or street vending carts. Newimmigrants often opened the same types ofbusinesses in which other immigrants fromthe same country were already succeeding.

Mexican ImmigrantsIn the late 1800s large numbers of immigrantsbegan arriving from Mexico. Many Mexicans

had been displaced from their homes by theMexican-American War.

Most Mexican immigrants settled in theSouthwest, where they found work on therailroads and in construction companies,steel mills, mines, and canneries. Other Mex-ican immigrants worked on large commer-cial farms in Arizona, Texas, and California.

READING CHECK Summarizing How did newimmigrants help themselves and others?

Opposition to ImmigrationAnti-immigrant feelings grew along withthe rise in immigration in the late 1800s.Some labor unions opposed immigrationbecause their members feared immigrants

592 CHAPTER 18

Asian Americans TodayToday more than 12 million people in the United States are of Asian origin. They account for nearly 5 percent of the U.S. population—or about 1 in 20 Americans. Asian Americans trace their roots to various countries, including China, India, the Philippines and, like this family, Vietnam. Most Asian Americans live in the West. California has by far the largest Asian American population of any state.

LINKING TODAYTO

ANALYZING INFORMATION

Why have so many people immigrated tothe United States?

ANALYSIS

SKILL


Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People 1. a. Identify What was Ellis Island?

b. Contrast What differences existed betweenthe old immigrants and the new immigrants?

2. a. Identify What job opportunities were avail-able to new immigrants?b. Summarize How did immigrants attemptto adapt to their new lives in the UnitedStates?c. Elaborate Why do you think many immi-grants tolerated diffi cult living and workingconditions?

3. a. Recall How did the Chinese Exclusion Actaffect the Chinese American population?b. Explain Why were some Americanbusiness leaders supportive of the newimmigrants?c. Predict How might the growing oppositionto immigration lead to problems in the UnitedStates?

Critical Thinking 4. Drawing Conclusions Copy the graphic organizer

below onto your own sheet of paper. Use it toidentify the struggles of new immigrants.

FOCUS ON WRITING

5. Writing about Immigrants and Their LivesAdd new immigrants to the list of potential charac-ters for your series. Take notes about what life waslike for them.

KEYWORD: SS8 HP18

Online Quiz

would take jobs away. Many business leaders,however, wanted low-paid workers becausethey kept labor costs low.

Other Americans called nativists fearedthat too many new immigrants were beingallowed into the country. Many nativistsheld racial and ethnic prejudices. Nativiststhought that the new immigrants’ povertyand presumed lack of education might harmAmerican society.

Some nativists were violent towardimmigrants. Others worked to pass lawsstopping or limiting immigration. Forexample, in 1880, about 105,000 Chineseimmigrants lived in the United States. Twoyears later, Congress passed the ChineseChineseExclusion ActExclusion Act ,, banning Chinese peoplebanning Chinese peoplefrom immigrating to the United States forfrom immigrating to the United States for10 years.10 years. This law marked the fi rst time anationality was banned from entering thecountry. Although the law violated trea-ties with China, the Congress continued torenew the law for decades to come. In 1892,

another law was passed restricting convicts,immigrants with certain diseases, and thoselikely to need public assistance.

To further lower the number of im-To further lower the number of im-migrants, nativists in Boston founded themigrants, nativists in Boston founded theImmigrationImmigration Restriction League Restriction League in 1894,in 1894,which demanded that all immigrants knowwhich demanded that all immigrants knowhow to read and write before entering thehow to read and write before entering thecountry.country. Supporters hoped this policy wouldlimit immigration from eastern and south-ern Europe. Despite such opposition, immi-grants continued to arrive in large numbers.

READING CHECK Analyzing Why did nativistsoppose immigration, and what steps did they takeagainst it?


Challenges faced bynew immigrants

Education:

Culture:

Work:

LivingConditions:

ACADEMIC VOCABULARYpolicy rule,course of action

SUMMARY AND PREVIEW Immigrantshelped build the nation’s economy andcities, but they met some resistance. In thenext section you will learn about life inurban America.

HSS 8.12.7

SECTION5

Key Terms and Peoplemass transit, p. 595suburbs, p. 595mass culture, p. 595department stores, p. 596settlement houses, p. 597Hull House, p. 597Jane Addams, p. 597


Cities in the United States ex-perienced dramatic expansionin the late 1800s.

The Big Idea

1. New technology and ideaswere developed to deal withthe growth of urban areas.

2. The rapid growth of citiescreated a variety of urbanproblems.

Main Ideas

You and a friend live in a fast-growing city around 1900. Many

people in the city are immigrants who don’t speak English. Many

live in bad neighborhoods and run-down apartments. In college,

you studied social work so that you could help improve life for

others. Now you’ve gone to work in a new settlement house. Its

organizers are still planning its programs.

What services would the settlement house offer?

BUILDING BACKGROUND Industrial growth and a new wave ofimmigration swelled the populations of American cities in the late1800s. City life offered excitement and new kinds of entertainment,but urban areas also had problems with overcrowding and poorliving conditions.

Growth of Urban AreasDuring the late 1800s, immigrants and native-born Americansmoved to cities in record numbers, causing rapid urban growth. In1850, only six U.S. cities had a population greater than 100,000. By1900 there were more than 35 such cities.

In midwestern cities the population grew especially rapidly dur-ing these years. Chicago’s population rose from 30,000 in 1850 to1.7 million in 1900. By 1900 about 40 percent of Americans livedin urban areas.

Some city residents were businesspeople and skilled workers.But many more were poor laborers. As farm equipment replacedpeople in the countryside, large numbers of rural residents movedto the cities. In the 1890s African Americans from the rural Southbegan moving to northern cities to seek jobs, as did thousands ofimmigrants. They hoped to escape discrimination and fi nd bettereconomic and educational opportunities.

New TechnologyThe rapid growth of cities placed a great strain on available down-town space. In the mid-1800s typical downtown city buildings werefi ve stories tall. Larger structures had been impossible to construct,


City Life

594 CHAPTER 18

HSS 8.12.5 Examine the locationand effects of urbanization, renewedimmigration, and industrialization(e.g., the effects on social fabric ofcities, wealth and economic opportu-nity, the conservation movement).

because building materials were either tooweak or too heavy to be used in taller buildings.However, this situation changed as stron-ger and cheaper steel became available.Soon architects such as Louis Sullivan ofChicago began designing multistory build-ings called skyscrapers. These buildings usedmetal frames to support their weight. Theyallowed developers to use limited city spacemore effi ciently. New devices like the safetyelevator, patented by Elisha Otis in 1857,helped people quickly move up and downinside skyscrapers.

As city centers became heavily popu-lated, attempts were made to ease traffi cthrough mass transitmass transit,, or public transporta-or public transporta-tion designed to move lots of people.tion designed to move lots of people. By thelate 1860s New York City had elevated trainsrunning on tracks above the streets. Chicagofollowed in the early 1890s.

Some cities built underground railroadsthat were called subways. In 1897 the fi rstsubway in the United States opened in Bos-ton. In 1904, the fi rst line of the New YorkCity subway system began operation. Cable


Architect Louis Sullivan helpedpioneer the design of departmentstores with this building, built forCarson, Pirie, and Scott Co. in 1912.Sullivan also designed the ChicagoStock Exchange building and otherbuildings across the country. Thebuilding was designed using steelas a strong frame.

How do you think the steel industryinfluenced architects such as LouisSullivan?

Steel-Framed Buildings

cars, fi rst used in the 1870s, became quitecommon. Electric trolleys also achieved pop-ularity during the 1890s. These streetcarscheaply and quickly carried people in thecities to and from work.

Many middle-class Americans who couldafford it moved to suburbssuburbs,, residential neigh-residential neigh-borhoods outside of downtown areas.borhoods outside of downtown areas. Masstransit networks, such as trolleys, subways,and commuter trains, made such moves pos-sible. People could live in the suburbs andwork in the cities.

New IdeasThe United States began to develop forms ofmass culturemass culture,, or leisure and cultural activitiesor leisure and cultural activitiesshared by many people.shared by many people. One factor contrib-uting to mass culture was a boom in publish-ing. The invention of the Linotype, an auto-matic typesetting machine, greatly reducedthe time and cost of printing. In 1850 therewere fewer than 300 daily newspapers in theUnited States. Because of the use of Linotypemachines, by 1900 there were more than2,000 newspapers.

READING CHECK Summarizing What forms ofmass culture were available in urban areas?

Urban ProblemsDespite the new public parks, skyscrapers,and mass transit, many urban areas were notready for rapid population growth in the late1800s. Population increases in cities often ledto shortages of affordable housing.

Many families lived in tiny apartmentsin overcrowded tenements. Journalist JacobRiis described these conditions: “Nine livedin two rooms, one about ten feet squarethat served as parlor, bedroom, and eatingroom, the other a small hall room made intoa kitchen.”

Overcrowding and lack of sanitationoften led to disease and health problems.Tenements frequently were packed togetherin areas close to factories. Rooms had fewwindows to let in light or fresh air. Runningwater and indoor plumbing were scarce.Most cities did not have laws requiring land-lords to fi x their tenements or to maintainsafety standards.

Fire and crime were also common prob-lems. By the late 1800s, many major cities were

596

Big cities often had many newspapers.Newspaper publishers such as Joseph Pulitzerand William Randolph Hearst competed forreaders by using color printing. By 1900 thedaily newspaper had become a powerful cul-tural force in people’s lives.

Giant retail shops,Giant retail shops, oror department storesdepartment stores ,,also appeared in some city centers duringthe late 1800s. Low prices, large quantitiesof products, and newspaper advertising wereused to bring in customers. The public wasalso attracted by fancy window displays.

World fairs are another example of massculture. At the Philadelphia Centennial Expo-sition in 1876 and the Chicago Expositionin 1893, millions of people came to see thelatest technological inventions. The demandfor public entertainment also led to thecreation of amusement parks, such as NewYork’s Coney Island. People from all walks oflife were able to enjoy these parks because ofinexpensive train fares and entrance tickets.

As cities grew, people became aware of theneed for open public space. The large-scalelandscape architect Frederick Law Olmstedbecame nationally famous. He designedCentral Park in New York City as well asmany state and national parks.

Neighborhood children attendedkindergarten at Hull House inChicago. Their parents, who weremembers of the working poor, wereoften immigrants. Children likethese had few other options foreducation.

How did Hull House try to improvethe lives of children?

Hull House


Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People 1. a. Defi ne What is mass transit? What made

mass transit necessary?b. Explain Why did African Americans move tonorthern cities in such large numbers in the 1890s?c. Evaluate Which improvement to urban livingdo you think had the greatest impact on people’slives? Explain your answer.

2. a. Describe What were conditions like intenements?b. Summarize What problems resulted from therapid growth of cities?c. Evaluate Do you think efforts to improve urbanproblems were successful? Why or why not?

Critical Thinking 3. Categorizing Copy the chart below onto your own

sheet of paper. Use it to identify the problems facedby growing cities in the late 1800s and responses tothose problems.

Urban Problem Response

FOCUS ON WRITING

4. Describing Setting A city like the ones you haveread about could serve as the setting of your TVseries. How could you describe the city?

KEYWORD: SS8 HP18

Online Quiz

hiring full-time fi refi ghters and peace offi cers.Other than these improvements, the reformwork of most city governments was limitedby internal corruption or lack of funds.

Due to the lack of government aid in the1800s, many private organizations steppedin to help the poor. Some individuals set upsettlement housessettlement houses,, or neighborhood centersor neighborhood centersin poor areas that offered education, recre-in poor areas that offered education, recre-ation, and social activities.ation, and social activities. Settlement houseswere staffed by professionals and volunteers.

The most famous settlement house wasThe most famous settlement house wasChicago’sChicago’s Hull HouseHull House .. It was founded byJane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr in 1889.Addams and Starr moved into a run-downbuilding in a poor neighborhood and turnedit into Hull House. The staff focused on theneeds of immigrant families and also workedfor reforms, such as child labor laws and theeight-hour workday.

READING CHECK Drawing ConclusionsWhat technologies improved city life?


Jane Addams1860–1935

Jane Addams was born in Cedarville, Illinois. Like many upper-class women of the era, she received a college education but found few jobs open to her. In 1888, on a visit to England with classmate Ellen Gates Starr, she visited a London settlement house. On their return to the United States, Addams and Starr opened a settlement house in Chicago. They started a kindergarten and a public playground. Addams also became involved in housing safety and sanitation issues, factory inspection, and immigrants’ rights. In 1931 she shared the Nobel Peace Prize for her work.

Summarizing How did Jane Addams tryto improve the lives of workers?

B I O G R A P H Y

SUMMARY AND PREVIEW In the late1800s many people came to cities to fi ndwork, causing a variety of problems. In thenext chapter you will learn about how anew spirit of political reform swept thenation.

HSS 8.12.5

HSS HI 6 Students interpret basic indicators of economic performanceand conduct cost-benefi t analyses of economic and political issues.

Social Studies SkillsAnalysis

Critical Thinking

Define the Skill

Everything you do has both costs and benefi ts con-nected to it. Benefi ts are things that you gain fromsomething. Costs are what you give up to obtainbenefi ts. For example, if you buy a video game, thebenefi ts of your action include the game itself andthe enjoyment of playing it. The most clear costis what you pay for the game. However, there areother costs that do not involve money. One is thetime you spend playing the game. This is a costbecause you give up something else, such as doingyour homework or watching a TV show, when youchoose to play the game.

The ability to analyze costs and benefi ts is avaluable life skill as well as a useful tool in the studyof history. Weighing an action’s benefi ts against itscosts can help you decide whether or not to take it.

Learn the Skill

Analyzing the costs and benefi ts of historical eventswill help you to better understand and evaluatethem. Follow these guidelines to do a cost-benefi tanalysis of an action or decision in history.

1 First determine what the action or decisionwas trying to accomplish. This step is neededin order to determine which of its effects werebenefi ts and which were costs.

2 Then look for the positive or successful results ofthe action or decision. These are its benefi ts.

3 Consider the negative or unsuccessful effects ofthe action or decision. Also think about whatpositive things would have happened if it hadnot occurred. All these things are its costs.

Analyzing Costs and Benefits4 Making a chart of the costs and benefi ts can

be useful. By comparing the list of benefi ts tothe list of costs you can better understand theaction or decision and evaluate it.

For example, you learned in Chapter 18 that theUnited States attracted millions of new immigrantsin the late 1800s. A cost-benefi t analysis of thenation’s immigration policies might produce a chartlike this one.

Benefi ts CostsImmigrants providedworkers needed by growingindustries

Immigrants made moremoney than they could havein their home countries

Immigrants found moreopportunity in America thanin their home countries

Immigrants built strongfutures for their families

Overcrowding and poor liv-ing conditions in U.S. cities

Low wages paid to immi-grants kept the earnings ofother workers down

Long hours of work underpoor conditions for low pay

Based on this chart, one might conclude that thenation’s immigration policy was a good one.

Practice the Skill

Among the changes that occurred in the early 1900swas an increase in specialization and effi ciency inthe workplace. Use information from the chapterand the guidelines above to do a cost-benefi t analy-sis of this development. Then write a paragraphexplaining whether or not it was a wise one.

598 CHAPTER 18

Participation Study


Standards ReviewCHAPTER18

Reviewing Vocabulary,Terms, and PeopleIdentify the descriptions below with the correct term orperson from the chapter.

1. Labor organization that represented both skilledand unskilled laborers and was the first nationallabor union in the United States

2. Public transportation systems built to ease trans-portation in crowded cities

3. A way of making steel quickly and cheaply byblasting hot air through melted iron to quicklyremove waste

4. Founded Hull House with Ellen Gates Starr inChicago in 1889

5. Powerful business leader who helped to foundthe Central Pacific Railroad

6. Organizations created by immigrants to helpeach other in times of sickness, unemployment,or other troubles

7. A method of negotiating for better wages orworking conditions in which all workers acttogether to ensure a better chance for success

Comprehension andCritical ThinkingSECTION 1 (Pages 574–578)

8. a. Identify What was the Second IndustrialRevolution?

b. Draw Conclusions Why were advances intransportation and communication importantto the Second Industrial Revolution?

c. Elaborate Which invention do you think hadthe greatest effect on people’s lives in the late1800s? Explain your answer.

SECTION 2 (Pages 579–582)

9. a. Recall What criticisms were made of businessleaders and trusts?

b. Analyze How did the rise of corporations andpowerful business leaders lead to the growth ofbig business?

c. Evaluate Do you think the growth of big busi-ness helped or hurt ordinary Americans? Explainyour answer.

Use the visual summary below to help you reviewthe main ideas of the chapter.

VisualSummary

Inventions and Big Business• Bessemer process• Lightbulb• Automobile• Growth of corporations

Immigration• New immigrants from eastern

and southern Europe• Nativism• Benevolent societies

Labor Movement• Knights of Labor• American Federation of Labor• Haymarket Riot• Homestead Strike

HSS 8.12.1, 8.12.9

HSS 8.12.4, 8.12.6

600 CHAPTER 18


10. a. Recall What led to poor working conditions infactories during the Second Industrial Revolution?

b. Make Inferences Why did labor unions havea better chance of improving working condi-tions than laborers did on their own?

c. Evaluate Did the strikes of the 1880s and1890s hurt or help the labor movement in thelong run? Explain your answer.


11. a. Identify From what parts of the world did thenew wave of immigrants come?

b. Analyze In what ways did immigration patternsin the United States change in the late 1800s?

c. Elaborate In your opinion, were the difficultiesimmigrants faced worth the benefits of life in theUnited States? Explain.


12. a. Recall Why did American cities experiencesuch rapid growth in the late 1800s?

b. Analyze What problems did cities face asa result of rapid growth, and how were theseproblems solved?

c. Elaborate Would you have preferred to live inthe city or in a suburb? Why?

Reviewing Themes 13. Economics How did the rise of big business

affect consumers in the United States?

14. Society and Culture How did the lives of citydwellers change with the rise of mass culture?

Using the Internet KEYWORD: SS8 HP18

15. Activity: Creating a Time Line Technology insome sense has been part of human historysince we began to write history. All tools are,in a sense, technology. In this chapter youread about new scientific discoveries that hadpositive and negative effects. Enter the activ-ity keyword. Then choose one technologicalinnovation mentioned in the chapter and traceits development to the present day. Create anillustrated time line to present your research.

Reading SkillsUnderstanding the Structural Patterns of Texts Usethe Reading Skills taught in this chapter to answer thequestion about the reading selection below.

New arrivals had to go to immigration pro-cessing centers run by state and local govern-ments. In 1892 a receiving office was openedon Ellis Island in New York Harbor. Over thenext 40 years, millions of immigrants camethrough the Ellis Island center. (p. 589)

16. By which structural pattern is the abovepassage organized?

a. enumeration

b. chronology

c. comparison and contrast

d. cause and effect

Social Studies SkillsAnalyzing Cost and Benefi ts Use the SocialStudies Skills taught in this chapter to answer thequestion below.

17. Write two costs and two benefits of the PullmanStrike from the point of view of the workers whoparticipated.

FOCUS ON WRITING

18. Writing Your Memo Look back over your notesabout the people, places, and events of the late1800s. Decide which of these you will includein your television drama series. Then draft aone- to two-paragraph memo to your boss brieflydescribing the series. Remember to describe thebasic plot, setting, and characters.

HSS 8.12.6

HSS 8.12.7

HSS 8.12.5

N

S

WEGulf of

Mexico

ATLANTICOCEAN

80°W

120°W

90°W

20°N

40°N

Tropic of Cancer

140°W160°W

W

X

Z

Y


$ Which of the following is associated with providing a better life for urban immigrants in the late 1800s and early 1900s? A the department store

B the suburb

C the tenement

D the settlement house

% Immigrants to the United States in the late 1800s and early 1900s came mainly from A southern and eastern Europe.

B Japan, China, and the rest of Asia.

C Mexico and Central America.

D northern and western Europe.

Connecting with Past Learning

^ In Grade 7 you learned about Johann Gutenberg’s development of the printing press. The contribution of which American listed below was least like Gutenberg’s? A Samuel Gompers

B George Westinghouse

C Thomas Edison

D Alexander Graham Bell

& The attitudes of the Immigration Restric-tion League in the late 1800s were most like those of Americans in earlier times who were part of the A Free-Soil Party.

B Know-Nothing Party.

C abolitionist movement.

D transcendentalist movement.

DIRECTIONS: Read each question and write the letter of the best response. Use the map below to answer question 1.

!

Which area on the map provided the petro-leum for the oil-refi ning industry that arose in the United States in the mid- to late 1800s? A the area labeled W

B the area labeled X

C the area labeled Y

D the area labeled Z

@ The person most responsible for making the steel industry a big business in the United States isA John D. Rockefeller.

B Andrew Carnegie.

C Henry Bessemer.

D Leland Stanford.

# The growth of American industry in the late 1800s was accompanied by all of the follow-ing developments exceptA the arrival of large numbers of immigrants.

B the organization of workers into labor unions.

C declining food production from U.S. farms.

D rapid population growth in U.S. cities.

Standards Assessment

Documents

CHAPTER 1876–1900 An Industrial Nation