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FROM CONCEPTION TO THE FIRST YEAR
List and discuss the stages of prenatal development
List harmful influences on prenatal development
List and discuss the motor and sensory capacitites of newborns and infants
Define terms associated with the concept of attachment, and describe the research methodology
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT http://www.babycenter.com/100_fetal-developme
nt_5214615.bc
Maturation = the sequential unfolding of genetically influenced behavior and physical characteristics
3 Stages of prenatal development Germinal Stage: 0-14 days: fertilized egg (zygote)
divides and attaches to the uterine wall; outside becomes placenta, inner part becomes embryo
Embryonic stage: after implantation (about 2 weeks) to 8th week: embryo develops, organs and limbs develop (heart and liver), testosterone is secreted in males
Fetal Stage – after 8th week, further development and brain weight marked increase in nervous system development and brain weight. 4th month = movement 5th month = can identify gender 6th month = organs more fully developed (baby could survive
outside of womb)
Harmful influences that can cross the placental barrierGerman measlesRadiationToxic chemicalsSTDsCigarette smokingHeavy alcohol consumptionPrescription and nonprescription drugs
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Premature birth
Smaller in weight, though not always in lengthLess physically & cognitively developedUsually up to 2 months early still has a fighting
chance
TeratogensNoxious substance or factors that can disrupt
prenatal developmentX-rays: disrupt development of brain cellsDrugs: abnormal physical & psychological
developmentAlcohol: FAS; mental retardation, facial
disfigurement
THE INFANT’S WORLD Physical abilities
Newborns have functional motor reflexes Newborns are able to see, but are nearsighted
Will show evidence of depth perception within a few months
Prefer faces Many aspects of development depend on cultural
customs Attachment – provides a secure base from which
children can explore The Harlows demonstrated the importance of
touching, or contact comfort http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hsA5Sec6dAI Between 7 and 9 months, babies may show stranger
anxiety and separation anxiety until the middle of the second year or later
Ainsworth experiment: the Strange Situation in which the baby’s behavior is observed when the mother leaves the baby with a stranger Securely attached children are clearly more
attached to the mother Insecurely attached children show avoidance or
anxiety http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU
Factors affecting attachment Neglect, abuse, and deprivation adversely affect
attachment, however, differences in normal child-rearing practices have no effect
Daycare does not affect attachment Temperament, chronic stress, and rejection can
affect attachment Cultural expectations play a role
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Describe the stages of language development
List and explain the fundamental principles of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Describe the stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Explain the principles of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and describe the stages
Summarize the criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
LANGUAGE From cooing to communicating
In first months, babies responsive to pitch, intensity and sound of language; people talk to babies with more varied pitch and intonation
By 4-6 months, babies have learned many basic sounds of their language, and over time lose ability to perceive speech sounds in another language
Between 6-12 months, babies enter the babbling phase; infants become more familiar with the sound structure of their native language
Starting at around 11 months, babies develop repertoire of symbolic gestures; gestures spur language learning
Between 18-24 months, 2-3 word combinations are produced; first combinations have a telegraphic quality
The innate capacity for languageChomsky observed that children can
figure out a sentences deep structure from the surface structure, therefore the brain must contain a language acquisition device that enables children to develop language if they are exposed to it Children everywhere go through similar
stages of linguistic development Children combine words in ways that adults
never would, so they could not simply be imitating adults
Adults do not consistently correct their children’s syntax
Language development depends on both biological readiness and social experience; there is a critical period for language development
THINKING Piaget proposed that children must
make two types of mental adaptationsAssimilation – fitting new information into
present system of knowledge, beliefs, and schemas (categories of things and people)
Accommodation – must change or modify existing schemas to accommodate new information that doesn’t fit
Piaget’s cognitive stagesSensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old)
Infants learn through concrete actions; “thinking” consists of coordinating sensory information with bodily movements
Begin to understand object permanence at around six months; involves understanding that something continues to exist even if you can’t see it or touch it
Object permanence represents the beginning of representational thought-ability to use mental imagery and other symbolic
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NjBh9ld_yIo
Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7) Accelerated use of symbols and language in play and in imitation
of adult behavior Limitations
Cannot reason or use abstract principles (called operations) Piaget believed thinking was egocentric – that preoperational
children are unable to take the point of view of another http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&v=OinqFgs
Ibh0&NR=1&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1
Cannot grasp conservation – notion that physical properties do not change when forms or appearances change
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLj0IZFLKvg Concrete operations stage (ages 7 to 11)
Accomplishments – understand conservation, reversibility, cause and effect, identity, mathematical operations, serial ordering
Thinking is still concrete, not abstract – grounded in concrete experiences
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gA04ew6Oi9M Formal Operations Stage (ages 12 to adulthood)
Beginning of abstract reasoning Can reason systematically, think about the future, think about
situations they have not experienced firsthand http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjJdcXA1KH8
Evaluating Piaget Shifts from stage to stage not as sweeping or clear-cut
as Piaget implied Children understand more than Piaget gave them
credit for Infants as young as 4 months show understanding of some
physics principles Children advance more rapidly in their symbolic activities
Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget though Children’s cognitive development depends on
education and culture Piaget overestimated the cognitive skills of many
adults Some people never develop the capacity for formal
operations Other people continue to think concretely unless a specific
problem requires abstract though Most psychologists accept Piaget’s major point, that
new reasoning abilities depend on the emergence of previous ones
Most people agree that children actively interpret their worlds
HOW MUCH DO PARENTS MATTER?
List the various parental styles
of child-rearing and discuss the
effects of each
PARENTAL METHODS OF ENFORCING STANDARDS EFFECT CHILDREN Power Assertion
Involves threats, physical punishment, denial of privileges
Associated with a lack of moral feelings and behavior, and with negative outcomes for children
Leads to aggressiveness and poor impulse control in children
These parents do not: state clear rules, require compliance, consistently punish violations, or praise good behavior
Induction More successful at teaching moral feelings and behavior The parent appeals to the child’s own resources,
affection for others, and sense of responsibility Tends to produce children who behave morally on many
different measures and who have high self-esteem Used by authoritative parents who give emotional
support and encourage two-way communication
LIMITS ON PARENTAL INFLUENCE Most parents are inconsistent depending on
mood, stress, etc. Some children turn out different DESPITE
parenting. WHY? The child’s temperament affects parenting style
Authoritarian with impulsive Permissive with easy going, punitive with defiant Children respond differently to discipline
Peers affect the child enormously How successful are your peers? Does that influence your
success? Are they hard-workers? What is “nerdy”?
So do parents matter?? They affect a child’s behavior and social
development Self-esteem
MORAL REASONING Piaget pioneered the study of moral reasoning in
children Lawrence Kohlberg took it a step further Kohlberg developed a theory that states that
there are three levels of moral reasoning that are universal and occur in invariant order – moral stages determined by answers people give to hypothetical moral dilemmas Levels and stages
Level 1 – preconventional morality Stage 1 – fear and punishment for disobedience Stage 2 – in their best interest to obey
Level 2 – conventional morality, typically reached around 10 or 11 years of age Stage 3 – based on conformity and loyalty Stage 4 – a “law-and-justice” orientation
Level 3 – postconventional (“principled”) moralityStage 5 – values and laws are relative and change:
recognition that people hold differing standardsStage 6 – standard based on universal human
rights Limitations
Stage theories tend to overlook cultural and educational influences on reasoning
People’s moral reasoning is often inconsistent across situations
Moral reasoning and behavior are often unrelated
Gilligan said that males base moral reasoning on justice and females base moral reasoning on care Most research finds no gender difference in
moral reasoning Both genders use justice and compassion in
moral reasoning
GENDER DEVELOPMENT
Distinguish between gender socialization and gender identity
List and discuss the explanations that have been given for sex-typing
TERMINOLOGY Sex – a biological distinction determined
by anatomical and physiological attributes Gender – cultural and psychological
attributes that children learn are appropriate for the sexes
Gender identity – fundamental sense of maleness or femaleness regardless of what one wears or does Develops at age 4 or 5
Gender typing – society’s expectations governing male and female attitudes and behavior
INFLUENCES ON GENDERDEVELOPMENT
Biological factors – toy and play preferences may have a biological basis
Cognitive factors Children develop gender schemas (mental network of beliefs
and expectations about what it means to be male or female) as they mature; these schemas influence their behavior
At 9 months most babies can discriminate male and female faces
Once children can label themselves as boys or girls, they begin to prefer same-sex playmates and sex-typed toys
Boys express stronger preferences for masculine toys and activities than girls do for feminine ones; differences appear to be related to gender differences in status
As abilities mature, children understand exceptions to gender schemas
Gender schemas change throughout our lives, but continue to influence us
Gender and LearningDifferences between boys and girls are also
the result of gender socializationAssertiveness is rewarded more in boys;
verbal behavior is rewarded more in girlsChildren learn to adjust their behavior,
making it more gender-typedParents’ stereotypical expectations
influence children’s performance and feeling of competence in math, English, and sports
Gender over the life span – gender development has become a lifelong process
ADOLESCENCEDescribe the events that signal the
onset of puberty in males and females, and the relationship
between age of onset and later adjustment
Summarize the evidence on the relationship between adolescence
and emotional turmoil
DEFINITION Adolescence
Period of development between puberty (the age at which a person becomes capable of sexual reproduction) and adulthood
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE
Puberty and the onset of reproductive capacity Males – more androgens
Females – more estrogens Males – sperm from testes
Females – eggs from ovariesMenarche – menstruation and breasts develop in
femalesMales – nocturnal emissions, growth of testes, scrotum and penis
Hormones are responsible for secondary sex characteristics in both sexes
Growth spurt occurs in both sexes; earlier for girls Timing of puberty significant; early and late
maturers may have special problems
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE Studies find that extreme turmoil and unhappiness are the
exception (common, but not typical to be unhappy) One’s peer group is particularly influential during
adolescence Teens are trying to develop own standards and values. Often look
to peers rather than parents Rejection by peers more upsetting than parents
Common problems: conflict with parents, mood swings and depression, higher rates of risky behavior
During adolescence externalizing problems become more common in boys, internalizing problems become more common in girls; suicide rates increasing in boys
Preteens who encounter problems are often reacting to specific changes in the environment; conflicts often stem from their need to individuate
The extent to which parent and teens quarrel depends on cultural norms
ADULTHOOD
Describe the stages of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
Explain how the “social clock” influences reactions to life
transitions
Describe the impact of menopause and midlife on the physical and psychological well-being of men
and women
Describe the changes in mental functioning associated with aging
STAGES AND AGES Erikson’s psychosocial theory says that
all people go through eight stages in their lives, resolving an inevitable “crisis” at each oneTrust vs mistrust (during 1st year)Autonomy vs shame and doubt
(toddlerhood) Initiative vs guilt (preschool)Competence vs inferiority (elementary
school) Identity vs role confusion (adolescence) Intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood)Generativity vs stagnation (middle
adulthood)Ego integrity vs despair (old age)
How easily one passes between stages depends on cultural and economic factors
Erikson showed that development is an ongoing process that is never finished
Erikson’s stages are not universal; do not occur in the same order for everyone
THE TRANSITIONS OF LIFE Today’s theories of adult development
emphasize the transitions that mark adult life, rather than a rigid developmental sequence
Starting out: The Social Clock Most people still unconsciously evaluate their
transitions according to a social clock Adjusting to anticipated transitions is easier
than adjusting to unanticipated transitions is “non-event transitions”
People who wish to do things “on time” and are not able to do so may feel depressed and anxious. The biological clock
The middle yearsThe years between 35 and 65 are considered
the prime of life for most AmericansMenopause – midlife cessation of
menstruation; ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone
Only about 10% o all women have severe physical symptoms
Most postmenopausal women view menopause positively
Menopause itself has no effect on most women’s mental and physical health
Men lack biological equivalent of menopauseFor both sexes, physical changes of midlife and
the biological fact of aging do not predict how people will feel about aging or how they will respond to it
Old age The definition of “old” has gotten older Various aspects of mental functioning decline with
age In aging, fluid intelligence tends to decline, but
crystallized intelligence remains stable or improves – may compensate for the brain’s declining efficiency late in life
Many problems in old age and not inevitable and are correctable
Short-term training programs can boost memory and other cognitive skills dramatically
People who have complex or challenging occupations and interests and who are flexible are most likely to maintain their cognitive abilities in later life
Many people get happier and calm with age In extreme old age rates of cognitive impairment and
dementias rise dramatically
ARE ADULTS PRISONERS OF
CHILDHOOD?Explain the concept of resilience as it applies to recovery from trauma
Traumatized children are more likely to have emotional and behavioral problems
Evidence from the following suggest that negative effects are not inevitableRecovery from warRecovery from abusive or alcoholic parentsRecovery from sexual abuse
Resilience can come from one’s personality, other supportive people, and meaningful activities