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Understand eight typicalpatterns of organization:

• chronological

• spatial

• general to specific

• more important to less important

• comparison and contrast

• classification and partition

• problem-methods-solution

• cause and effect

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Follow four guidelineswhen revising headings:

• Avoid long noun strings.

• Be informative.

• Use a grammatical form appropriate to your audience.

• Avoid back-to-back headings.

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There are two kinds of paragraphs:

• A body paragraph is a group of sentences (or sometimes a single sentence) that is complete and self-sufficient and that contributes to a larger discussion.

• A transitional paragraph helps readers move from one major point to another.

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Most paragraphs contain two elements:

• The topic sentence states, summarizes, or forecasts the main point of the paragraph.

• The supporting information makes the topic sentence clear and convincing.

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Avoid burying bad news in paragraphs:

• The most emphatic location in a paragraph is the topic sentence.

• The second most emphatic location is the end of the paragraph.

• The least emphatic location is the middle of the paragraph.

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Supporting informationusually fulfills one of five roles:

• It defines a key term or idea included in the topic sentence.

• It provides examples or illustrations of the situation described in the topic sentence.

• It identifies causes: factors that led to the situation.

• It defines effects: implications of the situation.

• It supports the claim made in the topic sentence.

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Use three techniquesto emphasize coherence:

• Add transitional words and phrases.

• Repeat key words.

• Use demonstrative pronouns followed by nouns.

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Use transitional words and phrases:

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Use these seven techniquesfor structuring effective sentences:

• Use lists.

• Emphasize new and important information.

• Choose an appropriate sentence length.

• Focus on the “real” subject.

• Focus on the “real” verb.

• Use parallel structure.

• Use modifiers effectively.

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Use these five guidelinesfor creating effective lists:

• Set off each listed item with a number, a letter, or a symbol (usually a bullet).

• Break up long lists.

• Present the items in a parallel structure.

• Structure and punctuate the lead-in correctly.

• Punctuate the list correctly.

Use parallel structure:

• Use the same grammatical form for coordinate elements in a sentence. – all clauses either active or passive– all verbs either indicative or imperative– all nouns preceded by the same article

• Parallel structure creates a recognizable pattern and makes a sentence easier to follow.

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Use modifiers effectively:

• Distinguish between restrictive and nonrestrictive modifiers.

• Avoid misplaced modifiers.

• Avoid dangling modifiers.

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Choose the right words and phrases:

• Select an appropriate level of formality.• Be clear and specific.• Be concise.• Use inoffensive language.

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Select an appropriate level of formality:

There are three levels of formality:

• informal

• moderately formal

• highly formal

Use a level and tone appropriate for your

• audience

• subject

• purpose

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Use these seven techniquesfor writing clearly and specifically:

• Use the active and passive voice appropriately.

• Be specific.

• Avoid unnecessary jargon.

• Use positive constructions.

• Avoid long noun strings.

• Avoid clichés.

• Avoid euphemisms.

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Use the active andpassive voice appropriately:

Use the active voice unless

• the agent is clear from the context

• the agent is unknown

• the agent is less important than the action

• a reference to the agent is embarrassing, dangerous, or in some other way inappropriate

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Use these three techniquesfor writing specifically:

• Use precise words.

• Provide adequate detail.

• Avoid ambiguity.

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Avoid unnecessary jargon for four reasons:

• It can be imprecise.• It can be confusing.• It is often seen as condescending.• It is often intimidating.

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Be concise:

• Avoid unnecessary prepositional phrases.

• Avoid wordy phrases.

• Avoid fancy words.

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Follow these five guidelinesfor avoiding sexist language:

• Replace the male-gender words with non-gender-specific words.

• Switch to a different form of the verb.

• Switch to the plural.

• Switch to he or she, he/she, s/he, or his or her.

• Address the reader directly.

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Follow these five guidelinesfor using the people-first approach:

• Refer to the person first, the disability second.

• Don’t confuse handicap with disability.

• Don’t refer to victimization.

• Don’t refer to a person as “wheelchair bound” or “confined to a wheelchair.”

• Don’t refer to people with disabilities as abnormal.