CHAPTER 7 & 8: MEMORY, THINKING, LANGUAGE, INTELLIGENCE

AP Psychology

The Nature of Memory

MemoryMemory Internal record or

representation of some prior event or experience

Memories are NOTNOT exact recordings of events

Constructive ProcessConstructive Process Organizing and shaping of

information during processing, storage, and retrieval of memories

Models of Memory

Information-Processing Information-Processing ModelModel Information that we

encounter goes through 3 basic operations

EncodingEncoding: Processing information into the memory system

StorageStorage: Retaining information over time

RetrievalRetrieval: Recovering information from memory storage

Models of Memory

Parallel Distributed Processing Parallel Distributed Processing ModelModel Memory results from weblike

connections among interacting processing units operating simultaneously, rather than sequentially

What does this mean??What does this mean?? When you encounter information, you

don’t analyze it one piece at a time, you take in several features at the same time!

Ex: Seeing a shark in the ocean

Models of Memory

Traditional Three-Stage Memory ModelTraditional Three-Stage Memory Model Memory requires three difference stages to hold and

process information for various lengths of time Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term

memorymemory

Three-Stage Memory Model

Sensory MemorySensory Memory First memory stage that holds

sensory informationsensory information; relatively large large capacitycapacity, but duration is only a few few seconds seconds (just long enough to locate relevant bits relevant bits of data to transfer to longer memory)

Iconic MemoryIconic Memory: visual information Lasts about half a second

Echoic MemoryEchoic Memory: auditory information Lasts up to 4 seconds

Three-Stage Memory Model

Short-Term Memory (STM)Short-Term Memory (STM) Second memory stage that temporarily

stores sensory information and decides whether to send it on to Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Capacity is limited to 5 to 9 items, and duration is about 30 seconds How to make it last longer? Hold more? Maintenance RehearsalMaintenance Rehearsal: RepeatingRepeating

information over and over to maintain it in STM

ChunkingChunking: GroupingGrouping separate pieces of information into a single unit (or chunk)

Three-Stage Memory Model

Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory Third stage of memory that stores information for

long periods of timelong periods of time Its capacity is virtually limitless virtually limitless and its duration is

relatively permanentrelatively permanent 2 Types of Long-Term Memory

Long-Term Memory

Explicit (Declarative) Explicit (Declarative) MemoryMemory Type of long-term memory

that consciously stores facts, information, and personal life experiences

Ex: Social security number, state capitals, etc. Semantic MemorySemantic Memory: Stores

general knowledge Episodic MemoryEpisodic Memory: Stores

memories of personally experienced events

What do we encode?

Semantic Semantic EncodingEncoding Meaning of

words Acoustic Acoustic

EncodingEncoding Sound of

words Visual Visual

EncodingEncoding How words

look

Long-Term Memory

Implicit (Nondeclarative) Implicit (Nondeclarative) MemoryMemory Type of long-term

memory consisting of unconscious procedural procedural skills skills and simple classically conditioned classically conditioned responsesresponses

Memory without awareness!

Ex: Tying shoes, riding a bike, brushing teeth, fear reaction to snakes

How to Improve Memory Encoding Levels of ProcessingLevels of Processing: Degree or

depth of mental processing occurring when material is initially encountered Deeper levels of processing =

more remembering! Elaborative RehearsalElaborative Rehearsal: Linking

new information to previously stored material Not just repeating, but trying to

make sense of it all

Retrieval

Serial Position EffectSerial Position Effect Information at the beginning and end of a list is

remembered better than material in the middle Primacy EffectPrimacy Effect: Info at beginning remembered Recency EffectRecency Effect: Info at end remembered

Retrieval

Retrieval CueRetrieval Cue Clue or prompt that helps stimulate

retrieval of a stored piece of information from LTM

RecallRecall Retrieving a memory using a general

cue (vague, not giving much information)

Ex: Fill-in-the-blank quiz RecognitionRecognition

Retrieving a memory using a specific cue

Ex: Multiple-choice quiz

Retrieval

PrimingPriming Activation, often unconsciously, of

particular associations in memory Ex: Smell the cologne of an ex-boyfriend,

start thinking about a movie you saw with him

Ex: Deja-Vu? Encoding Specificity PrincipleEncoding Specificity Principle

Retrieval of info is improved when current conditions are similar to conditions when it was encoded

Context-dependent, mood congruence, state-dependent

Forgetting

Hermann Ebbinghaus Hermann Ebbinghaus – 1885 Memorized nonsense 3 letter words (SIB, RAL…) Knew it perfectly, then measured how many were

remembered an hour later, a day later, and a week later

Ebbinghaus Forgetting CurveEbbinghaus Forgetting Curve Forgetting is

rapid at first! Then slows down over time.

Relearning Relearning takes less time than initial learning

Forgetting Curve for Spanish

Why do we forget?

Decay TheoryDecay Theory: connections between neurons deteriorate over time if not used

Interference TheoryInterference Theory: two memories are competing Retroactive InterferenceRetroactive Interference: New

information interferes with remembering old

Proactive InterferenceProactive Interference: Old information interferes with remembering new

Why do we forget?

Motivated Forgetting TheoryMotivated Forgetting Theory: according to Freud, we forget unpleasant or anxiety producing unpleasant or anxiety producing info either consciously or consciously or unconsciouslyunconsciously

Encoding Failure TheoryEncoding Failure Theory: info gets to STM, but is not encoded not encoded for storage in LTM (not important enough, not rehearsed)

Retrieval Failure TheoryRetrieval Failure Theory: memories are momentarily inaccessible momentarily inaccessible (tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon)

Key Factors in Forgetting

Misinformation EffectMisinformation Effect Distortion of a memory by

misleading post-event information False memories based on

cues (“How fast was the car going when it smashed into the other?”)

Source AmnesiaSource Amnesia Forgetting the true source

of a memory “I saw it on CNN” when really

heard it from a friend

Key Factors in Forgetting

Sleeper EffectSleeper Effect Info from an unreliable source, which

was initially discounted, later gains credibility because the source is forgotten

Information OverloadInformation Overload Massed PracticeMassed Practice: time spent learning

is grouped into long, unbroken intervals (CRAMMING)

Distributed PracticeDistributed Practice: practice/study sessions are interspersed with rest periods

Biological Basis of Memory

Learning and remembering modifies the brain’s neural networks

Long-Term PotentiationLong-Term Potentiation Prolonged strengthening of neural firing Repeated stimulation causes dendrites to grow,

ability of neurons to accept or release NTs can be changed

Biological Basis of Memory

Flashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb Memories Vivid images of circumstances associated with

surprising or strongly emotional events Ex: 9/11, moonwalk, assassinations Strong hormones emitted, repeated images in mind STILL might not be 100% accurate!

Biological Causes of Memory Loss

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) Skull has a collision with another

object Ex: Car accidents, falls, gunshots, etc.

AmnesiaAmnesia Loss of memory as a result of brain

injury/trauma Retrograde AmnesiaRetrograde Amnesia: Loss of memory

for events that occurred beforebefore the injury

Anterograde AmnesiaAnterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories afterafter a brain injury

Biological Causes of Memory Loss Alzheimer’s DiseaseAlzheimer’s Disease

Progressive mental deterioration characterized by severe memory loss

Occurs most commonly later in life

Biological Causes of Memory Loss Karl Lashley Karl Lashley – 1950

Wanted to know where memories are located

Studied rats who had learned a maze

Lesioned a part of the brain, watched in maze What he found?

No localized memories! Rats could still go through the maze even with parts of the brain removed