2. Memory is an organisms ability to store, retain and
subsequently retrieve information. Memory is one of the most
important cognitive functions , yet one of the easiest to overlook.
What is memory?
3. The Process of Memory Information must be put into memory
before any piece of information can be remembered From an
information processing perspective, there are three main stage in
the formation and retrieval of memory: 1. Encoding or Registration
2. Storage 3. Retrieval or Recall
4. Encoding or Registration Encoding or Registration is the
processing and combining of received information. The process of
encoding need not be deliberate one wherein a person tries to
commit something to memory by rehearsal. Instead encoding happens
even without a persons awareness.
5. Storage Storage is the creation of permanent record of the
encoded information This process involves maintaining the coded
information within the memory system. Many pieces of information
are stored over long period of time.
6. Retrieval or recall Retrieval or recall is calling back the
stored information in response to some cue for use in process or
activity This is the final process of memory that involves finding
the information in storage and then bringing to awareness or
consciousness
7. Reasons we cannot remember a piece of information A.
information was not encoded or was not encoded properly. B. The
information was lost in the storage; and C. The information could
not be retrieve from storage , or any of these three.
8. Classification of Memory Sensory memory corresponds
approximately to the initial 200 500 millisecond after an item is
perceived. The ability to look at item, and remember what it look
like with just a second of observation, or memorization, is an
example of sensory memory
9. Classification of Memory Short-term memory. Some of the
information in the sensory memory is then transferred to short term
memory. Short-term memory allows one to recall to as long as a
minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also limited
10. Classification of Memory Long-term. The storage in sensory
memory and short-term memory have a strictly limited capacity and
duration, which means that information is available for a certain
period of time, but is not retained indefinitely. In contrast,
long-term memory can store much larger quantities of information
for potentially unlimited duration( sometimes a whole
lifespan)
11. The Systems of Memory There are models of memory that
provide abstract representations of how memory is believed to work.
These models are proposed over the years by various psychologists.
1. Multi-store or Atskinson-Shiffrin memory model 2. Working memory
3. Levels of processing
12. The Systems of Memory 1. Multi-store or Atskinson-Shiffrin
memory model was first recognized in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
The multi-store model has been criticized for being too simplistic
For example , long-term memory is believed to be actually made up
of multiple subcomponents, such as episodic and procedural memory
It also propose that rehearsal is the only mechanism by which
information eventually reaches long term storage, but evidence
shows that it is capable of remembering things without
rehearsal.
13. The Systems of Memory Working memory was proposed by
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) which replaced the concept of general
short term memory with specific, active components Working memory
consists of three basic stores: the central executive; the
phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad.
14. Working Memory A. Central executive essentially acts as an
attention, it channels information, to three component processes:
the phonological loop, the visuo- spatial sketchpad and the
episodic buffer. B. Phonological loop stores auditory information
by silently rehearsing sounds or words in a continues loop; the
articulatory process (the inner voice) continuously speaks the
words to the phonological store(the inner ear)
15. Working Memory C. Visio-spatial sketchpad stores visual and
spatial information.it is engaged when performing spatial task
(such as judging distances) or visual ones.
16. Levels of Processing Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed
that it he method and depth of processing that affect how an
experience is stored in the memory, rather than rehearsal. a.
Organization. Mandler (1967) gave participants a pack of word card
and asked them to sort them into any number of piles using any
system of objects.
17. Levels of Processing b. Distinctiveness . Eyesenck and
Eyesenck (1980) asked participants to say words in adistinctive
way, e.g., spell the words out loud. Such participants recalled the
words better than those who simply read them off a list. c. Effort.
Tyler, et al (1979) had participants solve a series of anagrams,
some easy (FAHTER) and some difficult (HREFAT). The participants
recalled the anagrams better, presumably because they put more
effort into them.
18. Strategies for improving memory 1. Biological ways.
Biologically, the best way to improve memory seems to be to
increase the supply of oxygen to the brain. 1. Cognitive Strategies
There are several principles that are relevant to improve your
memory about different things. Relevant to this concern include
elaborative rehearsal, level of processing, organization and
chunking, encoding, minimizing interference and detection of
discrepant information
19. Strategies for improving memory For instance , the
technique using the short-cuts like SMART(specific, measurable,
attainable, responsive and time bounded) to remember the systems of
objective The SQ3R process involves five steps, : Survey, Question,
Read, Recite and Review each promote more extensive processing of
the material being read.
20. THINKING mental behavior wherein ideas, pictures, cognitive
symbolizations, or other hypothetical components of thought are
experienced or manipulated. In this sense, thinking is inclusive of
imagining, recalling, solving problems, free association,
daydreaming, concept formation, and a variety of other
procedures.
21. THINKING Thinking is a mental process that allows a person
to model the world and to deal with it affectively to according to
their goals, plans, ends and desires. Moreover, thinking involves
the cerebral manipulation of information, as one from concepts ,
engage in problem solving, reason and make decisions.
22. KINDS OF THINKING Thinking can be classifies into two:
associated thinking and directed thinking. Associative thinking
.This kind of thinking is uncontrolled or indirect. Some examples
of associative thinking are as follows: 1. Autistic thinking (day
dreaming).This thinking consists of personal needs or satisfaction.
The term autistic was derived from the Greek word autos which means
self.
23. Associative thinking 2. Nightdreaming. One of the most
controversial interpretation of night dreaming is based from Freuds
theory. According to him, dream is one way to tap the unconscious
part of the mind. The content of our dream from the point of view
of a psychoanalysis has two types: the latent and manifest
content.
24. Associative thinking A. Latent. The hidden content of our
dreams, or the interpretation of the manifest content. B. Manifest
content. The visible content of the dreams as it occurs to the
dreamer. 3. Eidetic imagery. The commonly called photographic
memory.
25. Directed thinking B. Directed thinking. This kind of
thinking is directed toward a particular goal. Examples of the
Directed thinking are as follows: 1. Critical thinking. It involves
in evaluation and judgment. 2. Creative thinking. Producing new
forms of ideas to solve a particular problem.
26. Directed thinking 3. Brainstorming. Exchanging of ideas to
form a solution to a problem or in decision making. 4. Problem
Solving. It is the process of utilizing available materials,
information and existing method to reach a solution.
27. Steps in Problem Solving 1. Awareness of the problem 2.
Identification of the problem 3. Generating alternatives 4.
Selecting the best form of alternatives 5. Making hierarchical plan
6. Implementing the plan
28. Aids to thinking The following can help you to process your
thinking 1. Use of models, symbols, diagrams and pictures. 2. Use
of abstraction to simplify the effort of thinking 3. Use of
metasyntactic variables to simplify the effort of naming 4. Use of
iteration and recursion to converge on a concept. 5. Limitation of
attention to aid concentration and focus on a concept.
29. Aids to thinking 6. Use of peace and quiet to aid
concentration. 7. Goal setting and goal revision, Simply letting
the concept percolate in the subconscious, and waiting for the
concept to re-surface. 8. Talking with like-minded people.
Resorting to communication with others, if it is allowed. 9.
Working backward from the goal 10. Desire for learning.
30. INTELLIGENCE What is Intelligence ? Intelligence is the
ability to understand complex ideas, to adopt effectively to the
environment, to learn from experience, to engage to various forms
of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. -According
to American Psychological Association in 1995.
31. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE Theories
of intelligence hold that intelligence can be measured by
intelligence tests. but some researchers are dissatisfied with that
notion and argue that intelligence test is not enough to define
intelligence
32. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE HOWARD GARDNERS THEORY OF MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE- ability to understand the
feelings and intentions of others. INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE-
ability to understand ones own feelings and motivations LINGUISTIC
INTELLIGENCE- ability to effectively manipulate language to express
oneself rhetorically or poetically.
33. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE-
ability to detect patterns, reason persuasively and think
logically. E. MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE- capacity to recognize and
compose musical pitches, tones and rhythms. NATURALIST
INTELLIGENCE-enables human being to recognize, categorize and draw
upon certain features of the environment. SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE-
ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve
problems BODILY-KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE-ability to use ones mental
abilities to coordinate ones own bodily movement.
34. TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE 2. TRIARCHIC THEORY OF
INTELLIGENCE BY ROBET STERNBERGS Intelligence has three fundamental
aspects, the analytic, creative and practical (good at problem
solving) He suggested that there must be a balance of the three
mentioned aspects.
35. THURSTONES MULTIFACTOR THEORY THURSTONES MULTIFACTOR THEORY
This theory was formulated by an American psychologist LOUIS L.
THURTONE. He stressed that individual have at least seven primary
mental abilities namely: verbal ability, number, spatial,
perpetual, memory, reasoning and word fluency
36. MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION OF INTELLIGENCE One of the most
widely used instruments to measure and evaluate intelligence is by
means of intelligence test. STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE
(SBIS)- this test was originally designed to measure the mental
abilities of school children.
37. MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION OF INTELLIGENCE The formula for
intelligence quotient is Whereas : IQ = intelligence quotient MA =
Mental age CA = chronological or actual age Formula IQ=MA/CA x
100
38. Stanford - Binet Classification of Intelligence 140
above--------------------Very Superior
120-140-----------------------Superior
110-120-----------------------High Average 90
110-----------------------Normal or Average
80-90---------------------------Below Average
70-80---------------------------Borderline 50-70
---------------------------Moron 25-50
---------------------------Imbecile 25
Below----------------------Idiot
39. WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE (WAIS) this test was
designed to measure the general intelligence of adult. WECHSLER
CLASSIFICATION OF INTELLIGENCE 128 and over--------------Very
Superior 120-127---------------------Superior
111-119---------------------Bright normal
91-110-----------------------Average
80-90-------------------------DullNormal
66-79-------------------------Borderline 65 and
below---------------Defective
40. MENTALLY RETARDED According to the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of mental Disorders( DSM-IV),the characteristics
of a mentally retarded are as follows -below 70 IQ -difficulty in
performing adaptive behavior -difficulty in performing adaptive
behavior became apparent before the age of 18 Adaptive behavior
refers to the skills needed to ive independently that are minimally
acceptable level for ones age.
41. THREE LEVELS OF MENTALLY RETARDED MORON-educable mentally
retarded with a mental age of 12 years and an IQ level of 50-70
IMBECILE-trainable mentally retarded with a mental age of 7 years
and an IQ level of 25-50 IDIOT-custodial mentally retarded with a
mental age of 3 year old and an IQ level of below 25
42. THE MENTALLY GIFTED In 1972, Marlad describes gifted
students as those who give evidence of high achievement capability
in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic or leadership
capacity, or in specific academic fields. Specifically, the
characteristics of mentally gifted are as follows 1. 130 IQ and
above; 2. Usually talented or gifted; and, 3. Academically
superior
