Chapter Twenty-Five

Late Adulthood: Psychosocial Development

PowerPoints prepared by Dr. Robert Neff, Brookhaven College

Theories of Late Adulthood

• Three Types of Theories– self theories– stratification theories– dynamic theories

• Based on premise that adults make choices, confront problems, and interpret reality to be themselves as fully as possible– people begin to self-actualize, as Maslow

described it– each person ultimately depends on

himself or herself

Self Theories

Integrity Versus Despair

• Erikson’s eighth and final stage— Integrity vs. Despair– older adults seek to integrate their unique

experience with their vision of community

• Ideally, reality of death brings “life-affirming involvement” in present

• The more positively a person feels about him- or herself, the less depression or despair is felt

Identity Theory

• Identity Challenged in Late Adulthood – as health, appearance, employment, crumble

• Two Extremes of Coping– identity assimilation—new experiences

incorporated into stable sense of identity • distortion of reality and denial anything major

changed

– identity accommodation—altering self-concept to adapt to new experiences • viewed as an over-adjustment

Selective Optimization

• Older person chooses to cope with physical and cognitive losses

• Older person makes selective changes to cope with losses

• This readiness to make changes is a measure of strength of the self

Stratification Theories

• Social forces limit individual choice and direct life at every stage, especially late adulthood

Stratification By Age• Disengagement Theory vs. Activity Theory• Disengagement theory—aging increasingly

narrows one’s social sphere, resulting in role relinquishment, withdrawal, passivity

• Activity theory—elderly people need to remain active in a variety of social spheres—with relatives, friends, and community groups. If elderly withdraw, they do so unwillingly due to ageism– dominant view now supports activity theory

Dynamic Theories

• Dynamic theories—emphasize change and readjustment rather than either the ongoing self or legacy of stratification

• Continuity theory—each person experiences changes of late adulthood and behaves towards others in much the same way as he or she did earlier in life– adaptive change– dynamic response

Chosen Activities

• Employment has many advantages, but it is not typically something person has a choice about doing

• One positive aspect of retirement: allows freedom to be one’s own person—to choose one’s main activities– e.g., in areas of education, helping

others, religion, politics

Continuing Education• Elderhostel—program in which people aged

55 and older live on college campuses and take special classes– usually during college vacation periods

• Around the world, thousands of learning programs filled with retirees

• Many elderly hesitate to take classes with mostly younger students– if they overcome this fear, typically find they

earn excellent grades

Volunteer Work• Higher percent of elderly adults have strong

commitment to their community and believe they should be of service – older adults especially likely to volunteer to

assist the young, very old, or sick

• 40 percent of the elderly are involved in structured volunteering– many of the other 60 percent volunteer

informally

• elderly benefit, but not if forced to volunteer

• Religious faith increases with age– increase in prayer and religious practice

• Research shows religious institutions are particularly important to older Americans who may feel alienated from overall society

Religious Involvement

Political Activism

• Elderly more so than any other age group• Know more about national and local issues• Political participation translates into power

– ARRP—major organization representing elderly, is largest U.S. special interest group

• Most elderly are interested in wider social concerns—e.g., war, peace, the environment

Home, Sweet Home

• Many busy maintaining home and yard• Some move, but most want to age in

place, even if adult children have moved far away– naturally occurring retirement community

(NORC) created when they stay in neighborhood they moved into with young children

• One result of aging in place is that many elderly live alone

Long-Term Marriages

• Spouse buffers many problems of old age

• Married elders generally are– healthier– wealthier– happier

• Divorce is rare in late adulthood• Widowhood is common• Death of a spouse eventually occurs

for half of all older married people• Adjustment to loss varies depending

on sex of surviving partner• Many older widows come to enjoy

their independence

Losing a Spouse

• 4 x as many widows as widowers• Because women take better care of

their health, they live longer than men• Husband’s death is never easy• Death can mean loss of close friend,

social circle, income, and status• Widows do not usually seek another

husband

Widows

• Living without a spouse is more difficult for men

• Widowers often lack social support• Historical gender differences make

adjustment more difficult– have restrictive notions of masculine

behavior

Widowers

The Frail Elderly

• Defined as—over 65, physically infirm, very ill, or cognitively impaired

• Activities of daily life (ADLs)– bathing, walking, toileting, dressing,

and eating– inability to perform these tasks sign

of frailty

The Frail Elderly, cont.

• Instrumental activities of daily life (IADLs)– vary from culture to culture– require some intellectual competence – in developed countries: phone calls,

paying bills, taking medication, shopping for groceries

– in rural areas of other nations: feeding chickens, cultivating the garden, getting water from the well

Increasing Prevalence of Frail Elderly• At any moment, no more than 2 percent of

world population are frail elders• Increasing number for 4 reasons

– more people reach old age– medical establishment geared toward death

prevention rather than life enhancement– medical care now prolongs life– measures that could prevent or reduce

impairment often unavailable to people with low incomes

Caring for the Frail Elderly

• Most are cared for by relatives– In North America, 60 percent, by family

and friends– Other 40 percent, combination of family,

friends, and professional care– Current U.S. trend: husbands and wives

care for each other until this becomes impossible

The Demands of Family Care

• Toll of home caregiving is heavy– caregiver’s physical health suffers and

depression increases– caregiver often has to give up other

activities – when caregiver is appreciated by others

for efforts, he or she may feel fulfilled by the experience

Nursing Homes• Most elderly want to avoid them at all costs

– believe they are horrible places

• In U.S., the worst tend to be those run for-profit, where patients are mostly on Medicare and Medicaid– But, overall, abuse has been reduced

• In the United States and Europe, good nursing-home care available for those who can afford it