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They have more or less lost their natural firmness andconsistence ; are readily torn across ; the varicosities areeasily enlarged by pressure, and, when separated or

broken off, assume a globular form. The tubes also aremore or less broken down. No exudation granules,masses, or corpuscles, can be detected.-Idem.THE CAUSES OF NON-INFLAMMATORY SOFTENING OF THE

BRAIN ARE.

Four in number, 1st, mechanical violence in ex-

posing the nervous centres; 2nd, a mechanical breakingup of the nervous tissue, by haemorrhagic extravasations,either in mass or infiltrated in small isolated points,constituting capillary apoplexy; 3rd, the mere imbibi-tion of effused serum, which loosens the connectionbetween the nervous tubes, and diminishes the consis-tence of the nervous tissue ; 4th, the process of putrefac-tion.-Idem.

CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.

TEST FOR STRYCHNINE.

WHEN a very minute quantity of strychnine is tritu-rated with a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid

containing 100th of its weight of nitric acid, the strych-nine disappears without exhibiting any peculiar appear-ance, but if to the mixture the smallest amount of freeoxide of lead be added, a magnificent blue colour is in-

stantly produced, which passes rapidly into a violet, andthen into red, and after a few hours terminates in a

canary-yellow. This reaction is characteristic of strych-nine. When very minute portions of strychnine are tobe operated on, it is best to triturate a particle of per-oxide of lead with an alkali, and then drop upon the drypowder a single drop of the acid liquid.-E. MARCHAND.

Drs. Erdmann and Marchand have confirmed this

statement, so important to medico-legal inquiries ; andthey state that the reaction is very beautiful and distincton employing pure strychnine in extremely minute pro-portions. Thus, with a mixture of 180 grains of milkand 1-130th of a grain of strychnine, in the liquid filteredfrom the coagulated caseine peroxide of lead produced adistinctly red colour, at first exhibiting a slight violettint. Drs. E. and M. recommend that the sulphuric acidshould be diluted with about one-fourth of water.-Che-mical Gazette, June 15.

INFUSION OF GALLS FOR USE AS A TEST.

Infuse one ounce of pounded galls in four ounces ojwater for several hours ; strain with pressure. Add tothe turbid fluid two ounces of common salt, and filter.The filtrate retains its transparency and power of precipi-tating gelatine for years.-Chemical Gazette, June 15.

SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON.

Mr. R. Phillips, Jun., in a paper published in thePharmaceutical Journal of June 1, points out the objec-tion to the form of the London College for preparing per-oxide of iron, that it leaves a portion of carbonate o1

protoxide in admixture with the product. With respectto the method proposed by Dr. Faraday, of fusing toge-ther common salt and protosulphate of iron, Mr.

Phillips says that in order to make the decomposi-tion perfect, it is necessary to keep the mixture at a

great heat for a long time, which leaves the sesquioxideof iron in a state of aggregation similar to that of mica-ceous iron ore, and not easily acted upon by acids.A hydrated sesquioxide of iron is now often required as

an antidote for arsenic, and for the preparation of thecitrate of iron. The Edinburgh college gives a formwhich Mr. Phillips says is both tedious and expensive,and he proposes to substitute a method avoiding boththese objections." 12 equivalents, or 1668 parts of protosulphate of iron,

and 12 equivalents or 1728 parts of crystallised carbonateof soda, are to be dissolved separately in boiling water;the two solutions mixed while hot, and the mixtureboiled ; whilst boiling, 1 equivalent, or 124 parts of chlo-rate of potass, previously dissolved, are to be added."The 6 equivalents of oxygen of the chlorate of potas,

unite with the 12 of protoxide of iron, precipitate andconvert it into peroxide ; a perfectly pure se.squioxide ofiron remains, which Mr. Phillips says he found to be,when washed, readily soluble in acids." When dried at 212° the peroxide appears to form a.

definite hydrate, of a brownish orange colour, consistingof 1 atom on 9 parts of water, combined with 1 atom or40 parts of peroxide."

*** This is an ingenious adaptation of the oxidisingpower of chlorate of potass; but we caution our readersagainst trusting to the peroxide of iron so produced,either as an antidote for arsenic or a remedy for tic-dou-loureux. Orfila and others have incontrovertibly provedthat it is necessary for the peroxide of iron to be takenafter precipitation, and whilst still in the state of a gelati-nous mass, in order to combine with arsenic. When

dried, even at common temperatures, the peroxideloses water, and it remains to be proved that this wateris only a mechanical admixture. Certainly after dryingit is by no means so readily acted upon by weak acids.The peroxide prepared by Mr. Phillips’ method, accord-ing to our experience, is not readily acted on by weakacids even before drying, but after it is dried at a tem-

perature of 212°, it is scarcely touched by weak acids,unless by boiling, and even then it is by no means readilysoluble; so that the peroxide prepared by this process isfit neither for an antidote to arsenic nor for preparing thecitrates of iron.

With respect to its employment internally, it is highlyprobable that pure peroxide of iron is quite inert; experi-ments are needed to establish the fact, but at present itis probable that the efficient agent in the peroxide ofiron of commerce for the relief of neuralgia is the ad-hering proto carbonate. The saccharine carbonate ofthe Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia presents an excellentmeans of deciding this question; and we strongly advisepractitioners to try it in tic and other cases where per-oxide is usually prescribed.PREPARATION OF MALIC ACID FROM GARDEN RHUBARB.

The general impression with respect to the acid whichimparts to the culinary rhubarb its agreeable flavour isthat it is the oxalic, and Dr. Prout has expressed so strongan opinion upon the danger of its use that it will be withsome surprise many will learn that it contains a far largerproportion of malic acid. Mr. Everett in the" Pro-

ceedings of the Chemical Society," states that an impe-rial gallon of the juice of the leaf-stalks of gardenrhubarb contains-

Grains.Malic acid, dry ........................ H1S9.2Oxalic acid, dry ........................ 320.6Citric acid .............................. A trace.Potass combined with organic acids and

chlorine. Soda with sulphuric acid, phos-phoric acids, a trace of silica, and a littlevegetable extract...................... 229.6

Mr. Everett further alleges that it affords a convenientsource of malic acid, and to obtain this acid the stalksshould be peeled (as the cuticle contains much colouringmatter), cut into small pieces, and subjected, in a strongcanvas bag, to a powerful press. By this means 20,000grains of the peeled stalks yielded 12,500 grains of juice,and left 2,850 grains of damp fibre, which, washed anddried at 212°, weighed 800 grains, equal to four per cent.of ligneous fibre. The juice varies in its specific gravityand strength with varieties in the stalks.To the expressed juice cream of lime is to be added

until it manifests a feebly acid reaction ; boil and filter.To the filtrate add nitrate of lead, allow it to stand a fewhours, boil for a short time, allow it to cool, and separatethe malate of lead from the supernatant fluid. Treat themalate of lead with sulphuric acid, and separate thesulphate of lead formed by filtration. Decolour thesolution with sulphuretted hydrogen, which also removes

420

the soluble malate of lead, and evaporate the malic acidin a steam or water-bath. The concentration may becarried further under an air-pump, in the usual way.The composition of malic acid is the same as that of

citric acid, C4 H2 04,

THE LANCET.LONDON, SATURDAY, JUNE 22ND, 1844.

MEDICAL BILL.-MEDICAL EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA.

THE introduction of the Medical Bill by Sir JAMESGRAHAM is again postponed. The motion now stands

for Tuesday next, the 25th instant. The period of thesession of Parliament is now so far advanced that Mini-

sters cannot seriously contemplate, in the very short

time which would now be allowed for its consideration,

enacting into a law a measure which must affect nearly30,000 practitioners in medicine directly, and the whole

community of the empire indirectly. All we have to

advise at this moment is, that the profession will be fullyprepared to encounter, by a determined and strenuous

opposition, any and every attempt which may be madeto hurry such a measure through Parliament, unless theBill be of such a nature as to satisfy the profession-acircumstance which we by no means expect.

. THE universities of Prussia, uniting the four facultiesof medicine, theology, philosophy, and law, are six in

number: Berlin, Halle, Kcenigsberg, Breslau, Greiswald,and Bonn. The teaching body is composed of three gradesof professors : the titulary professors (professores ordi-narii), the assistant professors (professores extraordinarii),the private professors (privati docentes). The two former

are regularly paid; the latter have no fixed salary. The

members of the senate or academical board are drawn

from among the titulary professors. The rector, the

university judge (Unirersitaets Richter), and the deans,are members ex officio. The election of the deans takes

place annually.The Faculty of Medicine of Berlin is actually com-

posed of fourteen chairs, occupied by fourteen titularyprofessors :-1. General anatomy and anatomy of the sen-sitive apparatuses (Professor J. MULLER). 2. Descriptiveanatomy (Professor SCHLEMM). 3. Medical pathologyand clinique (Professor SCHOENLEIN). 4. General phy-siology (Professor HORKEL). 5. Comparative physiologyand micrography (Professor EHRENBERG). 6. Botanyand pharmacy (Professor LINK). 7. General pathologyand materia medica (Professor ScHULTZ). 8. General

and special surgery, clinical surgery (Professor DIEFFEN-BACH). 9. Operative surgery, clinical surgery (ProfessorJUENGKEN). 10. Midwifery (Professor BUSCH). 11. Legalmedicine (Professor CASPER). 12. Sanitary police, publichygiene (Professor WAGNER). 13. History of medicine,encyclopedy, and methodology (Professor HECKER).14. Syphilitical diseases, special therapeutics of acute

and chronic diseases (Professor HORN). These professorsare assisted by eleven assistant, or extraordinary, andthirteen private professors.The other universities of the kingdom are less com-

plete, less favoured, than that of Berlin. Thus the Fa-

culty of Medicine of Hallé has only five titulary andfour private professors. In all the universities the ac-

cessory sciences are taught by the professors of the facultyof philosophy.No student is allowed to matriculate as a member of

any of the faculties of Prussia unless he present a cer-

tificate, certifying that he has terminated his classicalstudies in a college (gyrnnasill1lt), and has passed the11 abiturienten examen" (examen abiturorum in univer-

sitatem). This is the classical degree, or degree in arts.

On matriculating the student receives a card, on whichis printed a list of all the lectures he is expected to follow

during the course of his studies. Each course lasts six

months, and costs the student ten thalers (about l l.11s.)The entire medical curriculum exacted for the degree ofdoctor occupies four years, and is called the " quadri-" ennum academicum." The lectures are delivered three

times a week by the professors, and each course lasts sixmonths. The students are under no restrictions as to

the order in which they attend these lectures, and haveno medical examinations to undergo until they arrive atthe termination of their studies. The result of so de-

fective an organisation is, that during the first two orthree years of their university residence they do little or

nothing, devoting their time to amusement and idleness.

During the last year they in vain attempt to recover thelost time, and are obliged to resort to a wholesale systemof grinding, in order to be ready to pass the final exa-minations. Out of a hundred pupils, says Dr. HOEFER,there are not five who seriously employ the entire periodallotted to study.During the first year, what little time they give to

science is generally devoted to the lectures on natural

philosophy, chemistry, botany, mineralogy, zoology, logic,and psychology. These sciences constitute the absolu-

torium philosophicum, or, the reunion of the preparatorysciences, on which an examination has to be undergoneat the Faculty of Philosophy before the doctor’s degreecan be obtained. The dean of the Faculty of Medicineis obliged to be present at this examination. The expenseof the examination is ten thalers.

The second and third years are, or ought to be, de-voted to anatomical studies, to physiology, pathologicalanatomy, external and internal pathology, legal medi-

cine, toxicology, and the history of medicine. These: studies are generally purely theoretical ; dissection even. is optional, and, as might be anticipated, the dissection

rooms are seldom crowded with pupils. In some faculties

l there is a great want of subjects, as a very small pro-: portion, only, of those who die in the hospitals are given, over to the anatomical rooms. This is owing to the· popular prejudice against dissection being very general

in Germany. The fourth, or last year, is employed in> the study of midwifery, and of external and internal

clinical medicine in the hospitals. It is the period allottedthe practical examination of disease.The clinical studies in the German faculties appear