CHILDREN IN THE SPOTLIGHT

Emotional Correiates of Cooperative Performance

in Early Adolescence

Janet Robertson Sinclair

A thesis submitted in conformity with the rcquirements Cor the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Human Development and Applied Psychology University of Toronto

O Copyright by Janet Robertson Sinclair 1997

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CHILDREN IN THE SPOTLIGHT

Emotional Correlates of Cooperative Performance

in Early Adolescence

Doctor of Philosophy, 1997

Janet Robertson Sinclair

Graduate Department of Human Development and A p p k d Psychology

University of Toronto

It is generally recognized that ernotions play a part in the adjustment of çhildren to

school. Less is known. however. about the relationship between emotions and coopentive

performance, a crucial issue wi th today 's greater ernphasis on cooperative lcarning in the

classroom. Participants for this comparative study were recruited from SC hools for the

performing arts. a rcgular school's music prograrnmc. and a precision skating tearn. thcrehy

sampling a rangc of comrnitment and expertise. During the wcek of stage production.

adolescents (52 boys. 140 girls. ages I l - 15) kept structured emotion diaries (Oatlcy &

Duncan. 1994) which they filled out both before and aftera tïnal rehearsal. as well as before

and &ter the açtual performance. Proportions of positive versus negative ernotions were

significantly different as a function of performance condition. Q = 50.87. df = 3. p c .O00 1.

Negative emotions in rehearsal wcrc due to fatigue. boredorn. fcar of appeanng foolish in

front of peers. frustration with technical mishaps, or anger with authonty tïgures Tor

unrcasonable directives or un fair criticism. Positive emo tions dter rehearsal or perîormance

wcre. of course, contingent upon successful outcome. Prior to performance. adolescents were

susceptible to anticipatory anxiety - highest for the most expert performers. For thc

performance process as a whole, however, happiness was by far the most frequently

experienced emotion. This phenornenon is in accordance with Csikszentmihalyi & Larson's

(1984) finding that ans and sports were the most intrinsically rewarding activities For

teenagers. Performance groups differed significantly, no t in pre-performance anticipation. but

in post-event evaluation, x2 (4. N = 178) = 52.85 and 70.88, respectively. ps < .O00 1. These

results support Oatley's (1992) emphasis on cognitive evaluation in emotion and Gordon's

( 1990) distinction between factive and episternic emotions. Perfonners were not ovenvhelmed

by their emotions. On the contrary. they demonstrated a rational focus on issues central to

their performance task. This tinding is consistent with a goal-based theoretical position

(Oatley & Johnson-Laird. 1996). Diaries retlected a pattern of progression from rehearsal to

final production: Emotions appeared to be playing a functional role in the process of

preparation. evaluation, and management of coopentive performance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Cirst and forernost my supervisor, Dr. Keith Oatley. for his encouragement at the initial conception of this research and his steadfast support throughout. His penetrating insight in comprehending exactly what I was trying to communicate and his uncompromising attention to detail motivated me to suive for clarity of thought and quality of expression in writing this thesis.

1 wish to extend my appreciation to the members o l my thesis cornmittee: Dr. Dan Keating, For taking an interest in the study from the very beginning. for

immediately recognizing its complexity, and for his decisive appraisals which cul directly to the critical substance and the core of the work,

Dr. Bonnie Robson. whose detailed scrutiny of the proposa1 was instrumental in prompting me to procced careiülly in my use of terminology and who shared with rnc hcr research on taiented adolescents at high school.

Dr. Solveiga Miezitis who provided reinforcement and reassurance during the Fial stage of my doctoral journey.

I am indebtcd as well to the contributions of my extemal examinerhppraiscr. Dr. Gerald Adams. for his perceptive cornments and to Dr. Marcel Danesi, the extra-departmental examiner, for his enthusiasm.

1 am grateful to Sue Elgie. who helped me imrneasurably by suggesting appropriate statistical procedures to analyse the mmy faccts of this study.

The field projects would not have been possible without the çooperation of the North York Board of Education, the Toronto Board of Education, the Metropolitan Separate School Board. and the administrative and secretanal staff of the four schools.

Those who werc directly involved with the artistic development of the participants descm special mention: the artistic directors and the drarna, dance, art, music, and skating aachers whose detemination and expectations made the performances possible and memonble.

1 owe much to the children in the spotlight, those early adolescents, who shared with me k i r doubts and fears as well as their excitemeni and happiness. My admiration and respect for them developed during their final week of pxfonnance and continued to grow during the reading of their diaries.

My own children were my inspiration. Rebecca assisted me with data entry. coding, and her patience. S ~ a n was rny artistic consultant. Both he and Gavin provided invaluable cornputer advice. Daniel added dry wit and sardonic humour.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page Abstnct Acknow ledgements

Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures List o l Appendices

1. INTRODUCTION

School performance a. School stage performance and coopentive leaming b. School stage performance and expertise c. Performance pandigm as an investigative contcxt

Performance and anxiety a. Performance anxiety b. Math anxiety

Adolescents at school

Early adolescents in transition

Interna1 and external adolescent landscape a. The cxperience sampling rnethod 6. Extemal coordinatcs/internai dimensions of experiencc c. Teenage tirne management d. Intrinsic motivation

Ernotion diaries and everyday emotions a. Emotion diary research 6. Basic emotions and emotion theory c. Emotion diaries and adolescents

Summary of the literature review

Statement of purpose a. Research questions and expectations

Working together toward the goal Emotion intensity. Emotion type. Gender differences in emo tion type.

Adolescent emotional semantics, off stage Personal interactions as triggers of emotion

b. Hypotheses

2. METHOD

2.1. Subjects a. Recruiunent of Subjects

Board of education approvals Administrative consent Preparing participants and individual infomed consent Method of obtaining infomed parental consent Remuneration Feedback Criteria for inclusion in study

b. Chuacteristics of Subject Sample E d y Arts 1 & 2 Latc Arts Music Skate Rcpresentativcness

2.2. Instrument a. Description of the diarics b. Coding

2.3. Procedure and Settings a. Procedure b. Settings & sequence of rehearsd. performance & diary

2.4 Description of the Variables a. Independent Variables b. Dependent Variables

3. RESULTS

3.1 Performance description and evaluation

3.2 Intensity of emotion as a function of Performance Condition a. Intensity of ernotion according to group b. Intensity according to gender

3 .3 Emotion Types a. Group ernotion profiles as a function of Performance Condition. b. Personal performance emotion patterns c. Positivehegative emo tions:

Performance Conditions distinct? Cornparison of groups within each Performancc Condition

Ingredients OP Emotion Types a. Ingredients of Happiness/joy as a function of Performance Condition b. None of the Above as a function of Performance Condition c. Fear/anriety Be fore Re hearsal and Be fore Performance ç. Angerhm'tation d. Sadn ess/grief

3.5 Mixed Emotion T v ~ e s

3.6 Performance-specific Concerns 5 1 a. Early Aïs I performers as a function of Performance Condition b. Early Arts 2 performers as a function of Performance Condition c. Late Arts perfomers as a function of Performance Condition d. Music students as a function of Performance Condition e. Skaters as a function of Performance Condition

3 . 7 What these adolescents enjoyed most about perforrning

4. DISCUSSION 4.1 Working together towards the goal: Emotion Type

and Intensity as a function of Performance Condition a. Intensity

Over the performance process: "Across" Performancc Conditions 'Within" each Performance Condition Group differences Gender differences

b. Emotion Type Over the performance process: "Across" Performance Conditions Group di fferences: "Within" Performancc Conditions

c. Pragmatics of emotions in performance Ingredients of %asic" Emotion Types Mixed "basic" Ernotion Types Gendcr differences in mixed emotions

d. Pcrformancc-specific Concems e. Functionality of adolescent emotions in performance C Performance paradigm as an investigativc contcxt

4.2 Performance A nxiety 4.3 School stage perf~rrnance and expertise 4.4 Early adolescent performers in transition 4.5 Cooperation/companionship in performance

a. Cooperative performance b. Companionship. cornpetition. and conversation.

4.6 General Implications a Thcoretical implications b. Research implications c. Applicd implications

4.7 Limitations a. Design and intemal validity b. Extemal validity and generalizability c. Analyses and statistical power d- Mcasurement

4.8 Future directions

Conclusion

5. REFERENCES

6. APPENDICES

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Representativeness of Sarnple

Table 2. Evaluation of Stage Performance by Music Teachers

Table 3. Group Means and Standard Deviations of Intensity of Emotion as a Function of

Performance Condition

Table 4. Most Frequent Emotion Type Patterns of Each Ciroup

Table 5 . The Percentage of Each Group Who Chose Positive or Ncgative Emotion Types Within the Beforc Rehearsal Condition

Table 6. The Pcrcentage of Each Group Who Chose Positive or Negativt. Emotion Tyvs Within the Al-tcr Rehearsd Condition

Table 7. Ce11 Contributions to the Total Chi-Square After Rehearsd

Tablc 8. The Percentage of Each Group Who Chose Positivc or Negative Emotion Typcs

Within the Beforc Perî'onnance Condition

Tablc 9. The Pcrccntüge of Each Group Who Chose Positive or Negativc Emotion Types Within thc Afkr Pcrtbrmance Condition

Table 10. Individual CeIl Contributions to the Total Chi Square Afwr Pcrfomance

Table 1 1. The Percentage of Subjects (Within the Hczppiness Classiîïcaiion) Who Providcd These Words as Their Name for the Ernotion Coded as Happincss/joy

Table 12. The Pcrcentage of Subjects (Within the FeadAnxiey Classification) Who Providcd These Words as Their Name for the Emotion Coded as Fear/&-

Table 13. Combinations of Emotion Types and Their Occurrence in Each Performance

Condition

Table 14. The Percentage of Adolescents Who Chose "Artistic Exprtssion" or "Being With

the Other Performers" or their Combination

Table 15. Percentage of Members of Band, Strings. or Choir Who Chose "Artistic Expression" Only Versus "Being With the Other Performcrs"

LIST OF FIGURES

Figurc 1. Mean intensity of emotion for each group as a function of performance condition.

Figurc 2. The percentage of each Emotion Type chosen within cach group as a function of Performance Condition, separately Tor each group.

Figure 3. The percentagc of Emotion Type AngrrArrittnrion, Fe;u/c~mie~. and Happiness&v

chosen by each group as a function of Performance Condition. separately for each Emotion Type.

Figure 4. The number of subjects who provided each of the abovc words (or thèir cquivalcnts) as their name for the cmotion or mood they were feeling, which was coded as Happirress/joy.

Figure 5. The number of subjects who provided the words "tired" or "normal" as their name for the crnotion or mood they werc keling. codcd as Nor~e of the Above.

Figure 6. The numbcr of subjects who provided the words "nervous". "anxious". "embarrassed" or "fear" (or their equivalents) as their name for the cmotion or niood they wcre fccling, coded as Fenr/crnxiefy

Figure 7. Pcrcentagr: o f EarIy Arts 1 subjccts who chcckcd rrbilties. arrdiencz. ufiirr perfomwrs, or thcir combinations or who chccked "no" to al1 three questions.

Figure 8. Percentage of Early Arts 2 subjects who chccked <ihilries. ciitdirncr. orlier per/omrrs.

or their combinations or who chccked "no" to al1 threc questions.

Figurc 9. Pcrcentage of Late Arts subjects who checked abilties. niidierrce. oflierperJComrrs. or their combinations or who checked "no" to al1 three questions.

Figure 10. Percentage of Music subjects who checked abilties, crudierice. other per/ormers. or their combinations or who checked "no" to al1 three questions.

Figure 1 1. The percentage of Skaters who responded "ycs" to one or more of the

performance-specific or cornpetition-specific Concerns.

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A: Perfonuice diary

Appendix B: Parental consent tom

Appendix C: Recmitment taWInsiructions to subjects

Appendix D: Envelope atiachrnents

1. Brief instruction regarding procedure

2. Question on feed-back

Appendix E. Coding instructions

CHILDREN IN THE SPOTLIGHT

Emotional Correlates of Cooperative Performance in Early Adolescence

No marter what the subject ma- be. there is on& one coiirsr for the beginnec he mrrrt arfirsr accept a aiiscilpline frorn withoiit, blit only as the means of obtaining freedom for, and strrngthening hirnself in. his personal me thodr of expression.

(Igor Stravinsky, cited in Gardner. 1993. p. 192)

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 School Performance

It is generally recognized that emotions play a part in the adjustment of children to thc

school system. Less is known. however. about the relationship between cmotions and

conspicuous performance at school. a crucial issue with today's greater emphasis on active

student participation in the classroom and on coopemtive leaming in general. Group Iearning

requires that the individual estahlish and maintain a working rclationship with other memhcrs

of the class. Not only does the child have to produce for the teacher. as in thc past. hc or shc

now is also exposed to the criticism or approval of other rnernbers of thc group within thc

classroom. This situation brings into play social-psychological pressures of group interaction

which may enhance or hinder the learning process.

a. School Stage Performance and Cooperative Learning

Whereas cooperative learning is a relatively new focus of academic education. i t has

long k e n an integral part of the school ans programme. A stage performanceembodies the

basic elements of cooperative Iearningl (Johnson. Johnson. & Holubec. 1994; Johnson.

Johnson. Holubec, & Roy, 1984)): positive interdependence (the perception that one is linked

1. The Principal of the Early Arts school brought this ta my attention.

1

with othcrs in ri common t'fbrt. so that one's success is tied to that of the wholc group).

individrial accorrntubility. face-to-face inrrrnction, social colluborativ~ skills (in tcrperso nal and

small group skills). and groupprocessing (giving students the time and procedures to andyze

how well their groups are functioning). Preparing for the annual concert or school drarna

production has always necessitated collaborative effort

b. S~hool Stage Performance und Expertise

It is proposed that the arts and sports programmes. oîkred by most schools to a greater

or lesscr degree. demand the kind of selkxposure and cooperative effort now being inkgratcd

into the academic requirements starting in elementary schools. In order to investigate the

relationship between emotions and self-conscious performance. thcrefore, I chose as my target

population groups of e-rpen performers. This decision to look at the experts in order to

discover the underlying dynamics of emotion and performance was motivated by Bcrciter &

Scardamalia's ( 1993) approach wherein they looked at experts' reading and writing proccsses

in order to discovcr expcrt stratcgies to help struggling readers and writers (as opposed to

providing remedial treatment for a disability). Thsy acknowledge the importance of traditional

aspects of expertise such as knowledge. training. and expenence, but conceivc of expertise as

a method, "as something people do rather than as something they have" ( 1993. p. xii). In a

similar manner. thcre fore, this research project focused on cxperienced adolcscen t pchrmers

as opposcd to tarpting children who avrid or endure conspicuous performance.

This was a comparative study over a range of adolescent expertisc. Three types of

schools were chosen in an effort to obtain subjects from institutions with diffcnng degrces of

comrnitmcnt to arts education. In addition, members of a precision skating tcam panicipated.

This cornpetitive sport blends technical and artistic abiiities. In this way I atternpted to sample

a range of school age performance Srom near total commitment. to the common praticc of

engaging in an after-school activity. Thus 1 investigated the children from:

1. Early Arts. a special school for the perforrning arts beginning at an early age. spccifically.

in grade four. Auditions for drarna, dance, music. and visuül arts takc place in grade thrce.

The graduating grade eight class. in the fiîth year of their training. panicipated. Thesc

children. therefore, were the most expert in this study.

2. Late Arts. a special school for the performing arts beginning in gradc seven. The

participants were lrom grades seven. eight, and nine. These childrcn entered this perforrning

arts school at a much later age. and therefore are only in the first. second. or third year of their

training. The designation EarIy or Lnte rekrs to the time at which the children begin their arts

education.

3. Music. a regular extra-cumcular music prograrnme. These children were members of the

band, strings, or choir at a regular middle school for grades scven and cight. with a well

developed music programme.

4. Skate. an after-school precision skating team. Thesc children werc members of a

competitivc novice precision tîgure skating tearn.

Al1 c h i l d ~ n had to "try out" or audition for the pcrforming a m schools. for thc band.

strings. or choir. and for the skating team. Al1 were required to attcnd pnctices or rehearsals

outside of normal school hours: 8 a.m. for the music students. kquen~ ly 6:30 a.m. for the

skaters. All were expected to complete the sarne amount of school work as those who did not

participate in these extra activities. All were expected to put forth their best effort. and in many

cases thrir continuing in the band. on the team. or at the school was contingent upon this

eCfort. Pxcnts and educators arc divided on thc value of thesc extra-cumcularactivities and

on the optimum tirne which should be dcdicated to such. but dl would probably agree that the

demanding schedule and requiremcnts h r performance generatc extra cmotional responsc.

c. Performance Pamdigm as an Investigative Context

For an investigation of emotion and cognition. a performance paradigrn is idcai

because:

1. the requirements of performance place hig h cognitive demands on the perfomcr.

necessitating intcnsc concentration.

2. self-conscious performance usually does engender heightened emotion. whether positive or

negative,

3. within the education system, arts programmes do entail group action and group goals (with

the occasional solo. which is still usually part of a larger production).

This research. therefore. explored the self-reported ernotional responses of adolescents

preparatory to action. and it followed thcm as they progessed from final rehrarsal to the actual

performance. The demands of the performance required that the individual cope with both

cognitive and ernotional pressures. The performance framework facilitated an examination of

the interaction between these within a social environment. The events or typical school

productions provided the time frame and constituted the background environment Tor the

Pert'ormance Conditions: Before Re hearsal, Aftcr Rehearsal, Be fore Performance.

Performance. Thus. the adolescent participants completcd structured pelformczncr diaies

during the week of thcir annual stage production (or skating cornpetition). They tïlled out

diary pages both bcfore and after a final rehearsal. as wcll as before and rrfter the actual

performance.

The performance paradigm pemitted a situated analysis of the research question. What

are the types and intensities of crnotions associated with formal conspicuous performance in

early adolescence? The performance fi-, the primary instrument of investigation in this

research projec t is an adaptation of Oatley & Duncan's emotion diop ( 1992. 1994). designcd

to measure thc types and intensities of cmotions experienced in evcryday Me. In this study. it

was used to examinc the cmotionalexperience of adolescents in conjunction with school stage

perfomance. A related question was. Are these cmotions necessarily detrimental. and

therefore something to b r controlled? Analysis of the interplay between ernotions and

performance on the part of adolescents who were expcnenced performers hzlpcd to rlucidatc

this issuc. 1s the feeling elicited during the performance process rclated to confidence in

personal ability. audience reaction. or interaction with others? The diary directly quericd thc

role of these performance-specific sources of emotion. Do exprienced adolescent performcrs

expeiiencc anxiety? If they do, then wh y do they continue to perform? How are they ablc to

perform? The comments in the adolescents' dianes as they progressed through the

performance process provided insight into these phenornena.

1.2. Performance and Anxiety

a. Performance Anxiety

Conspicuous performance is frequently accompanied by or preceded by anxiety. A

prominent feature of performance anxiety is a fear of displaying weakness and of bcing

devalued (Beck & Ernery. 1985). This concern is also implicated in social phobia. Thc

essential feature of social phobia is a "marked and persistent fear" of social or performance

situations in which the individual is exposed to scrutiny andor evaluation by others. which

could result in embarrassrnent or humiliation (The Diagnostic and Statistical Manuai of Menial

Disorders. fourth edition. DSM-N, American Psychiatric Association. 1994, p.411)

"Performance anxiety (and) stage frighr . - . arc common and should not bc diagnosed as

Social Phobia unless the anxiety or avoidÿncc lcads to clincidly significant impairment or

rnarked distress" (DSM-IV, 1994, p.4 16). At the core of anxiety is the sensc of vulncrability.

which is increased by lack of skills and self-doubt (Beck & Emery. 1985).

In my research study, the schools were selected to provide not only a range of

expertise, but also a range of personal exposure. A child performing solo is obviously mon:

exposed than a membcr of a large choir. The advantage of having a rcgular middle school

with a well dcvelopcd music programme was that it included band. strings. and choir.

allowing a corn parison of the responses associated with each mode OF performance. Theni

wcre over twcnty skatcrs on the precision tcarn. but rach was extrcmely vulncrable, bccausc

onc slip c m affect the whole team and it is usually obvious to coach, skaters. and audience just

who made the misstep.

6. Math Anxiety: Characteristics in Cornmon with Performance Anxiety

Tobias ( 1993) found that it was often anxiety nther a lack of ability that was intcrknng

with progress in mathematics. Shc mentions ''frar of rnposure" (p. 5 1). inhibition which

prevented students from asking questions, and ''attitude and self-image - particularly during

adolescence, when the pressures to confom are at their greatesty7 (p. 100). She suggests

keeping a math diary, in which to write both mathematical and emotional thoughts in order to

allow students to hear their own self-tdk. The "seiF-dcfealing self-talk" (p. 69) she dcscribes

would correspond to the "negative ideation" characteristic of performance anxiety (Antony.

1996). Tobias emphasizes. however. that the goal is to achieve mastery in math by building

confidence and skills.

1.3 Adolescents at School

A Canadian national study in 1984-5 of self reponed problcms of grade seven children

exposed the following feelings (The Canadian hstitute of Child Health. [CICH]. 1989. p.46):

1 feel lefi out of things I wish 1 were sorneone else 1 cannot sleep wonying about things 1 do not have confidence in myszlf I do not rnake friends easily I do not feel good about the way I look

The abovc staternents reflect a sense of dienation and personal isolation (Adams. Gulllotta.

and Markstrom-Adams. 1994) or a lack of self-estcem (Haner, 1990), both of which rnay

affect early adolescents at school. Harter stresses the importance of secking the source of self-

esteem and pinpoints the role of parents, classmates. and close frirnds. Unfortunately. this

feed-back may be ncgative as well as positive and may contribute to the problems zxperienced

b y adolescent you th in adjustment to SC hool. personal socio-psychological rclationshi ps, and

school cumculum and instruction (Nicholson & Antill. 198 1). At school. thc repercussions of

teachers' cnticisrn or praise cannot be ignorcd. The fears most prominen t in adolescents arc

found in social relationships and tend to be school based (Desjarlais & Rackauskas. 1986).

Thc increase in emotionalism which frequently accompanizs thc onset of pubcrty is

often used as an excuse for early adolescents' inattention, Iack of interest, or misbéhauiour.

This attitude corresponds to what De Sousa calls "the prevdence of the vicw of ernotions as

disruptcrs rather han collaborators of ntional activity." ( L 980. p. 1 34). Teenagers arc reputed

to have more intense emotions and to be more troubled by their ernotions than children who

are younger or adults who have already survived the period of adolescence. Hurlock (1980)

has found heightened emotionality to be greatest dunng early adolescence. Characteristics of

early adolescent development include peer orientation. self-consciousness, and conccm over

heterosexual rclationships (Simmons & Blyth. 1987; Adams et al.. 1994). Whereas

adolescent boys worry about performing in front of others, evaluation by others. being a part

of a grou p, and their abilities. girls are more concerned about their personal appearance and

acceptance (Desjarlais & Rnckauskas, 1986; Harter. 1990). Variations in tcmpo. the

differcnccs in speed with which a child passes through the various stages of development. ÿn:

most pronounced in adolescence (Preece. 1987). These growth differences. both between and

within the sexes. are keenly felt by the young people concemed. Early or late development

can have repercussions, not only on social Me. but also on schooling (Eccles. Midgley.

Wigfield. Buchanan. Reuman. Hanagfan. & MacIver. 1993).

David Elkind ( 1967) has stated that teenagers c q an imaginÿsr audience around with

them. This image is particularly apposite to anyone who has watched early adolescents in the

school hallways. The notion of adolescent egocentrïsm has remained relevant, particularly in

early adolescence (Adams & Jones, 1982; Adams et al.. 1994). It makes sense, therehrc. in

beginning a study on emotion and conspicuous performance in school children. to targct this

early adolescent population.

Zaslow & Takaniski (1993) remark that prcvailing theories of normal adolesccnt

development were frequently dcrived from small or biased samples. such as çlinical

populations. They propose that:

future research must (a) deepen the recent work in understanding normal adolesccnt devclopmcnt, . . . (b) balancc pressures to irnplernent urgent prevcntivc interventions for adolcscents with the nced for systematic evaluations that will lcad to improvcments in these approaches. including thosr: that promote healthy patterns in al1 adolcscents and target clusters oT hcalth-compromising behaviors rather than single ones; and (c) identify sptrfic fcatures of the range of settings in which adolescents participate that do or do not fostcr healthy devclopment. (1993, p. 185).

1.4 Early Adolescents in Transition

Eccles et al. (1993) suggest that some of the problems of motivation of young

adolescents may have more to do with changes in the school environment than with

development prr se. They stress the importance of "optimal Ievel of structura" and

"sufficiently challenging" (p. 92) environments. Csikszentrnihalyi and Larson ( 1984) also

emphasize structure and challenge. as being important to adolescent life. The Michigan Study

of Adolescent Life Transitions [MSALT examined the effects of classroom change on the

achievement-related beliefs, motivation. and behaviour of young adolcscents (Eccles et al..

1993). Fifteen hundred children from 12 middle-class school districts compleed

questionnaires during the hl1 and spnng ternis of grade six (elementary school) and grade

seven (junior high school). Those adobscents who rnoved from hi~h-efficacy to low-efficacy

math teachers tïnished grade sevcn with lower expectations. lower opinion of their

performance, and higher perceptions of math difficuity. Low-achieving students expericnced

a decreased contldrnce in their ability to do math. which did not occur when low-achievers

moved to high-efficacy teachers. The authors conclude that "the decline is not a generil

fcature of early adolescent development but rather a consequence of the leaming environmcnt"

(Eccles et al.. p. 95). Similar results were found for the role of teacher support. as perceived

by Lhese students and the value thcy attached to math.

Thc arts teachcrs who were involved in my research projects al1 appeared to bc very

good teachers. The skating coach of the novice precision team has led her adult karn to the

Canadian Championship three timcs in the last few ycars. The teachers at thc Early Arts

school had a very close relationship with their students. though it was sometimes volatile.

These teachers had been working with the s~udents (now in grade eight) for five years. The

drama teacher, for example, was also the home room teacher and taught the children French as

well as Math. The Early Arts school had the warm atrnosphere of an elementary school. At

the Late Arts school. the drama teachercame only in the ahcrnoon. speciIically to tcach drama.

It was a high-school. The tcachcrs at thc Music school had to play a more disciplinarian rolc.

The action around thc school and in the hallways was morc typical oT a rcgular rniddlc or

junior high school. Robson & Gitev ( 1993) in a survey of 467 students at special sçhools tor

the arts in Ontario (including the high-school where the Early Arts students go after graduation

from grade eight) found that al1 of thern rated themselves as close to thc teachcrs and

considered them knowledgeable.

The MSALT study mentioned above (Eccleset al.. 1993) dso looked at opportunities

for the students to have a say in several clüssroom decisions. such as seating, classwork. and

rulcs. Both adolescents and tcachers agreed that there was less student opportunity for

classroom decision making in the seventh than in the sixth grade. Yet the wish for

participation increased, rendering the degree of mismatch between desire and opportunity even

grenter. Thosc adolescents who perceived less opportunity for decision making in grade seven

also demonstrated the largest and most consistent reductions in their intrinsic interest in math.

In my research project, the two specialized arts schools appeared to provide

opportunity for rneaningful student participation in performance decisions. At the Early Arts

school. the drarna teacher and artistic directot both insisted that the students thernselves often

decidc ~heir roles. The drama teacher described how during the mask workshop. the young

children in the earlier grades did everything entirely on dieir own. from the making of the

masks - to the determination of the characters represented - to the developrnent of roles.

During the actud stage performance. the grade eight students specidizing in visual arts (and

not nccessarily the best dancers) did their own choreography in order to interpret thcir

paintings which were hung on stage as the backdrop. Entitled "Art Alive". their dance

routines did indeed bring theirart to life. The stage production at thc Late Arts school was the

Stoy of Jus@. Obviously, the actors were required to follow the biblical narrative. but in

one part. the "cocktail scene". they were given the lreedom to prepare their own script. rnuch

in the style of the language of today. This part was performed with evident relish. In the

regular middlc school. the band. strings. and choir played (and sang) traditional picces.

1.5 Interna1 and External Adolescent Landscape

Rcscarchers on adolescent psychology have "traditionally concentratcd on thc

organism. giving markedly less attention to the role of context in behaviour and developmeni'

(Jessor. 1993. p. 119). Jessor refers to the the family. the school. & the neighbourhood as

"the key scttings of adolescent life" (p. 122). Csikszentmihalyi and Larson ( 1984). in their

study of 75 Chicago high school students found that 4L% of thcir time was spcnt at home.

32% at school. and 27% in public spaces.

a. The Experience Suinpling Method

The Experience Sampling Method. developed by Csikszentmihalyhi. was used to track

the daily [ives of high school students in order to compile "a systernatic account of adolescent

experience, of the subjective reality that unfolds in the consciousness of teenagers"

(Csikszentmihalyi& Larson. 1984, p. 8). The innovative use of a pager to prompt the

teenagers enabbled them to gather self-reports of their thoughts, activities. and Feelings by

sampling a large range of situations. frorn home to school to social activites. extended

throughout the waking day. for the duration of a week. Within evcry two-hour period. a

random signal was sent to the pager. The teenagers were instructed to fiIl out one of the self-

report forms each tirne they heard a beep. Although the authors did not attempt to construct a

representative sample of American teenagers: the sample comprised a mixture of urban and

suburban youth frorn diffèrent ethnic groups.

b. External Coordinates/Internal Dimensions of Experience

Csikszentmihalyi and Larson included three "extemal coordinates of rxpcnencu":

location. activity. and companionship. and three "interna1 dimensions of experience":

emotion. cognition. and motivation. In order to mcasure IWO related dimensions of emotional

state: affect and activation. thcy developed seven-point scales with opposite mood terms at

each end. The contrasting pairs were as rollows: "happy-sad", "cheerful-imtable". "sociable-

lonely". "excited-borcd". "alert-dro wsy". "strong-weak". "Kree-constrained" ( 1984. p. 47).

Thcy did not ask about shame. guilt. or anxiety. because they klt that thest: feelings rnight bc

subject to repression or denial. To asscss cognition, they askcd questions regarding thc

efficiency and difficulty of concentration. To estirnatc intrinsic motivation. they asked thc

question. "did you wish you had k e n doing sornething else:'"

c. Teenage Time Management

Csikszcntrnihalyi and Larson found socializing to bc the rnost frequen t le isurc ac tivity:

one-third of the students' day was spent in conversation. Over an hour rach day was spcnt in

more structured activity: sports. games. arts, hobbies, reading and music. Boys mentioncd

more participation in sports whereas girls were more involved in art and hobbies. including

dance, musical instruments and singing. Half of the week's waking hours were spent with

peers, classmates. or friends. who represented the greatest presence in the life of a teenager.

The classmates. however. "are more likely to be competitors than companions" (1984. p. 72).

The friends. in contrast. provided the occasion for the most happiness.

d. lntrinsic motivation

Teenagers reported the highest invinsic motivation in lrisure activity. but again. the

highest rated category was adhobbies:

The most intrinsically rewarding leisure activities turn out to be ones that are highly structured activities in which teenagers can use thcir skills within an organized frmework. . . . It is striking that the three most intrinsically motivated activities are not Free and spontaneous, but involve extemai mies and challenges. . . . Art. music. and sports require going beyond the egocentric. impulsive activities of childhood; they demand discipline and engage adolescents in cultural systems. but unlikt: the activities imposed by school or job. they arc undertaken willingly. (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson. 1984, p. 95).

Within any given context. concentration. motivation. and affect werc positivcly relatcd:

In class the correlation between concentration and motivation was positive and significant.

Sports. garncs. hobbies. and family conversation were al1 found to bc activities which elicitcd

high motivation and high concentration.

Csiks-rcnünihalyi and Larson found thrir students to bc sad. irritable. hored. and

unmotivatcd. wi th dif tïculty çoncen trating, during regular academic classcs. In contrasi.

those classes such as industriai arts. physical cducation. and music, that involvcd studcnts

with "physical and sensory participatory activity" (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson. p. 206) wen:

ablc to enhancc motivation and positive affect. They demonstrated the alternation oc

excitement versus boredom. according to whcther the student was with Cnends or in class.

1.6 Emotion Diaries and Everyday Ernotions

a. Emotion Diary Research

Oaky and Duncan ( 1992, 1994) also sought to investigate the experience of daily life.

but they focused directly on cmotional phenomena. They developed a structured diary in order

to gather evidence on emotional episodcs which make up the fabric of everyday life. For the

purpose of conducting this research. Oatley & Duncan conceived of an emotion as having one

or more of the following four charactcristics: a consciously recognized emotiond tom. bodily

sensations. intrusive thoughts. or an urge or an actual emotional act. The cover page of the

diary "primed" the subject to watch out for the following emotions: Happiness/jq,

Sadness/grief. Anger/irrtarion, Fear/amiev, Disgiofiatrecl. and the fol10 w in g characteris tics

of an emotion: a sensation in the body. thoughts coming into the mind that are hard to stop. or

acting or feeling like acting emotionaily. Opentionaily they defined a self-recognized ernotion

as occumng if the subjects provided a narne recognizable tiom the list of 590 English motion

words compiled by Johnson-Laird & OatIey (1989) and if it had at least one of the above

men tioned characteristics.

Oatley and Duncan ( 1992) tïrst studied 57 undergraduate psychology students at the

University of Glasgow. 16 men and 4 1 women. with three different versions of their emotion

diary. Happiness was found to be the most frequcnt type of emotion. Women had

signi1ïcantly more incidents of fear than men. In this study, they did not anaiyze the mixed or

rnisccktneous emo tions.

In a further study of 47 subjccts. consisting of librariüns and lab technicians. there was

no significant gender difkrence in intensity of emotion. nor in rates of emotion type (Oatley &

Duncan. 1994). With genders grouped together, happy and angry emotions were more

frcquent than fear, sadness. & disgust. The content of the answers to the question "Where did

the emotion occur. who wcre you with. what happened. what were you doing'?" was

classified, according to the eliciting cvent. Achievernent should prcdict happiness. Loss

should predict sadness, Fn~sntlrion wouid prediçt anger. and Threcit would predict bar. From

categonzations OS goal-relevant events the authors werc able to predict çomctly (with emotion

words deleted from thc protxol) sixty-ninc per cent of emotion cpisodes. This finding

supported the hypothesis that emotionc arc caused by goal relevant events. Thirty-one percent

of the emotions rcported were mixed (anger and fear were the most common). This rcsult

disconfirmed their hypothesis that basic emotion do not mix. Thirty percent OC the crnotion

episodes changed in type over tirne (anger to sadness was the most common).

b. Basic Ernotions and Emotion Theory

One of the postulates of Oatley & Johnson-Laird's Communicative Theory OS

Emotions states that "There is a small number of basic emotions including happiness. sadness.

anger. fear, and disgust. Each has its own distinctive physioiogy and its distinctive state of

readiness" (Oatley. 1992. p. 103). It was this distinctive state of readiness which Ied Oatley &

Duncan (1994) to hypothesize that mixtures O C basic emotions would be rare. Thcse basic

emotion modes may occur without knowledge of an actual cause. Complex emotions are

based on cognitive evaluations of the self and of the relation of the self to others - including

past actions. current situation. or hture goals (Johnson-Laird & Oatley. 1989)- Mthough

complex emotions depend on basic ernotions.

a term relerring explicitly to a complex emotion is restricted to it. and is not interpretable as rekmng solely to the underlying basic emo tion. Thus. for example. the word 'embmsment' denotes a complex emotion and it cannot be uscd merely to refer to a basic underlying cmoùon" ( 1989, p. 103).

The basic underlying emotion in this case is fear. Other examples would be "pride" (basic

ernotion is happiness). "despaii' (basic emotion is sa~lness). These complex emotions would

be very much a part of early adolescent experience. according to the rescarch on adolescents

reviewed above.

Oatley emphasizes that events are "evaluated in relation to an individual's goals" ( 1992.

p. 50). He proposes that emotions play a role in managing knowledge and action in an

unccrtain environment with limited personal resources. often in conjunction with other people.

Emotions would therefore serve to prioritize certain goals. For Oatley. "ernotion is a cohercnt

concept. . . emotions are mental States that c m be defined. that can be talked about in ordinary

Language. and that have functions" ( 1992. p. 17). At the core of an ernotion is a mentai stat

of readiness Tor action. normally based on an evaluation O S the situation. Thc emotion carries

with it a distinctive phenomenological tone which is the conscious keling of an emotion. Thc

emotion diaries tap into such feelings.

c. Emotion Diaries and Adolescents

1 piloted a version of Oatley & Duncan's ( 1992) emotion diaries with twelve middle-

class adolescent volunteers in Ontario. Five were older adolescents. aged 18. except for one

who was 17. al1 attending the sarne high school. Seven were younger. aged 15. except for

one who had already tumed 16. attending ditTecent schools. In the older group there was one

femalc; in the younger group there was one malc. thus scven girls and five boys dtogethcr.

The 48 diary episodes included 17 incidents of anger, 15 of happiness. 7 of fear (3 by the

boys). 5 of sadness, and 4 of disgust. Thirty-one percent were mixed emotions. The most

common mixtures were anger/sad (4 incidents). angedfear (3). angcddisgust (2). fear/disgust

(2). In answer to the request. PIease sa? what o i r were doing. and what happenecl. i f

nnything, to srart the emorion or moud : 1 1 rnentioned schooI (coursework. tests. or teacher).

1 1 referred to the opposite sex (7 fcmale 4 male), 8 were linked to sports (dl boys), 4 wen:

related to friend of same sex (3 remale. 1 male). Other elicitors were reading. fighting (.male).

T.V. and weight gain (fernale).

The question on the t ï n d pagc, Are there imporrunt things about yorir ernotions d m

ive have nor asked aboîn?. prompted sorne very perceptive replies: From thc younper

adolescents: (the first thret: From one person): "1s this a regular emotion? Do you ofien

expcrienceemotions for no reason at all? Do they confuse you?", "Ask how WC klt a few

days later and if we think it will ever really go away". "It's not that you really missed asking.

but sincc you have hatxd down as as ernotion. you might consider putting lavc down too."

Only one older ieenagercontributed: "Personally, if I was to compose a diary such as this. I

would be curious as to how rrnotions affected dealing with others."

This smali, non-random samplc nonetheless retlected the carlier research Litermm.

Thc percentagc of mixed cmotions was thc same as that found by Oatley & Duncan ( 1994).

Angcr and happincss were the most frequently reportcd emotions. Thc topics which triggcrcd

thc emotion incident showcd sports to bc important for thc boys, as it was for the samplc of

Csikszentrnihalyi & Larson ( 1984). oppositc sex for both girls and boys (Simmons & Blyth.

1987) and the importance of school-related events (Nicholson & Antill. 198 1). The questions

proffered by the teenagers showed a tnie sensitivity to some important issues concerning

cmo tions.

1.7 Summary of the Literature Review

The review of the research iiterature on adolescents and emotions highlights several

thcmes. Adolescents are vulnerable. both because of the fast pace of their physical and

emotional development, and because they are in a state of transition in the school system as

well. Eccles et al. ( 1993) have shown that it does make a difference how the school manages

this transition. Adolescents are responsive to efficacious and supportive teachcrs and to

facikative classrooms, both of which can have effects on motivation and seIf-contïdcnce. The

real contribution of the study by Eccks et al.. howrver. is that the longitudinal nature of the

project demonstnted clearly that the mount of self-confidence or motivation is not nrcessuily

tïxed. Much of the literdture on adolescence leaves an implicit impression of inevitability.

Csikszentmihalyi and Larson ( 1984) also offer evidence on the importance of following the

expenence of teenagers over time and space through variable social interaction. Thus it is no

longer a question merely of how teenagers are or what feelings they have. bu t of the

coordination of mood and wher-e, rvhen, and with whorn. This is the value of contextualized

studies. that the state is qualitïed by the situation.

The literature on expertise shows that we are able to learn frorn those who do

something very well. This is cornmonplace in athletics. but less so in the study of emotions

and performance. where traditionally the focus has been on the abnormal. It rnight well hc:

informative. then. to focus on normal adolescents who are coping well. in ordcr to learn about

emotions and performance. Adolescents are differently motivated according to the activity.

espccially when it concems sports or arts. Csikszentmihdyi and Larson chmacterize the latter

as behg

similar to sports in requiring participation in a predetermined system of rules. but they differ in thcir orientation toward open. self-defined goals rather than narrow. cornpetitive goals. Certainly. both may produce leaming as a result of intrinsically motivated actions taking place within a frame of preexisting consuaints" ( 1984. p. 68).

Leaming is at issue herc It is not just a matter of adolescents having fun in frivolous activitics.

Hcnce a study on adolescent performcrs at spccial schools for the arts can provide crucial

insights into their "method of expertise" (Bereiter & Scardarnalia, 1993). not only regarding

thcir skills but also with respect to their smotions.

Emotions and their relation to events and social interactions can be studied et'feçtively

and honestly by means of emotion diaries (Oatiey & Duncan. L994). In order to con~xtuaiizc

the adolescents' emotions more systematically, 1 situated the emorion diary within a

performance paradigrn. thereby transforming it into a performance dary which would follow

the adolescent performers over time.

1.8 Statement of Purpose

Teenagers perform very well in the extra-cumcular dornain of sports. music and

drama. With the exception of track-and-field events, these types of endeavours within the

school srtting arc essentially çooperative. requiring the social interaction of students and

teachers. Children spend a great deal of tirne and effort participating in these collaboraiive

artistic endeavours. In contrast. other areas of schooling are rarely able to capturc a similar

degree of cornmitment and interest. It would seern, thereforc. that anistic performance is a

good place to start to study the rclationship between emotion and performance. Adolescents

within these arts programmçs are often chwmerized as having high motivation. whereas in

other aspects of school life. motivation is frequen tly seen as a major problem. This study

explores the role of motions in the pcrformancc process by examining the types and intensity

of emotions experienced by adolescents d u h g coopentive performance which was an integrai

part OC their school experience.

Dunng the week of their tïnal stage production. the children who participatcd in rny

study kept structured mini dianes (Appendix A) which they tïlled out both bclorc and &-ter

rehrarsal. as well as before and afier the actual performance. They chose their emotion types

frorn a selec tion of four "basic" cmo tion categories: huppiness/joy, sndnrss/grirf,

anger/ir*ritnrion. fear/nnriee (Johnson-Laird & Oatley, 1989). as well as ddining Lheir

subjective feelings in their own words. In order to study the relationship between cmotion and

sclf-conscious pcrformiuice. 1 have chosen a stage production paridigm. with i ts prcrequisitc

prepÿration and its cmphasis on working together toward a linal pal .

a. Research Questions and Expectations

Working To~ether Toward the Goal

According to Oatley. an emotion is "a distinctive mental state that normally occurs in

identifiable eliciting conditions" ( 1992. p. 18- 19). "These eliciting conditions arc not

conditions of the environment as such. They are. rather. evaluations of conditions O C the

environment in relation to an individuai's several goals" ( 1992. p.56). In this research

project, the prelpost Rehearsal and the prdpost Performance situations constitute the

environmental conditions. which will be expected to constrain group emotional response. For

each perforrner. however. the actual rlicitors will Vary according to personal evaluation of the

situation. in correspondence with individuaüy defmed goals.

Emotion intensity. It is expected that the intensity of ernotion will increase steadily

from the Before Rehearsal Condition to the After Performance Condition. as the performcn

progress towards their ultimate goal.

Emotion ype . The performance paradigm has a built-in goal. that of a successful final

performance. Thus. in the period of investigationof this study. the frequency of types of

emotion reported within each group. corresponding to each Performance Condition. would be

expected to change according to the stage in the performance proccss. i.e. from prc-rehearsal

to post-performance. For example. a risc in the percentage of performers who experiencc

anxiety pnor to performance would be a reasonahle expectation. This prcdiction is in harmony

with intuitive expcctations regarding emotional response in conjunction with stage

performance. When one considcrs the relative ditferences in anxiety betwecn the four

different arts groups, however. the probable levels are less obvious. One might cxpect the

Early Arts group to be the least anxious. because. after all. this group is cornposed of

seasoned performers who an: in thc fifth year of their training. In a study of self-concepts of

arts students. however. Robson & Gitcv ( 1993) found that artistically taknted high-school

students wcre signiticantly morc anxious than eithcr the intdlectually gified or thc rcgular

academic students.

The following predictions are based on Oatley & Duncan's ( 1994) categorizations of

goal relevant events. After a disastrous performance. mger (Frustration) or saclress (Loss)

would be expected to be the most frequent response. After a successful performance,

happiness (Achievement) would bc expected to be the most frequent response. Although thesc

predictions are obvious if only the stage performance is considered. it must bc remernbered

that each emotional response will bc based on an evaluation. not only of cvents both on and

off stage. but also including assessrnent of personal ability and awareness of interaction with

others. One of the questions in the performance d i a y specificaily addresscs this issue by

asking whether the feeling is related to confidence in abilities. audience reaction, or olher

performers.

For an investigation of emotions, the Rehearsal situation is more corn plex than that of

Performance. It is a collision of tïrst and last opportunitics. It is usually the tïrst occasion to

try out the number on the real stage. to tcst the technical equipment. and to integrate the

various aspects of the production. It provides the last chance for die teachers to correct tlaws.

for the performers to get it nght. and for the final changes and cuts. It is kquently scheduled

as an dl-day event. with the requirernent that the whole cast be present for the çntire duration.

The Rehearsal situation. therefore. c m be a source of irritation and potential contlict between

those in authonty and those on the stage. Anger (Frustration) would be expected to surface

frequently in the Rehearsal diary pages.

Gencler differences in ernotion ppe. Oadey & Duncan (1992) found that women had

significantly more incidents of fear than men in a British University undergraduate population.

It may be that in an investigation of emotions in everyday life. boys are more reluctant to

mention their fears. In a study examining the self-concepts of high school students. Robson

& Gitev ( 199 1 ) found that arts students did readily verbalize their anxietics. In my pilot

project. three boys and Four girls reported fear episodes. The stage performance format will

permit an investigation of gender differences whcre it is more acceptable for both boys and

girls to express ncrvousness.

Adolescent Emotional St=rnantics, Off Stage

According to Johnson-Laird & Oatley ( 1989). the Cour "basic" emotions of Happiness.

Sadness, Angcr. and Fear are distinct and non-overlapping. In their glossary of emotion

terms, other emotion words are assigned to the basic emotions, such that "excitement" is

considered a form of Happiness. "nervous" is related to Anxirty. Mixed ernotions were not

considered possible. In their revised theory. Oatley & Johnson-Laird (1996) do accept the

possibility of mixed emotions. The question then anses as to whether some of the complex

emotions might not be bridges between the basic emotions. rather as secondary colours result

from the mixing of prirnary colours. These semantic links will be explored by examining the

relationships between the words offereci by the students:

Wiat is yow riame for the ernoiiori or mood ori are feelirrg? .................................... and the "basic" ernotion ternis provided on the diary pages:

W o d d yorc cal1 it a type of nny of the following?

A further question asks 1s the feeling mired? //?es, what emotions are irl [fie mirtrtre? ......... and

The adolescenis. therefore. have three spaces to enter emotion words which are in addition to

the Ernotion Type chosen. Any words entered are used to determine thc Ingredients of

Emotion Type and the existence of mixed Emotion Types. The former specikies the emotion

words within an Emotion Type; the latter establishes the basis for a relationship hetween

"basic" Emotion Types. These associations will be evaluated against the backdrop of the

particular perfommce condition.

Personal Interactions as Triqcrs of Emotion: Cao~erative Pcrformanct:

It must be rernembered that Ihe students are not exhibiting their ski11 in isolation. A

stage production dernands collaborative eflort. Inierpersonal relationships are an integral part

of the performance proccss; during show preparations, thcy are put to the test. In my pilot

project with twelve teenagers at different highschools. the most tiequent causes of angr

referred to interchanges with authoritary tigures. such as parents or tcachers or with olhzr

teenagers (rexntments or break-ups). Csikszentrnihalyi & Larson found that adolescents

"wish most to bc wi th friends, least wi th classmatcs" ( 1984, p.99). Although teenagers do

prefer to be with other teenagers, Csikszentmihalyi and Larson point out that this typc OS

relationship is related to "higher-thamaverage self-consciousness", which can be vcry =If-

criticai as well as a source of wide rnood swings (p. 171). They refcr to the "skills of

friendship", regarding it as type of competence which can be learned (p. 175). Social

competence has been shown to continue to develop over adoiescence (Adams, 1983). Robson

& Gitev (1991) report that arts students are more likely to find their peers friendly and

supportive than are gifted students. One of the questions on the final page of theperfbrrnancr

diary addresses the role of peers in the performance process by asking,

Wliat is it yorc errjoy most nbottr pef loming? beirlg witli tke otfzer perfonners C1 the nrtistic expressiorr of acting (or dancing or playing ar sirzging) O

b. Hypotheses

The preceding discussion genentes the follow ing hypotheses. Oatiey ( 1992) contends

that emotions are elicited by events and by personal evaluations of situations according to

individual and group goals. The Cirst two hypotheses are derived from this theoretical

perspective. given the performance framework:

1. The intensity of emotion should increase as the adolescents progress through the

performance process towards the principal goal. that of a successful performance.

2. The type of emotion should demonstrate change over the performance process in Iùnction

of the performance condition.

3. As the three schools and the skating team sample a range of cornmitment. expertise. and

pressure to perform well, this distinction should be retlected in differences of Ernotion Type

and Intensity between the arts groups. It is difiïcult to predict the direction of these

differences. bzcause. for cxample. the Early Arts children may be less anxious bccause they

are seasoned performers. or more nervous because they have more to losc. as thcir standards

of professionalism are so high.

4. The children in thc school productions are al1 participaring in thc types of activities

characterized by high intrinsic motivation. high activity. and highrr affect than that normally

experienced in othcr school activities. (Csikszcnunihalyi & Larson. 1984). Thercforc one

might expect happincss to be prominent in the performance proccss. For the skatcrs. who

iaking part in a cornpetitive activity. happiness wilI be dependent upon thc outcorne.

2. METHOD

2.1 Subjects

Ethics review. Two formal ethics reviews were carried out. one before the first project

(Early Arts 1). and another prior to the remaining tour projects. Each consisted OC a five page

Ontario Institute for Studies in Education ethicalreviecv protacol examined by a cornmittee of

three hculty members. one from outside the department of Applied Psychology.

Board of Ediication approval. Four separate applications were made to threc di ffercnt

Ontario boards of education; two of these wcrc public boards and one was a separate school

board. Approvai was granted in evety case.

Administrcrtivr consent. The school principals dl xceivcd lettcrs outlining the rcsearch

projects. 1 met with both them and the teachers personally and discussed in somc detail thci

objective OC the study as well as the procedures for rccruiting voluntcers. rcqucsting parcnui

consent. and completion of thc diaries. 1 ohtained initial permission from thc principals bcfore

contacting the school boards. 1 always asked for the individuai teacher's permission as well.

Preparingpnnicipants and individrtni informed consent. W here possible. I met with

the students in small groups of ten or less. This was done at the Early Ans and Late Arts

schools. At the Music school. this was not feasible. because or tirne constraints and prxticc

schcdules. I addresscd the choir and the bands, separately. at moming pmcticc before school.

This w u not the prefcrable way to proceed. as questions were inhibited by this hl1 classroom

format. Although a meeting with the strings students was arranged by thc conductor. the

itinerant instructor was not informed. so 1 was not ablc to speak to them. 1 spoke to thc

skating team. as a group, in the change roorn at the skating rink aftcr practicc. Permission was

first obtained from the skating coach and parent convener.

The recruitment talk (see Appendix C) varied slightiy according to the type of group

being addressed because the specific details of c x h project were different. The size of dic

group and the attentiveness were also influentid. 1 gave the students or skaters perfomancc

diaries or demonstration dianes (shorter versions) to work with while we discussed how to do

them. At this time. 1 also answered any questions regarding the dianes or the procedure. Thc

students were told that they were not to put their names 011 ;he actual performance diaries.

which they would be given on the morning of their rehearsal day. 1 performed a

demonstntion OC the diary collection process, complete with dia? drop box and envelopr bin.

which would guarantee the participants anonymity. They ail were informed thar they were lice

to opt out at any time. The student participants were told that no information on thcrn would

be requested from the school. and that the results would not go on the school records. They

read the parental consent form prior to deciding whcther or not they wished to participate- 1

then passed around volunteer shmts for those wanting to sign.

Method of obtnining informed parental consent. Eac h child who indicated an intercst

in participating in this study took home a parentalconsent tom. It described very briefly the

research study and provided the above information given verbally to the students. My

tclephone nurnhcr was on the form so that thc parents could contact me Ior morc information.

An example of a consent form is included as Appendix B.

Rem~<nemtion. Thc school participants weri: given an cdible gift as a token of my

appreciation. This was tirst cleared with the school principals. In case of allergicsor simplc

preference. an alternüa mat was availablc or a twisty sponge pen with a rabbit in a top-hat on

the end. This seemed to be a most appropriate item for child performcrs! A modest donation

was given to the precision tearn for the skaters' closing barbecue Party.

Feedbuck. A sticky label was affixcd to each envalope asking the participant if hi: or

shc or parent (s) would like to learn the results of the study.

Criteria for inclusion in snidy. In ordcr to sample subjects who cxhibited a range of

commitrnent and expertise in arts prrt'orrnance. 1 chose three specific schools. The lakls

Early Arts and Latc Arts were borrowed from the Canadian Frcnch languagc leaming systcm.

as applied to Early Immersion and Late Immersion. There are fundamental differences in the

experientiai learning atmosphere of the Early group beginning in clamentary school when:

immersion is pervasive and the Late immersion classes beginning in middle or junior high

school where the immersion is partial. This distinction seemed appropriate for the perfonning

arts schools as well. where the Early Arts programme is intense and fully encornpasses Mc at

the school. The Late Arts programme by virtue of being within a high school secms to

constinite a less prominent aspect of school life. The Early Arts students likewise arc exposcd

to a less artistic milieu when they continue on to high school as they must sharr space with

dite sports. gifted. and regularstudents. At the time of data collection. the Early Arts students

were in the last year of their Early Arts experience. The Late Arts students werc only in the

tïrst, second, or third year of their arts school.

b. Characteristics of Subject Sample

The volunteers were recruited from four diflerent programmes varying in terms of the

time and effort expended on the artistic endeavour.

Early Arts. The designation Early refers to the time at which the children k e i n their

Arts training, in this case. in grade four. with auditions for drarna. dance. music, and visual

arts in grade three. Children are taken in frorn grades five to eight only when space permits

because of drop-outs. Fully half the day is spent on ans education. with equal ernphasis on

dance, d rma, music, and the visual arts. in the early grades. B y grade eight. the students

must have chosen a major. Yet the children are expected to continue in the university

preparatory strcam. so the full academic requircments must be met. Studcnts arc very awan:

that thcir position at the school is fragile: they an: not guaranteed a place the following ycar if

they do not adhere to the high standards of the school. The two graduating grade 8 çla~ses

(ages 13- 14) participatcd in the project (Early Arts 1). The following year a second cohort

from the two graduating grade 8 classes took part (Early Ans 2).

LateArts. This performing ans school begins in grade seven and continues until gradc

twelve. The students must likewise com pletc a hl1 academic programme. but perfommces

are scheduled throughout the year to avoid interferencc wilh cxams. Although entrancc is by

audition. the pressure herc is much lcss. D m a majors from gradc 7. 8. and 9 (ages 12- 15)

took part. The school brochure describes the drama programme as focusing on "'devcloping

interpersonal skills. self-awareness. imagination. and communication."

Music. The third school is a regular rniddle school with a well dcvcloped music

programme: band, strings, and choir. Beginners are not allowed to try out for band or strings.

The students rnust have already been rnembers of the band or string section their final two

years at elementary school, or have taken pnvate lessons for at least four ycars. Most grade 8

band members were in their fourth year of band. Thc participants were grade 7 & 8 students

(ages 12- 14) from the band, strings. & choir.

Skate. The final group consisted of members of a precision skating team. attending

four different schools ( aga 1 1 - 15. with one 9 year old). These children must "try oui' to

make the tearn. If they miss practices. they are dropped from the team. This was a team in a

%building" phase. They had been a very good tearn the previous two years. but the strongcr

skaters had to leave the tearn when they reached the upper age limit ( 15 bcfore the end of thc

year). They attended a vaiety of schools.

Al1 of these schools are located in a major city in Ontario. in middle class areas. as is

the skating club. Al1 are situated within walking distance of the central subway linc. The

sc hools for the performing ans have a very large catchment area and are characterizcd by

cultural and ethnic diversity. especially the Early Arts school. The Late Arts school is a

sepante school. Al1 schools are public. The skating tearn has mem bers who belong to the

skating club and who do not.

None of the schools in my research project is a junior high school although thc middle

school most closely approximates one. The Early Arts school teaches children from grades

Four to eight. An old building. i t has the informality and farnily-Iike atmospherc of an

elernentary school. The office staff was wam and supportive. Whcn childrcn came into thc

ofilce. they werc imrnediately asked how they could be helpcd. wcrc they not feeling well.

was a cal1 to home what was necded. The corridors were alive and crowdcd; it was not

unusual to see children practicing dance routines in the hall. Thc school uniform is reserved

for performance occasions. The Late Arts school serves grades sevcn to twelvc/OAC. Thc

building is brand new and spacious. The huge foycr was usually crnpry cxccpt when classcs

were changing. The office staff was et'ficient and formal. Tcenagcrs who came to the ol'licc

were dedt with effectively and quickly. as is usual for a high school. Uniforms must be worn

every day. The Music school is a middle school for grades sevcn and eight only. Bctwcen 8

am. and 9 am. the halls were busy with students cominp early for music or inck-and-field.

If it nined, the athletes trained nonetheless by mnning at top speed dong the corridors. This

school is proud of its music and its tnck-and-field programmes which have bcen established

for rnany years. An old school, but very attractive, it is ncstlrd in a tïne residential area. The

teachers' washrooms were kept locked. The office was filled with students waiting to be

reprirnanded for various misdeeds. from needing a late-slip from a secreiary, to more serious

offences. requiring a visit to the principal. There is no school uniform. Instead. thc

adolescent dress clearly reflected a "cliquing phenornenon" (Danesi. 1994. p. 2 3 ) . The

clothing wom by the teenagers at this school signaled an affiliation with horneys. prrppies. or

hippies. For performance. they wore a white shirt with a collar. dark pants or skirts. and a

school tic. The students at the Music school fit the teenage stereotype; thry werc sometimes

unmly. stmpeding out of the classrooms when the bel1 rang.

Representutiveness. Table 1 shows the participation rates for each group. both as a

perccntage of the parental consents retumed and as a percentage of the number of performers.

Fifty-two out of a possible 60 students in grade eight took part in the first project at the Early

Arts school. This remarkable 87% participation was due to the tircless efforts of the d m a

teacher and the ruIl support oT thc principal, artistic director. and secretarics. The following

year, the school again supported the project, but 1 requcsted that the drama teacher not k

inconvenienced. He was directing a professional show downtown. Because the production

took place a week later in lune. there was only one day available to retricve the diaries.

Several students camc to say they had forgotten their diarics the moming after thc final

performance- Thirty-two students from this second cohort returned their diaries.

The administrative staff of the Latc Arts and Music schools was less hclpful. The aris

teachers wen: extremely cooperative. but as I was not penitted to meet them until later in the

process. the recmitment of participants was much more di ficul t. At thc Music school. Lhc

rccmitment specchcs were squeezed into a few minutes bçlorc or after the carly rnoming

practices, just a few days before the concert. when pnctice time was at a premium. There was

no opportunity provided for the rccruitment of grade 8 strings players. as alrcady mcntioned.

For three of thc groups, there was a substantial decline between the numbcr of voluntcers who

signed up and those who returned their parcntal consent forms. This age group has icd

difficulty remembering to bring back consent forms. Many came up to me with sincere

apologies, excuses. and long narratives detailing the joumey of the consent form which was

ternporarily irreuievable. They pleaded for a replacement. or if too late, for a "diary anyway".

My teenage daughter explained their difficulty in returning consents very succinctly. "Becausc

they don't think they should have to get their parents' consent. It is thcir decision."

The excellent participation rate for the Skaters was due to the fact that the convencr.

parents, and Skaters considered it a team effort. As I had the opportunity of meeting mmy of

the parents and cxplaining the project to them when they came to pick up their childrcn at the

rink. they were interested and supportive.

Table 1. Representativeness of Sample

Group

Indices of Representativeness

Diaries returned = n % of consents returned 8 of pcrfonners

Early Arts 1 Earl y Arts 2 Late Arts Music

choir band strings

Skate

2.2. Instrument

a. Description of the Diaries

An adaptation of Oadey's emotion dicrn; (Oatiey & Duncan. 1992) was used. A copy

of a performance diary is includcd as Appcndix A. Thc mini pcrforrnancc diary givcn to thc

adolescenis measured approximately 7 inches by 9 inches and had a matching envclope. which

enhanced portability and contidentiality. The structured diary consistcd of a cover page. 4

diary pages, and a final page. The cover page collected information on age, grade, scx, and

types of performance. The diary pages asked the participants their namr for the emotion or

mood they were feeling and to chcck if it werc a type of the following:

Happiness/jqv O Sadness/g rief 0 Angerfitation O Feadanxiery O None of the above O

Further questions asked about the strength of the feeling. bodily sensations. what they werc

doing or what happencd to start the emotion, whether they had intrusive thoughts, whcther the

feeling was mixed. and whether it changed. Questions were added to each diary page to make

it appropriate for completion in conjunction with a final Rehearsal and an actual stage

Performance. Participants were queried regarding the relevance of the feeling to confidence in

their abilities. audience reaction. or other performers. The questions were modified slightly to

make them suitable for each different group, thus "cornpetition performance" was substituted

for "performance" in the skaters' diary. Diary page 1 was filled out before the Rehearsal.

diary page 2 was completed after the Rehearsal. diary page 3 was done prior to thc

Perfomancc. and diary page 4 was tïnished &-ter the Performance. The final page asked

more p e r d questions, such as:

Pe@rming reqitirvs a hctge commirmenr of tirne and energ?. Wh! do y l r do it?

Is there onvrhing important concrming yow feelings about pevorming th& wr have not d e d abo~rr?

Some oT the questions on thc final page were contributcd by the students themselves during

the rccruitment scssions. Thç time necessary to complete the diary. usually about 20 minutcs.

made it an ideal instrument for the performing arts students. who had incrcdible demands

madc upon their timc. expccially during a major perfomancc. Thc fact that theircontnbutions

were strictly anonymous was intended to encourage a frank cxpression of their personal

feelings.

b. Coding

Thc Emotion Type rcsponses were çoded according to the glossary of emotion words

in Johnson-Laird & Oatlcy ( 1 %9), whcrc each emotion word is explained in tcrms of its

underlying "basic" cmo tion mode: Hnppiness/joy, Saclnrss/grief, Anger-/iriirmicm,

Fear/ade-;. If the participant circled a "basic" emotion type. that c hoicc consti tuted thc

Emotion Type. Many participants. for example. wrote in the word "nemous*' or "hstratrd*'

for their name for the emotion and then checked None of the above. This was coded as

Fear/amiet): for the former and Anger/îmmmtion for the latter. Explicit coding intructions an:

included in Appendix E . interrater agreement. The percentage agreement on Emotion Types was calculated by

taking the number of agreements divided by the total number of codings. My codings wen:

checked with two other coders. The developer of the emotion diaries coded the Emotion

Types for Early Arts 1. that is. for 2 7 8 of the total subject sarnple. The percentage agreement

was 99.64. A teenage assistant coded the subjects' emotion words t'cr dl t k e groups. i.e.

100% of the entire sarnple. She was chronologically closest to the style O l language used by

the early adolescents. The percentage agreement between her coding and mine was 986.

2.3 Procedure and Settings

a. Procedure

The students received their diaries in an envelope with their name on the envelope only,

on the day of their rehearsal. They were given verbal instructions on how to proceed. but as

this was a hectic tirne. concise instructions were also df ixed to their envelopes. For example.

the label attached to the Early Arts 1 envelope instructed the students to:

Begin with Rehearsd Mondq 15 Jirne Finish with Performrince Wedneshy 17 Jiine Re t im dia? tu drarna class Thirrsday 18 Jime rnoming.

My telephone number was included on the envelope as wcll. just in case thcy had any last

minute questions. These instructions are provided in Appendix D. The participants rcturned

thc diaries to me at thc school the day after the performance. in the lollowing manner: they

removed their diary (which had no narne on it) frorn the envelopc and dropped it through a slot

into a decp hin. No diaries were exarnined until the retrieval process had been cornpleted.

I was present at the tïnal rehearsal and at al1 performances to observe and takc notes.

Where videotapes were produced of the performancc. these wcre purchased. Teachers werc

interrogated as to thcir impressions of the performancc. The precision skating team was

marked by official judges at their cornpetition. It must be emphasized that these "objective"

judgements of group performance constitute an effort to construct a background environment

in which to interpret the dianes. For example, the fact that the sound system did not work

during a particularscene helped to explain expressions of annoyance in the diaries. Therc was

no attempt in this study to construct a causal linear relationship between cmotion and quality of

perrormance of the type, high anxiety l eah to poor pe~ormance. The goal of this rcscarch

was to investigate the emotions which were engendered by the performance process and their

relation to the anticipation and evaluation of performance within a social environment.

b. Settings and Sequence of Rehearsal, Performance, and Diary

There were differences and similarities between the five groups. Curiously. every

Rehearsal took place on a Monday. Al1 performances took place within one day to five days

of the Rehearsal. AU of the arts groups except Late Arts counted the Technical Rchearsai as

their Rehearsal. Al1 these groups had to go away from their own home school or nnk to

rehearse and perform in a separate space. either to a nearby high school with an auditorium or

to a distant arena with audience seating. Only the Late Ans students were pnviledged to

reheuse and perform in their own beautiful and fully equipped auditorium. Thc dnma tacher

made the decision that they should begin their diaries at the Dress Rehearsal. Because there

were several brieftechnical rehearsals the preceding week in their own theatre space. these did

not constitute a real departure from their regular training. The Early AN 1 participants were

asked to complete heir Performance diary pages before and after thc first of their two audience

performances. The Early Arts 2 and Late Arts students had thc option of choosing either of

their rwo actual performances. because there were altemate casts. The students explained the

policy to me and requested this choice.

Diaries were filled out in the Rehearsal space, that is to say in the auditorium whilc the

rehearsal of the production was taking place (but beforc and aftcr the individual's personal

pcrformance). For al1 the SC ho01 groups but Late Arts these wcrc dl-day Re hearsals. For Latc

Arts, the Dress Rehearsal took place in thc af'ternoon only. The Skaters tïllcd out their

Rchearsal diary pages in the small. crowdcd dressing room at the arcna immediately preccding

and immediately following their icc prüctice. The Rehearsal pages. thcrefore, werc tillcd out

in reol rime, i.e. while the children were actually in the Rehearsal situation. The students in the

school groups were asked to cornplete the Perfomancc diary pages cither at school or at

home. To insist that they work on their diaries backstage would have been an unacceptablc

intrusion on their performance prepantion. The Skaters filled out their Bcfore Pcrfon-nancc

pages during the make-up session at a private home, the After Performance page was tillcd out

in the dressing roorn at the arena

2.4 Description of the Variables

a. Independent variables

The independent variables were gender. arts group. Performance Condition.

and Music type (band. strings. or choir).

b. Dependent variables

Emotion Type refers to the basic emotion category checked (or coded. if None of rhe above was checked),

Intensity indicates the suength of the feeling, the value circled between Bnrelv noticeable O i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 O As intense us I have evcr felt.

Posi tivelnegative emotions. In order to Facilitate statistical cornparisons between groups the basic emotion categones of Sndness/grief. AngerArntation. and Fear/&ep were combined into one category of negative emotions. Happiness/ioy . of course, constituted thc class of positive emotion. The remaining None of the Above (.= Noneof ) responses. not

almady coded as one of the above basic emotions. were divided into positive and negativc. such that the many ''tired" nxponses were included with the negative emotions.

Ingredients of Ernotion Type rcfers to the subject's own namc for the emotion or mood felt. in answer to the question:

............................. Whot is o t i r nnme for the cmotion or mood or1 crre feeling ?

Mixed Emotion Type is based on response to the two questions below:

1s the feeling rnixed? No 17 Not siire O Yes Cl i f yes, what emotions are in the rnixttire? ...................... ond ......................

Concerns are based on which of the t'ollowing wcre checked: Isthefeelingrelatedto~onfinencein~otirabilities? No13 Yes O Is the feeling related tu mirlience reaction? No O Yes O 1s the feeling mainly about other pe@ormers? No O Yes 17

After Performance the contldence question was rnoditied. as follows: - Is the feeling relater1 tu orrr oun peflormance? No O Yes O

What enjoy is derived from the answers to the question:

What is it pri enjoy most aborit peSorming? being with the other performers d . the artistic eqression of acting (or dancing or playing or singing) O

3. RESULTS

The performance process is bounded by a temporal limitation. Its events are cmkddcd

within a specific geographical location: Technical and Dress Rehearsals take place on the same

stage where the actud Performance will occur. The goal structure is cxtemally imposed. The

principal goal is a successful performance; the sub-goal of the Rehearsal is that a successful

performance is achievable. The fact that the stage action is detïned in space and time provides

a frarnework for the diaries: the two Before pages focus on the anticipation of a planned

event. the two After pages give the participant a forum to evaluate the happening. The After

Rehearsal pagc. however. is an evaluativc stage which recognizes that thc Performance is yet

to corne. Within this extemd structure. the participants related their persona1 experiences on

the diary pages.

If. therefore. emotions are eticited by evcnts and by personai evalua~ions of situations

according to individual and group goals, as postulated by Oatlcy (1992). then both thc

Ernotion Type and Intcnsity should b r goal relevant. The Intensity of emotion rnight

reasonably be expected to incrcase as the participants progress toward their paramount goal.

the successtùl performance. Thc group emotional protïles ought to change as a tùnction of the

Performance Conditon. The individual ernotional patterns. however. should reîlect personai

variation. according to particularcircumstances. As the groups sample a range of zxpertise

and cornmitment, their crnotional responses to the Performance Conditions should exhibit

distinguishablc differences. These arts and sports activities ought 10 engender a certain arnount

of happiness (Csikszentmihalyi and Larson. 1984).

In order to portray the results of this research. graphical representations as well as

statistical analyses were exploited. The results include quantitative and categorical data with

qualitative material used for interpretive purpose. The alpha level chosen for thc statistical

analyses was .OS.

3.1 Performance Description and Evaluation

Eariy Arts. The artistic director feli it was inappropriate for the teachers to do a formal

evaluation of performance. At any rate. the teachers worked as hard as the students during

performance, so were not able to be mere observers. The drama. dance. and arts cachers

were fully occupied backstage. The choir. band. and strings teachrrs were busy conducting.

The artistic director. who scrutinized dl shows horn beginning to end. was vcry pleased with

the performances. The professional videotaping of the productions provided evidence. not

only of the quality of performance. but also pinpointed those occasions where problems did

occur. This record helped to clarify some of the comments in the diaies. Both ycars the

warm June weather produced a dreadfully hot auditorium in the non air-conditioned school.

Many of the spectators wcre using their programmes as fans. It rnust have been dmost

intolerable on stage under the lights. The drarna majors in the second cohort had to perform

without benetit of a properly functioning sound system. The sound system worked for

everyone else. but the drarna students were wearing innovative cablc Cree persona1

microphones. They performed thcir very dramatic scenario admirably with most OC thc

audience unable to hear what they wcre saying apart from the x to r positioned centrc stage

(prcsumably near enough to the centre microphone). Each year. to closc thc show. al1 300

students, grades 4 to 8. assembled on stagc to sing in choir. These Finales achicved the

ultimate connection between audicncc and performers, prompting spontaneous and rcsounding

standing ovations. They remain memorable.

Lnte Arts. The students achicved a fine performance. well above thai which would be

expected at a regular school drama night. The preceding week most of the performers were

still a little self-conscious. They looked like they were acting. Thcy improved so rnuch the

final week. One young man in particular was quite awkward. By performance night he had

entered into his role and made it his own. The drarna tcacher was proud of thcir performance.

Many parents were moved to tears. The Sto- of Joseph ~cc ived a standing ovation ilfter the

final Song.

Music. These were the only teachers who agreed to do a formal cvaluation of

performance. which is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Evaluation of Stage Performance by Music Teachers

Type of Performance

Teacher MuType Grade AH-Day Rehearsal Dress Rehearsal Concert

A Band 7 8

"less than best" " &st"

B Band 7 "mellow" "best prf al1 yr" " best" 8 "beIow best" "best prf al1 yr" " best "

C Strings 7 "little l a s than best" 8 " best" "kst"

D Strings 7 " good" 8 I'good"

"very good" "super" "very g o ~ d " "super"

- - - - - -- - - -- --

D Choir 7 & 8 "good" "vcry goodl' "Hot! super" -

Note: The two itincrant tcachcrs did not attend the concerts. Itinerant A was not present at the Technical Rehearsai.

The on-stage performances of the Music students improved tremcndously since the iïrst

sounds which emanated from the classrooms whilc I was rccmiting and collecting p a ~ n t a l

consents. The excitcmentcould be felt the afiemoon of the Dress Rchearsal. At thc evening

concert. the choir connected with the audience by singing well two popular songs From cumnt

musicals. nie bands rouscd the audiencc with their well-chosen pieces. The strings sections

played competentiy. It is difficult for studcnt strings players to sound as accomplished as their

peers in the band. This phenornenon is an inherent feature of the instruments. not attributahle

to the ability of the players.

Al1 school performances were extremely successfuL There were somc minor flaws

which may well have been a concern for particular performers. but they were probably

imperceptible to the audiences of proud parents.

Skate. The Skaters did not perform their best in cornpetition. The convener descnbed

it as "a bad skate". Three of them fell. Their poor performance did not go unnoticed by the

spectators. who were made up of parents, fnends. and other cornpetitors awaiting their turn.

The judges ratcd them fifth out or seven in heir Elight

3.2 Intensity of Ernotion

a. Intensity of Emotion According tu Group

The subjective Intensity or emotion increased steadily from Before Rehearsal until

After Performance for the three groups from the specidized performing arts schools. as shown

in Figure 1 and Table 3. The mean Intensity for thc Music group was slighùy higher Afkr

Rehearsal than Before Performance. The mean Inknsity for the Skate group increased from

Before to After in both situations but was higher for Rehearsal than Performance.

Intensity of Emotion

Bef REH Aft REH Bef PRF Aft PRF

Performance Condition

Figure 1. Mean Intensity of emotion for each group as a function of Performance Condition.

Table 3. Group Means and Standard Deviations of Intensity of Emotion as a Function of Performance Condition

R e h e a r s a l Performance

G ~ P Be fore Aftcr Before After

EA1 4-4 2.2 5-4 2.3 5.7 2.4 6.8 2.3 48 EA2 3.7 2.8 4.5 2.5 5.1 2.4 6 -6 2.8 28 LA 4.5 2.8 7.1 2.6 7.3 2.6 7.9 2.7 23 MU 4.7 2.7 5.6 2.8 5.4 2.5 6 .O 3.1 55 S K 5.6 2.3 7.4 2.2 4.8 2.5 6.5 2.6 19 Total 4.5 2.6 5-8 2.6 5.6 2.6 6.6 2.7 173

A repeated measures analysis of variance was perfonned on the values of Intensity of

emotion chosen by the students of the five groups: Early Arts 1, Early Aris 2, Late Arts,

Music. and Skate. The diary pages corresponding to the Before Rehearsal. ATter Rehearsal.

Beforc Performance. and After Performance Conditions provided the Intensity values for the

two situations (Rehearsal and Performance) and the two times (Before and Mter).

The data were anaiyzed in a three-way ANOVA with one between-subjects grouping

factor (the groups) and two crossed repeated within subjects-factors (situation and time).

Planned orthogonal conuasts were carried out to isolate the diftërences among the groups:

Contrast 1 compared Early Arts 1 with Early Aris 2.

Contrast 2 compared Late Arts with Early Arts 1 and Early Arts 2

Contrast 3 compared Music with Late Arts and both Early Arts groups.

Contrast 4 compared Skatc with d l thc othcr groups.

Main Effec~s

The omnibus test of differenci: brtween grouus was significant. F (4, 168) = 3.09. p < -05.

OC the four planned contrasts, the only signitïcant contrast was that between Latc Arts and

both Early Arts groups. F ( 1, 168) = 9.33, p < .O 1. Figure 1 shows the close proximity of

the profiles of the two Early Arts groups in contrast to the Late Arts Intensity profile. which

rises right up near the top of the graph. Thc main cffect of situation was highly signiticant,

F ( 1.168) = 38.90, p < -00 1. The main cffect of time was highly signitïcant, F ( 1.168) =

49.66. p < -001. Thus, the iniensity of emotion increased signitïcantly rrom rehcarsal to

performance and for both situations, from before to aftcr.

Intçnçtion

The interaction of group b~ situation was highly significant: F (4. 168) = 6.33. p c -00 1.

Two of the contrasts were significant, that between Music and the three groups Liom special

schools for the performing arts: F (1, 168) = 7.03. p < .O 1. and that between the Skaters and

allthe schoolgroups: F (1. 168) = -18.29. p < -001. Figure land Table2 show that forthe

Early and Late Arts groups. the Performance situation engendered higher htensity of emotion

than the Rehearsal situation. The Music group's Intensity. however. dipped slightly from

After Rehearsal to Before Performance. The Skaters' Intensity dropped substmtially from

Rehearsal to Performance. The interactiongrour> h v h e was not significant. Thus. the

change in Intensity from Before to whether in Rehearsal or in Performance was not

significantly different for the tive groups.

6. Intensity According to Gender

Analysis of variance was Fint canied out with gender as one of the factors. There was

no significant main efkcect or interaction involving gender. In order to b r able to include thc

Skaters (an dl-fernale tram). gender was dropped from the analysis.

3.3 Emotion Types

a. Group Emotion Profiles as a Function of Performance Cunciition

The group emotion protiles indicated clearly that the relative fluctuation in percentagcs of Emotion Types choscn was closely tied to the Perforrnancc Condition. This was consistent for al1 groups as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Early Arts 1 n = 52 80 O

-.-O-. 96 Happiness ----&--

?O Sadness --e- 96 Anger

.---+-- % Fear

% Noneof

Bef REH Aft REH Bef PRF Aft PRF Performance Condition

80 Early Arts 2 n = 31

.O

Bef REH Aft REH Bef PRF Aft PRF Performance Condition

Late Arts n = 23 120 1

BefREH Aft REH Bef PRF Aft PRF Perfomance Condition

Music n=64 (Reh) n=59 (Prf)

-.-O-. % Happiness

----&-- O/O Sadness

- -b - O/O Anger

----a--- O/O Fear

Y Oh Noneof

-.-O-. O h Happiness

----A--- % Sadness

--m- Oh Anger

....*-.. % Fear

Y 96 Noneof

BefREH AftREH BefPRF Af tPRF Performance Condition

Skate n=19 (Reh) n=21 (Prf)

Figure 2. The percentage of each Emotion Type çhosen by each group as a function of Performance Condition: each group represented separateiy.

For Early Arts 1, Huppiness/ioy (throughout the performance process) and

Fear/antriety (prior to Perlomance) constitutcd the most kquen t Emotion Type responses.

The majority of the Early Arts 2 students likewise chose Happinrss Aner Performance and

Frnrkimie~ Before Performance. but After Rchearsai. four Emotion Types were noticeably

prescrit. This group experienced serious sound distonion during Rehearsal. which was critical

for thc dnma pcrformers and annoying for the others. Huppiness dominated the Laie Arts'

responses across al1 Performance Conditions. but especially After Rehearsal (at 100%). Thc

num ber of Fenr/Nuezy choices was higher Before Rehearsal than Before Performance. This

group differed tiom the other school groups in that it began its diary with the Dress Rehearsal

and not with the Technical Rehearsal. Thc Music group also cxpressed fairly high anxiccy

prior to Rchearsal. but slightly more pnor to Performance. Happiness was the most iiequcnt

choice for this group as well, during the entirc performance process. The Skaters' profile was

very different from that of the school groups. At Rehearsd. the prccision lines did not l i t the

arena ice surface. which had different dimensions than the home rink. This discrepancy meant

that the end girls were knocked against the hoards. After Performance. the Anger/irnntion

reflected reaction to the poor cornpeti tion skate. The large percentage of Nunc of the nbovr

chosen by the Skatc group on the tïrst diary page merely coded the prcvalence of "tiird"

fcelings at the 5:30 a.m. Rehearsal.

6 Bef REH Aft REH Bef PRF Aft PRF Performance Condition

BefREH Aft REH Bef PRF Ait PRF Performance Condition

&? BefREH Aft REH Bef PRF Aft PRF

Performance Condition

A nger / i r r i tat ion

Figure 3. The Percentage of Emotion Type chosen by each group as a function of Performance Condition: Anger, Fear, and Happiness represented separateIy.

Figure 3. represents the same data as that of Figure 2. It provides a different

perspective. however. by cornparing visuÿlly the five groups according to the Emotion Typcs

of AngerhmMtation. Fear/anxiety. and Happiness/jqv. separately.

The Angerhn-itation profiles for the Early Arts groups wzre both substan tial and simila.

at Rehearsal. reflecting frustration about 1st-minutechangcs for the first group and annoyancc

about technical failure for the second. The Anger response €or the Skate group was cxtrernc.

as already mentioned.

The SC ho01 groups presented an unequivocal pro tilc of performance anxiety.

Fecrr/anxiezy was an unexpectedly high choice for Lare Arts and Music groups Beion:

Rehearsal. A prcdictablc anticipatory anxiety rose sharply pnor to actual Performance for di

school groups. but espeçially for both Early Arts groups. Aimost 50% of thesc e.rpen

perfomers chose Feau'anxie~ as the emoûon they expenenced pnor to actual performance.

Almost 40% of the Music students were nervous cornparcd to only 26% of the Late Ans

drama students.

The highest profile for Happinessrn was displaycd by the Latc Arts studcnts. ncxt

highest by the Music students. followcd by the Early Arts 1 and 2 performers. Thc

Hnppiness/jou profiles were of similar shape for the school groups. except for thc drop ATtcr

Rehearsal for the Early Arts 2 group. Almost the only Happiness for the Skate group occumd

during their prc-Performance rnake-up session at a privatc home. The possible reasons for thc

discrepancies and similarities of self-rated emotional response will be examincd in ttK:

Discussion. in conjunction with the qualitative data. Thc meanings of the Emotion Types will

be examined in detail in section 3.4. under the heading, "Ingredien~ç of Emotion Types".

b. Personal Performance Emotion Patterns

In order to examine individual change during the performance process. the scquence of

emotions was examined for each performer. Personal performance pattern refers to the

Emotion Types chosen by each participant on the diary pages corresponding to the four

Performance Conditions: Be fore Rehearsal, After Rehearsal. Be foré Performance, Aî-ter

Performance. There were 94 idiosyncratic patterns produced by the 193 adolescents of the

tlve groups. a testimony to individual evaluations of the performance situations. Thc x v ç n

most frequent pattems. which were repeated by at least t he students each or three per ccnt of

the total samplc. arc displaycd in Table 1.

Table 4. Most Frequent Emotion Type Patterns of Each Group

Groups

- -- -- - - --p.

H H H H 10 3 26 15 O i l (22) H H F H 13 6 13 6 O 8 ! 16) F H F H 8 O 13 1 1 O 7 (14) F H H H O O 13 6 O 4 ( 7 ) N A H A O O O O 29 3 ( 6) N H H H 6 O 4 2 O 3 ( 5) S H F H 4 3 O 3 O 3 ( 5 )

Note. FI = Happiness/joy S = Sadnesdgrief A = Anger-rriration F = Ftiar/anrkîy N = None ofrk abow

These patterns accounted for only 39% of the total perforrning sample. This diversity

of persona1 patterns contnsted with the consistency of the group emolion profiles. Al1 of the

most frequent pamms finished with Happiness/joy, except for the NAHA pattern. exclusive to

the Skaters.

In order to be able to do chi-square cornparisons between the arts groups on Emotion

Type chosen and to carry out a Cochran's Q Test to test the signifigance of difference of the

four Performance Conditions. the three emotion categories of Saclness/grief. Fenr/m'ec. and

Angerhimtiun were collapsed in to one category of negative emo tion. Happiness@v

constituted the one positive emotion type. In addition. None of the above was split into

negativc or positive feelings.

Performance Conditions distinct'!

Cochran's Q Test permits a reprated rneasures test where the dependent variable is

dichotomous (Marascuilo & Serlin. 1988). With al1 groups combined (n = 155). Q = 50.87.

df = 3. p c .0001. The Performance Conditions were signitïcantly different in so Far as they

engendered positive versus negative emotions.

Cornparison of Grou~s within each Performance Condition

Pearson-s chi-square statistic was calculatcd to compare the groups within cach

Performance Condition. Thcse were tcsts of homogeneity of distributions (Marascuilo &

Serlin, 1988). For this purposc a more stringcnt alpha level of .O 1 was set to compensatc Lor

the effect OC carrying out four chi-square tests (Stevens. 1992. p.8).

Before Rehearsal Condition.

Table 5. The Percentage of Each Group Who Chose Positive or Negative Emotion Types Within the Before Rehearsal Condition

Group

Emotion % EAL % EA2 % LA % MU % S K %Total

Positive 42 48 57 46 11 43 Negative 58 52 43 54 89 57 Total 100 100 1W 100 100 100

n (50) (29) (23) (6 1) (19) (182)

in the Before Rehearsal Condition the groups were not significantly different,

~2 (4, N = 182) = 10.46. ns. Table 5 shows that thc differences in proportion of positive and

negative emotions were not large, except for the Skaters.

AJrrr Rehearsal Condition.

Table 6. The Percentage of Each Group Who Chose Positive or Negative Emotion Types Within the After Rehearsal Condition

Group

Emotion % EAl % EA2 % LA 5% MU %SK %Total

Pos 60 38 1 0 79 5 62 N% 40 62 O 2 1 95 38

1 O 0 LOO 100 100 1 O 0 100 n (50) (26) (2 1) (62) (19) (178)

The groups responded very differently with positive versus negative emotions &-ter

their Rehearsal perfomances. X 2 (4. N = 178) = 52.85. p < -000 1. Table 6 shows the large

difîèrences in relative percentage of positive and negative emotions.

Table 7.

Cell Contributions to the Total Chi-Square After Rehearsal

Emotion EA 1 EA2 L.A MU SK

Pos .O4 2.38 4.77 2.76 9.93 Neg .O7 3.94 7.90 4.58 16.46

Note. The ceIl contributions art: derived frorn thc formula for the calculation of Pearson's

chi-square statistic: x2 = z ( fo - feI2

fe

For each ce11 the expected frequency is subtracted from the observed frequency and dividcd by

the expected frequency to adjust for different sample sizes (Mattson, 1986. p. 159).

An examination of Table 7 shows that 26 of the total chi-square of 53 was contributed

by Skate. Latr: Arts and Music also had high within cc11 values. After Rehearsal. the

proportion of positive versus negative motions revealed signifïcant differenccs bctween Exly

Arts. Late Arts, Music. and Skate. The possible reasons for these differences will bc

examined in the Discussion section.

Before P e r f o m c e Condition.

Table 8. The Percentage of Each Arts Group Who Chose Positive or Negative Emotion Types Within the Before Performance Condition

Group

Emotion C / o EA1 % EA2 % LA % MU % SK % Total

Pos 44 38 68 40 58 46 Neg 56 62 32 60 42 54

100 100 LOO 100 100 1 O0 n (52) (29) (22) (55) (19) (177)

Table 8 shows that the proportion of positive vcrsus ncgative emotions prior to

performance did not vary widely between the groups. The groups pnor to Performance wcn:

not significantly different. x2 (4, N = 177) = 7. ns.

Ajie r Pe rfo rmtin ce Condition.

Table 9. The Percentage of Each Group Who Chose Positive or Negative Emotion Types Within the After Performance Condition

Group

Emotion C/c EAI % EA2 % LA 5% MU % SK %TotaI

Pos 77 73 96 96 5 76 Neg 23 27 4 4 95 24

100 100 100 100 100 100 n (52) (30) (23) (55) (20) (177)

It is clear from Table 9 that there were wide discrepancies between thc percentage of

positive and negative emotions expenenced by the different groups. The proportions were

significantly different. x2 (4. N = 177) = 70.88, p <.O00 1.

Table 10. Individuai Cell Contributions to the Total Chi Square After Performance

Group

Emotion EAl EA2 LA MU SK

Pos .O6 .O 3 1.15 2.46 13.29 Ncg .O 1 -10 3.68 7.82 32.34

An examination of Table 10 reveals that. once again. the Skating group was very

different with a contribution of 56 to the total Chi Square value of 7 1. The cells For Music

made a substantial contribution as well, Late Arts less so. The Skate, Music, and Latc Arts

eroups behaved differcntly from the Early Arts groups with respect to their relative proportion C

of positivc and negative emotions Mter Performance.

Gender differences wi thin each Perforrnancc Condition

Again an alpha level of .O 1 was adopted as the chi-square statistic had to be calculated

scparately for cach Pcrforrnance Condition. The Skaters were excluded from the analyses. as

they werc an all-female team. Without the skaters. the boys made up 3 1 per ccnt and the girls

comprised 69 pcr cent of thc sample. This is the same proportion as that of arts schools in

Ontario. where the overall average is 3 1 percent boys and 69 pcr cent girls (Robson & Gitev.

199 1). Thcre werc no gcnder differcnccs in proportion ou positivc versus negative emotions

experienced in any Performance Condition at the -01 level.

3.4 Ingredients of Emotion Types

a. Ingredients of Happiness/joy as a function of Performance Condition

Happiness&v ("happy*') unqualified b y othcr feeling nouns or adjectives. was

prominent in dl Performance Conditions except for Before Performance. Huppiness/jqv pnor

to perfonancc took the form of "excitcrnent" or "calm". "Relier' was the most important

qualified form of Happiness/ioy in the After Rehearsal(2 1%) and After Performance (254)

Conditions but it did not surpass unqualified Happiness/ioy, 50% and 58% respectivcly.

Thcse ingredients of Happiness/joy an: shown in Figure 3 and Table 1 1.

AI1 Arts Groups Combined

relieved

tired

nervous excited

calm

happy

w Bef REH Afî REH Bef PRF Aft PRF O z lngredients of Happinessljoy

Figure 4 . The number of subjects who provided each of the above words (or their equivalents) as their name for the emotion or mood they were feeling, which was coded as Happin essljoy .

Figure 4 shows that the memine of Happiness/jqv. coded according to Johnson-Laird

& Oatley (1989). changed according to Performance Condition.

Table 11. The Percentage of Subjects (Within the Happiness/ joy Classification) Who Provided These Words as Their Name for the Emotion Coded as kïappinessl joy.

Performance Conditions

Words 5% Bef REH % Aft REH % Bef PRF % Mt PRF

happy calm excited netvous

tired relieved

To tai

n

6. None of the Above us a Function of Performance Condition

All Arts Groups

L

O C

L O 40 O L .- C

al 30 other

Cr : Illj normai O 20 r 3

tired

V ) C

O Q)

0 10

3 V) .c O

0 O Z Bef REH Aft REH Bef PRF Aft PRF

lngredients of Noneof

Figure 5. The number of subjects who provided the words "tired" or "normal" as their name for the ernotion or mood they were feeling, coded as None of the Above.

Note. "Other" retiirs to an assortmcnt of idiosyncratic terms such as "disorientcd". "grcas y ". "hot". "rushéd". "overwhclmed".

None of the Above was the catcgory ter those words which could not be coded as onc

of the four "basic" emotions. Figure 5 shows that the main ingredients of Noneof decreased

steadily over the performance process in relatively consistent proportion, as did the category

itself. Thus the adolescents used progressively Fewer words that had to be coded as None of

the Above in favour of more recognizable ernotion tcrms as they approached thcir tugct

performance goal.

c. Feadanxie~ Before Rehearsul und Before Performance

All Arts Groups Combined

7

Bef REH Bef PRF

lngredients of F earlanxiety

other

embarrassed anxious

a nervous

fear

Figure 6 . The number of subjects who provided the words "nervous", "anxious". "embarrassed" or "fear" (or their equivalents) as their name for the emotion or rnood they were feeling, coded as Fear/anxieîy . Note. Fenr includes "scared", an-rr'orcs includes " worricd" and "stressed", embarrassed i ncludes "humiliated".

Figure 6 shows that thc word "nervous" was the largest component of the Fecirkmxiety category. Table 1 1 shows that it was used by 424 of the combined sample Before Rehearsal and 59% Before Perfomancc. "Embarrasseci" was uscd more frequently in the Rehearsal situation (in front o f peers).

Table 12. The Percentage of Subjects (Within the Fear/Anxiety Classification) W h o Provided These Words as Their Name for the Emotion Coded as Feadanxiety

Performance Conditions

Words 5% Bef REH G/a Bef PRF

fw 12 14 nervous 42 59 anxious 20 2 1 e m b m s e d 18 1 other 8 5 Total 100% 100% n (40) (73)

Thc Anger/i~~itation classification is self-explanatory. The personal words given in this

grouping hcluded: "'ange?', "irritatedo'. "frustrated". "rnad". "upxt", "annoyed".

In the Beforc Rehearsal Condition. every emotion cpisode coded as Sadnrss/grief

refcmed to "boredom". usually used in conjunction with the words "anger*'. "irritatcd.

"annoyed". "tired. After Rehearsal, Sa&ess/grief remained mostly "boredorn". In the

Performance situation. this S a h e s s category had its usual meaning, characterized by the

words "sadness". "depressed", "disappointecï', "upset".

3.5 Mixed Emotion Types

The percentagcs of mixed Ernotion Types in al1 Perî~ormancc Conditions werc Iowcr

than the 3 1 % obtaincd by Oalley & Duncan ( 1994). Table 13 illustratcs the mixes of Ernotion

Types for each Performance Condition. The percentage ooC mixed ernotions fluctuated

according to PerformiinceCondition: Bef REH 22%. Aft REH 1 1%. Bef PRF 199. Aft PRF

14%. It was twice as high Bet'ore Rehearsal as it was After. The mixture of Happiness/jqv

and Fear/anxie~ predominated in the thrce Performancc Conditions Ieading u p to

Performancc: "nervous" was often rnentioned in conjunction with 'kxciternenf '. This particular

mixture was high Bcfore Rehearsal. dropprd considerably aftcrwards. then more than doubled

prior to the actud Performancc. The Angerh-riiration - Sadnesdgrief mixture in the Rehearsd

Condition represented the "bored" and "imtated" component rnentioned earlier. Thc

Happiness/joy - Sadness/grief mixture was frequent only in the After Performance Condition.

A Cochran's Q test was carried out on the number of mixed Ernotions Types as a

function of the four Performance Conditions. These were very significantly different [rom

one another in their tendency to enpnder mùed EmotionTypes for the girls.

(n = I l l ) , Q = 16.05. df = 3 , p <.ûOl. but not for the boys. (n = 48). Q = 1.8. df = 3. ns.

Table 13. Combinations of Emotion Types and Their Occurrence in Each Performance Condition

Happin e s s m 4 Sadness/grief Anger4mmtntim Totai BR rnixed emotions: 42

EmoT AR Saahess/g rief Anger/irritutim Feadanxie

Huppiness/oy Sacin ess/g rie f Angrr-/irntation Total AR mixcd emotions: 25

EmoT B P Sa& ess/g rief Angerhrriration Fear/anriep

Happin ess/joy Sndn a s / g rie f Angerhtrimtion Totai BP mixed emotions: 36

EmoT AP Saahesdg Bef Ang er/irritution Fear/nnxiety

Happin e s s m 10 Sarliess/grief hgt?r/i?nhh~tI Total AP rnixed emo tions: 25

Note: This classitication was based on the words which were elicited by the diary question. W h r emotiorrs are t'ri the rnixtrcre?

3.6 Performance-Specific Concerns

This section examines the responses to the questions:

1s the feeling relared to confidence in vorir abiiities ? (the "before" version) Is the feeling related to y i ir own performance ? (the "dtei' version) I s the feeling related to audience reactiofi? Is the feeling rnainlv about other performers?

a. Per$ormance-Specifc Concerns of Early Arts 1 Performers

as a Function of Performance Condition

ability

abii &aud audience

aud & prfrners

performers

al1 three

no abil 8 prfrners

7

Beforc Rehcarsal Aftcr Rehearsal

Beforc Performance Aftcr Performance

Figure 7. Percentage of Early Arts 1 subjects who checked abiiîies, audience, other perfbrmers, or their combinations or who checked "no" to ail three questions.

b. Performance-Specific Concerns of Eurly Arts 2 Performers

as a Function of Performance Condition

Refore Rehearsal

ability 1 abil 8 aud audience aud & prfmers

performers

na al1 three

cl no abil & prfrners

7

After Rehcarsal

Bcforc Performance After Performance

Figure 8 . Percentage of Early Arts 2 subjects who checked dii î ies , audience, other performers, or their combinations or who checked "no" to al1 three questions.

Figures 7 and 8 illustrate that during Rehearsal many students in Early Arts were not

occupied with perfonance-specific Concems. especially in the second cohort. where 50% of

them replied "no" to the three questions. Both cohorts. however. had a sharp increüse in their

own perfomnce focus After Rehearsal. Artdience Concems (alone and in combination) rose

to a greatcr extcnt in Early Arts 1 than in Early Arts 2 After Performance.

53

c. Performance-Specific Concerns of Laie Arts Performers

as a Function of Performance Condition

Before Rchcarsal

ability

abil & aud

a audience

aud 8 prfmers

performers

al1 three

O no abil & prfrners -

Before Performance

Aftcr Rehearsal

After Performance

Figure 9. Percentage of Late Arts subjects who checked abillies, audience, other perfonners, or their combinations or who checked "no" to ail three questions.

Figure 9 shows that the Concern with abiliy-only was very large for Late Ans

performers Before Rehearsal. much larger than for the two Early Arts cohorts. Yet their

occupation with non performance-specific issues was small in cornparison with the Early Arts

groups. The seleetion of ail three concerns After Performance was 50%.

d. Performance-Specifie Concerns of Music Students

as a Function of Performance Condition

a ability

abil & aud

audience

aud 8 prfrners

QI performerç

m al1 three

a no abil 8 prfrners

Before Reheûrsal Aftcr Rehearsal

After Performance

Figure 1 0. Percentage of Music subjects who checked abiiîies, audience, other perfonners, or their combinations or who checked "no" to al1 three questions.

Many of the Music students, like the Early Arts students. indicated that their emotions

were not relatcd to performance-specific Concerns. Figure 10 demonstrates that Before

Rehearsal, the music students had the highest percentage of audience-only Concems of the

four groups. They did not exhibit. however, as large an increase in audience related emotion

elicitors After Performance as did Late Arts and Early Arts 1.

The Concerns question examined those elements which were speciiïc to stage

performance and their relation to the emotion episode. Figures 6 - 9 show the ~lative

proportions of adolescents in the four school groups who checked various combinations of the

performance-specific sources of emotion. Before Rehearsal. only 10% of Early Arts 1

performers related their emotion episode strictly to confidence in personal nbilizy. as compared

to 16% for Early Arts 2. 368 for Late Arts. and 168 for Music. The percentage of those w ho

checked both ubility and artdience was 22% for Early Arts 1. 194 for Early Arts 2. 3 2 4 for

Late Arts. and 13% for Music. Abilin;, aidience and their combination were the performance

hctors which were most relevant to the emotion episodes for al1 school groups. The

percentage of those who checked al1 three (ability + arrdience + otherperformers) rose sharply

from Before Rehearsd to After Performance: Early Arts I from 8% to 24%. Early Arts 2 from

0% to 20% Late Arts from 9% to 50%. and Music from 6% to 14%.

e. Performance-SpeciJc and Cornpetition-Specific Concerns of Skaters

as a Function of Performance Condition

Three extra Concerns were included in the Skaters' diaries io take account of thc

compe titive aspect of their performance: jrtdges. my team. and other tecim. This addition

doubled the number of Concerns and multiplied their combinations. rendcnng pie graphs

unsuitable. Bar graphs were chosen. therefore. to represent the Concerns of thc Skaters. as

depicted in Figure 1 1. Abiiiv was not the most tiequently chosen Concern for the Skatcrs in

any Performance Condition, although i t did reach 4 3 6 Before Performance. Berore

Rehearsal, jrtdges was the most frequently chosen category (53%). followed by other skaters

and nrrdience (each at 374). My team was by Far the most important Concern Atier

Performance at 86%. Emotion episodes werc least related to other teamr in al1 Conditions

except prior to cornpetition (29%) - only slightly higher than other skciters (25%), which was

the Concem with the lowest percentage Before Performance .

4'0 Bef REH

%ARAEH

%BefPRF

OhAftPRF

Ability Audience OtherS katers Judges MyTearn OtherTeams

SKATERS' CONCERNS

Figure 11. The percentage of Skaters who responded "yes" to one or more of the performance-specific or cornpetition-specific Concerns.

3.7 What These Adolescents Enjoyed Most about Performing

The question. What is it o i i rnjoy most abolit petforming? had two çhoices: being kvitli the oiher performers

rile artistic expression of octirig (or dmicir~g or playing or sitiging) U .

For the skaters, a third choice was included: the phpical exhilnrntiorz of the skating O

Many subjects chose two (or three). Table 14 represents the choice of the adolescents

according to group. In order to permit a chi-square analysis with expected ce11 values of at

least 5. the bottom two rows of Table 14 were collapsed to form a bewith category. Le. those

who chose "being with the other performers". even if in combination with artistic expression

and a not bewith category for those who did choose bewith. but chose artistic expression

only . This also permitted corn parison with the skaters who had the third "physical" question.

The four groups did not differ significantly in their answer as to what they enjoyed most about

performing. ~2 (3. N = 13 1) = 2.7. ns.

Table 14. The Percentage of Adolescents Who Chose "Artistic Expression" or "Being With the Other Performers" or Their Combination

Group

What enjoy? -

artexpr only 39 30 23 25 l bewith only 16 4 47 20 bewith + artexp 45 65 30 55' Total 1 0 % tOO% 100% 100% n (3 1) (33) (57) (20)

Note 1. For the skaters, the category artistic expression-only includes physical exhilaration. Note 2. For the Skaters. this category includes a11 combinations of bewith. Note 3. This question was not on the Early Arts 1 diary.

Intuitively. one might expect that members of the strings section would be more

attracted to "artistic expression" than "being with the other performers". Lcarning to play a

stringed instmment (the guitar is not included in the strings section) requires great tenacity of

spirit and many hours of solitary pnctice. Mastering a band ùistrumcnt is cqually demanding

of time and patience. The school band had an enhanccd image in the eyes of the student body;

however. It was considered "cool" to play in the band. Members of a school choir do not

usually need to practice alone. apart from the soloists. Contrary to expectation. the strings

section members did not choose "artistic expression only" more frequently than the others.

The percentages of choice are represented in Table 15.

Table 15. Percentage of hlembers of Band, Strings, or Choir Who Chose "Artistic Expression" Only Versus "Being With the Other Performers"

Music Type

What Enjoy? Band % Suings 4î Choir-only % Bewith+Artexpr 78 91 60 ArtExpr only 22 To ta1 100% n (36)

What the adolescent students and skaters enjoyed most about performing was being with the

other performers while expressing themselves artistically.

4. DISCUSSION

The research question which this project on the rrnotional correlars of cooperativc

performance in early adolescence attempted to answer was, Whut are the y e s und inrensities

of emotions engendered by the performance process? The conspicuous performance under

observation in this project was elevated to the stage and therefore stimulated detinie and often

intense emotional reaction. The adoption of the performance pandigrn assured a common goal

for dl. that of a successful performance. Thc four school groups perfonned very well: thc

skating team did not. The performance situations for the school students were remarkably

similar. The skaters were. of course. a speciai case. They were included in order to provide

an unarnbiguous example or 'quality of performance". a team sport. and an out-of-school

activity. Although this was a study focusing on self-conscious performance. the kinds of

emotions described went well beyond the strictly self-conscious emotions of ernbarrassment

shmc and pnde (Fischer & Tangney. 1995). The adolescent performcrs cxpericnced the basic

cmotions of Happiness/jq, Sminess/grief; Angerhrritution, and Fecir/unxie^>. cmbcllished by a

great vuicty of cornplex emotions. claboratcd within the pages of their pcrformancc dixics.

As this rescÿrch projcct was cmied out dunng the tinal weck of thc pertormancc

process. the descriptions o l cmotions included aspects of performance preparation and

evduation as well. Cognitive evduation and emotionai experience were inexincably related

throughout the performance process. The stage performance mode1 incorponted the intlucncc

of audience and other performers in the sphere of social interaction. This structure permitted a

more situated view of thc reciprocal role of personal performance and emotional experience.

The emotion profiles tluctuated according to thc Performance Conditions, if not always in a

predictable way. at least in an reasonable manner. This was so. whciher it was the Emotion

Type or Intensity heing considered.

The Emotion Type and intensity as a function of Performance Condition will be

discussed in the first section, in conjunction with the four hypotheses. which werc, brïefly:

1. Intensity of emotion should increase as the adolescents progress through the performance

process toward the principal goal, that of a successful performance.

2. Type ofemotion should demonstrate change over the performance process as a function of

the Performance Condition-

3. The distinction between the groups in comrnitrnent and expertise should be reflected in

differences of Emo tion Type and intensity.

4. As anistic performance is chancterized by intrinsic motivation. activity, and

happiness ought to Figure prominently in the performance proccss.

In the remaining sections, issues which had a bearing on the emotional experience of

adolescents in performance wilI be examined: performance anxiety. expertise. type of school

in transition. coopention and companionship.

4.1 Working Together Towards the Goal:

Emotion Type and Intensity as a Function of Performance Condition

AU four hypotheses of Ihe study were supported by the statistical analyses. The

Intensity of Emotion incrcased signikicantly over the performance process. Emotion Type

fluctuami systematicdly according to the Performance Condition. There wen: dirferences

between the groups in both Ernotion Type and Intensity. Happiness did play a prorninent role

in the performance process.

Over the Performance Process:

a. Intensity of Emotion

Intensitv of Emotion "Across" Performance Conditions

The steady overail increase in the subjective Intensity of Emotion experienced by

performers in the four school groups over the performance process highlights the importance

of the "target goal" (Sansone & Harackiewicz, 1996), that of a successhl perforrnancc. and

would seem to provide support for the priority of goals in emotional experience (Oatley &

Johnson-Laird, 1996).

Intensitv of Emotion "Within" each Performance Condition

There was no significant difference in the subjective Intensity levcl of the different

"basic" Emotion Types within each Performance Condition. Oatley & Duncan (1994) also

found that basic emotions were not associated with significantly differcnt ratings of Intensity in

a sample of librarians and lab technicians.

The above finding in conjunction with the fact that Intensity of Emotion increased

significantly over the performance process shows that this htensity effect was independent of

Emotion Type. It demonstrates. for example. that performers did not feel more intensely at the

culmination of their performance. because they rnight have been biased to rate Huppiness more

highly than Fear.

Groups Differences in Inknsitv of Ernotion

The two Early Arts cohorts rated the intensity of their ernotions in a similarly consistent

fashion. In contrast. the Intensity ratings of Late Ans performers shot up After Rehearsd and

stayed cxtrernely high. Thc Skaters' Intensity scores likewise shot up AEter Rehearsal. but

then droppcd drastically. From a goal-based perspectivc. this could be explained by thc fact

that the Late Arts performers were very close to their goal. having pertormed well at their

Dress Rehearsal in front of an audience. in contrast, the Skaters had just discovercd that their

routine was not properly sized for the cornpetition icc surface. It would necessitate a revision

to the choreography. too late to bc uied out on cornpetition ice (this being their one and only

skate at the competiion arena). Thus. Late Arts were close to achieving thcir goal. Skaters. to

losing theirs. In thc evaiuation of an event devant to a goal. improved probahility lads to

happiness whereas frustration causes anger (Oadey & Duncan. 1994). An allematc

explanation could focus purely on the situational variables. which will be addrcsscd in further

detail in the Emotion Type section.

Gender Differences in Intensitv of Emotion

There was no significani difference berneen the Intensity of Emotion reported by boys

and that reported by girls in the repeated measures analysis. One explanation for this might be

that artistic boys an: more emotional. Oatley & Duncan (1992. 1994) likewisc found no

signiticant gender difference in intensity in their adult occupational sarnple made up of 24 men

and 23 women. Neither of these diary studies, therefore, supports the stereotype that women

are more emotional than men.

. Emotion Type

Over the Performance Process: Emotion Twe "Across" Performance Conditions

Grorip emotion profiles. These iliustrated clearly the change of Ernotion Type

according to each Performance Condition. The marked presence of performance anxiety pnor

to Performance provides external validation for the Performance Diaries. If the children were

just writing anything in their diaries, this rffect would not k so consistent across the school

groups. The Belore Performance Condition did consuain the range of emotional responses.

The compantive Fear/anxiety protilc provided a dnmatic illustration of performance anxiety.

The adolescents' description of their anticipatory anxiety confoms to that descnbcd by Beck &

Emery ( 1985) and Antony ( 1996).

Happiness/jqv was the most prominent protile for ail school groups. This tlnding is in

agreement with Csikszentmihalyi and Larson's (1984) rrsearch on older adolescents and thc

happiness thcy reported tïnding in the suuctured activities of sports. art. and music. The

adolescent performers' Huppiness/jqv aimost eclipsed the Fear/anxîep. In essence. this

appeared to indicate that the effort and stress was worth it. In the school groups. the categorks

of Sadness/grief, Angerhrritarion. and Noneofal1 dwindled prior to Performance. It seemed as

if dic performance anxiety playcd a role in compelling the pcrformers to tocus. much as kiir

continues its hnction of aleriing animals in the wild. The Skaters. of coursc. werc the

exception. and thcy will be discusscd in detail in the comparative section.

Individrral emotion pnnerns. The immense variety of these patterns shows h c

importance of individual differences in responding to the Rehearsal and Performance. Each

Individual. of course. had a unique expenence within the larger format of the perlormance

situation. This indicaies the role of event evaluation (Oadey. 1992) as opposed to a p u d y

stimulus-response reaction.

Posirive/negative emotions. The xpated measures analysis demonstnted that the

Performance Conditions were significantly different in their capacity to engender positive

versus negative emotions. Thus the occurrence of positive or negative emotions within each

condition was not haphazard.

Grou~s Differences in Emotion TW: "Within" Performance Conditions

Positive/negntive rmotions. For the Four school groups the percentage of positive

emo tions experienced were: Before Rehearsal 46%. Mter Rehearsal 69%. Before

Performance 44%. Performance 85%. niere was no significant difTerence between the

groups Before Rehearsal nor Before Performance. Mter Rehearsal and ATtcr Performance,

however, the difference in positive versus negative emotions experienced was highly

significant Skaters. Music students, and Late Arts students felt differently after their time on

stage, regardless of the situation, thm did both Early Arts groups. In spite of the

dissimilarities in the schools. situations. and sarnples. the groups did not difîer in pre-cvent

mzticipation but in post-event evahration.

The collapse OC the three Emotion Types of Sadness/grief. Angerkrritmion. and

Fear/anxiey into a category of negative emotions and clüssification of Hnppiness/jqv as a

positive emotion has theoretical lcgitimacy as well as rnethodological utiiity (Gordon. 1990;

Oatley, 1992). Gordon, in seeking to explain the intuitive positive/nqativç distinction.

proposes that it derives from a positive versus negative evaluation of the content OC an emotion.

The Skaters stood out as having the most negative emotions in both "aliei' situations. Aîkr

Rehearsal. Latc Arrs siudents were unanimously positive. After Performance. ahnost alI Late

Arts and Music students were exuberant; approKimately three-quarters of Early Arts

performers were unreservedly enthusiastic. For the latter group, their happiness was tinged

with sadness as their final performance marked the culmination of th& Early Arts education.

In atternpting to interpet these differing reactions. it is important to rernember that thc

Rehearsal situation proved to bc very cornpiex with a great many factors innuencing the

pedormers' emotions. The Skaters were the rnost intensely angry. the Late Arts performcrs

were the rnost intensely happy. Early Arts students were indignant about unfair criticism iind

hcensed about unreasonable dictates on the part of the teachers. This evidence is in accord

with the finding by Averill, cited in Oatley (1993, p.350) that the most common motive for

anger was "to assen authority or independence". The mgry teachers were asserting their

authority and the angry snidents were probably regretting their inability to assert their

independence. Within the diary pages. they bnstled against the injustice. In contrast. the Late

Arts students were thrilled that their young audience of elementary school children had really

appreciated their Dress Rehearsal. Most of them k l t it had gone well. and the few mistakes

they mentioned did not appear to affêct their enthusiasm. The hct that this was the only school

group to evaluate a Dress rather than a Technical Rehearsal cannot be discounted. During their

Technical Rehearsals there was constant movernent and sound from the ado1escent.s on the

risers. much to the irritation of the drama teacher. Some of the actors were still slightly

awkward. For the Dress Rehearsal. though. they achieved the synthesis of the Sto- of

Joseph and were justifiably proud. Even the resiless teens on the risers established unanirnity

of eye contact with the conductor for the t i n t tirne.

Though Early Arts 1 and 2 were different cohorts of different years with diKerent

productions. they were not significantly different on any of the rneasures. Early Arts studcnts

seemed mon: seif-judgemental than the other groups. Though the overall Early Arts school

performances werr exceptional. the individual performers tiequently mentioned aspects of

performance that were not quite perfect. As stated in the description of samples. these two

performing arts schools had very different philosophies regarding the role of performance in

the school (as descnbed to mc by the principals). The goal of the Early Arts adolescent was to

be working "at the edge of one's cornpetence" (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993, p.20). Another

factor which cannot be ignored is that o l cognitive overload. The Early Arts adolescents

performed in several different segments; the teaches dl cxpected that their panicular discipline

should be the prionty. It was because the Early Arts childen were doing so many different

activities. that thex were so many conflicis due to timing. entrances. cues, and costume

changes. and consequently many more chances for things to go wrong. The Late Arts

adolescents were performing a musical narrative, in which they stayed on stagc throughout.

either acting center stage or singing in the chorus. Only two rnrmben of the cast wore

costumes; the e s t were dressed in black. For the c o c W scene they added scarves. One

production was smarn-lined, simple, and effective. The other was varied, cornplex. and

proftxsional.

73e special c m of the Skarers. Their case was quite different from hat of the school

groups. This tearn was in a rebuilding process, having lost its best skaters due to the age

restriction. One of the skaters stated in her diary "last year's team was really good and this

year no one uies." They had to get up &fore dawn for their 5:30 a m . Rehearsal. They

arrived at the arena to discover the door locked. leaving hem outside in the dark. When the

security guard finally did let them in. he would not allow them on the ice wihout a permit. It

took a long tirne for the convener to son things out by making numerous telephone calls. And

then. to top it off. their routine didn't fit the rink. In conuast. the Before Performance diary

page was tïlled out during the make-up session. which was held at the home of one ot' the

skaters who lived at a convenient distance frorn the cornpetition building. A delicious breakfast

was provided for the skaters and their parents. It was a cozy and pleasant atrnospherc.

Having their make-up and hair done and breakfast too was a real bonus. Happy chattcr and a

sense of camaraderie pervaded the roorns. They later had a dismal competitive skatc. The

Skaters' diaries ponrayed the best and worst of precision team cornpetition. The fmstrating

start to their morning made them tired and cranky (Before Rchcarsal). Aller their prxticc

skate. they knew that their competitive goal was already compromiscd. rcsultinp in Anger

(After Rehearsal). The Huppiness on the Bcfore Performance pages probably had niore to do

with their personal companionship goals than with the competitive leam goal.

c. Pragrnatics Emotions in Performance

The Performance Conditions zlicitcd systematically dit'fercnt words descnbing the

feelings of the performers. These feeling words. when classilied according to Johnson-Laird

and Oatiey's (1987) glossary. displaycd considenble overlap between and within the "basic"

Emotion Types. The fact that particular mixcs of emotions clustercd in certain Performancc

Conditions helps to clarify the meaning of these emotions and their relation to goals. It is clear

thar the "bored" feeling so widespread during Rehearsal was an artifact of entrapment in the

auditorium, It did not occur in the Late Arts Rehearsal. because their diaries were Fiiied out in

conjunction with the Dress Rehearsd, when they were di busy. This sheds new light on the

common notion of the bored adolescent. The "boredom" revealed in the performance process

points to the possibility that boredom does not necessarily reside solely in the adolescent

psyche but also in the situation. According to the Johnson-Laird & Oatley (1989) corpus.

boredorn is defined as a "mild depression as a result of feeling that one has no goals" (p. 1 10).

In the specific Rehearsal situation. where the Music and Early Arts students were required to

sprnd the entire school day in thc auditorium awaiting their tum. it was usually used in

conjunction with the words "angei7. "initated. "annoyed". or "tired".

In~redients of "Basic" Emotion Tvnes

The meaning of Happiness/joy. coded according to Johnson-Laird & Oadey ( 1989).

chwged according to Performance Condition. The examination of the Ingredients of

Huppiness estabtishes that "reliefT did not account for ail of the Happiness&v experienccd

ACter Performance. Happiness&v, unqualified by other feeling nouns or adjectives. i.e. the

word "happy" or equivalrnt ternis. was prominent in di Performance Conditions except for

Before Performance. Happiness/jqv pnor io performance took the form of "'excitement" or

bbcaim". "'Relief' was the most important qualified tom of Happinrss/jqv in the After

Rehearsal (2 1%) and After Pcrfomance (256) Conditions but it did not surpass unqualified

Happiness/ioy. 50% and 58% respectivcly. Some pcrformers did state that thry werc glad the

performance w u ovcr but rnost expressed more enthusiastic happiness.

The ingredients of Noneof dccrcased steadily From pre-Rehearsal to post-Pcri'ormance

in favour of the other tour "'basic" emotions. This phenornenon shows that thc immense

variety of idiosyncratic Feeling words gradually coalesced into feeling words that could be

incorponted by the four Emotion Types as the adolescents came closer to their principal goal.

Few of the performers considered bat the emotion they were Feeling was that of "Teai'.

Most entered the word "nervous" to describe what they were feeling. This linguistic nuance

might explain why di the participants were able to perform in spite of high "coded" levels of

Fear/anriety The fact that "excited" was most widespread pnor to Rehearsal and Performance

and that it was so often combined with "nervous" suggests that maybe it bridges the basic

Emotion Types of HappinessJoy and Fear/amiq. at lem in a performance context This

semantic subtlety also has interpretive value. Excitement encourages approach whereas fcar

frequently stimulates avoidance. "Upset" was another example of a feeling which seemed to

straddle two basic Emotion Types. It was associated sometimes with Anger/irntation and

sometimes with Sadness/grief.

Mixed "Basic" Emotion T v ~ e s

The percentage of mixed Emotion Types was lower than the 3 1% obtained by Oatiey &

Duncan (1994). The percentage fluctuated according to Performance Condition: Before

Rehearsal 22% Nter Rehearsal 1 1%. Before Performance 19%, Af'r Performance 14%.

The higher rate prior to Rehearsai and Performance might k explained by the relative

uncertainty inherent in anticipatory emotions. Alternatdy. this tinding could be an artifact of

the Johnson-Laird & Oatley (1989) semantic classification. i.ç. the coding of "bored as

Sadness and of "excitement" as Happiness. The mixture of Hnppiness/ioy and Fenrk~mY-

prcdorninated in the threc Performance Conditions leading up to Performance. but especially in

the two "Before" Conditions: "nervous" was o k n mentioned in conjunction with

'%xcitement". The Angerhn-irarion - Sadness/grief mixture. so prominent in the Beforc

Rehearsal condition represented the "bored" and "irritated" component mentioned earlier. The

Happiness&y - Sadness/grief mixture. frequent only in the Nter Performance Condition, was

usually elaborated in the diary pages as sadness that it wu al1 ovcr.

Gender Dit'tèrences in Mixed Emotion Tvpes

In the repeated mesures analysis of positive versus negative emotions according to

Performance Condition, there were no gender differences. In the repeated measurcs analysis

on the presence of mixed Emotion Types, however. there was a highly significant cffect for the

girls but not for the boys. Curiously enough. this does lend support to the widely held popular

view that boys are more "direct" about their emotions whereas girls supposedly have a more

complicated emotional life. It may, however, merely reflect ü greater willingness on the part of

the girls to go into greater detail while doing the diaries.

d. Performance-Specific Concerns

The performance-specific sources of the experienced cmotion. i.e. the Concems.

shifted according to the Performance Condition. Early Arts 1 students. for examplc. were not

so concemed with ubili--only Before Rehearsal. After Rehearsal. the percentage of emotions

having to do with only one's own performance more than doubled. Perhaps the Early Ans I

performers recognized that new demands made upon them were going to interfere wirh their

ability to perform well or pcssibly the teachers' cnticism undemined their initial morale. Laie

Arts students were by Car the most concemed with ability prior to Rehttarsal but their

contïdence was boosted by the quality or their performance and by the wonderful xception

from the audience at the Dress Rchearsal. The Music choir's fear of embarrassrnent at thc

Technical Rehearsal showcd up in a Concern for audience.

The questions rcgarding die performance-specific source of thc cmo lions allowed an

investigation of which elernents of performance wen: most relevant to the emotion episode.

The examination of thesc ekments "across" the Performance Conditions pennits an evaluation

of change during the performance process. Abilig and audience and k i r combination werc

the most rclevant performance factors for alI school groups. Each group presented qui&

differenlly. however. in certain aspects. The Concerns scrved to confirm or ducidate

quantitative and qualitative findings. One example was prdvided in the context of the dl-day

Rehearsal milieu. which triggered many emotional episodes inîluenced morc by human

interaction and details of personal coping, than by strictly performance-specific Concerns.

This showed up in large pcrccntages of "no" to the questions regarding ability. actdience. and

orher pevormers for both Early Arts cohorts and Music students. In contrast. Late Aris

students were more focused on performance-specific Concems Before Rehearsal. The pic

graphs have the advantage of being able to show sllriultaneously the influences of the

performance speciiic sources of emotion - separately and in combination.

The Concem with al1 three performance-specific sources of emotion, ability + airdience

+ other perjiirmers rose dmatically from Before Rehearsal to AEter Performance for both

Early Arts 1 (three fo1d)and Late Arts (five fold). The percentage of adolescents who chose

all three Concems was largest for dl school groups in the After Performance Condition. As

the performers progressed through the performance process their Concems expanded to

incorporate inîluences other than abilizy alone. This indicates that other perfomers and the

aiidience dso had an important effect on the emotional experience of the adolescent pertormer.

Perhaps it also retlected the sense of harmony with the audience and cast which is part of the

"ultimae" performance experience. This feeling was palpable in the audience during ail the

Early Arts finales and during the closing Song of Joseph.

The Skaters' diaries included three more categories which addressed the added

Concerns of competition. Two of them. jridges and my renm proved to be very relevant for the

Skaters. Before Rehearsal, jitdges aiready constituted the most pressing preoccupation. even

though they would not bc present until the actuai competition. tïve days later. The concern

with artdience prior to Rehearsai was likewise a projection into the future, as there were only a

fcw parent-drivcrs in attendance at Rehearsal. This dcmonstrates that the Skaters w m

thinking ahead to their target goal, the competitive performance. After Rehearsal. tny tmm and

other skaters were checked the most tiequently. Mkx the poor competitive skate. mu tenm

was chosen by 86% of the skaters, othrr skaters by only 4 8 4 . Both terms dcnote the sarnc

group. but conceptually. other skaters particularizes the leam rnembers whcreas my recim has

the connotation of being Linked together in the common effort ( Johnson et al. 1984). This

tïnding is consistent with the comments on the diary pages in which there was no attribution of

blame towards the Skaten who fell, cxcept from the one who fclt rcsponsible. "1 ruincd the

whole perlormance because 1 fcll". Thc cakgory other r e m dicited the second lowest

response prior to cornpetition and the lowest aftenvards. Although prccision skating

encornpasses both artistic and cornpetitive goals. thcse adolescents would appear to bt:

ernphasizing competency over compctitiveness.

e. Functionality of Adolescent Emotions in Performance

The adolescents' emotions fluctuated according to Performance Condition, in a

reasonable manner. The cmotions expressed in the diaries were consistent with prepared

anticipation prior to Rehearsal and Performance and with subsequent evaluation a.fterwards. In

those cases where emotions were unusually disparate (in cornparison with the other groups),

as they were for the Skaters. or unexpected. as were the higher anwiety levels of Late Arts and

Music students pnor to Rehearsal. a close inspection of the qualitative data revealed these

emotions tu be wmanted by the situation. The particular incidents mentioned in the

performance diaries were not at odds with their corresponding emotions. The emotions

expressed seemed most appropriate for the events experienced. In spite of increasing lntensity

of emotion over the performance process. the adolescents were not overwhelmed by their

emotions. This tinding diverges from the emphasis on adolescent emotionalism as king

necessarily disabling. Oatley (1992) suggests that emotions play a role in managing

knowledge and action; that they serve to "prioritize" goals. The cornrnents in the performance

diaries tend support to this view. tt would appear that whcn adolescents have clear goals

which are chailenging but feasible (Csikszentmihalyi. 1975; Csikszentm ihal yi & Larson. 1984)

in a supportive environment, they are able to exploit their emotions productively in the service

of those goals (Oatlcy, 1992). These adolescent perfomers displaycd well honed skills dunng

their respective performances. sometimes in spite of technical handicaps or scrious acciden~

Allthough anistic technique highlighted the pcrformers' domain-specific cxpenisc. the courage

and ingenuity cxhibitcd vis-&-vis unexpected and untortunate predicaments in perfonnancc

perhaps reflected a domain-generai "habit of rnind" (Keating. lY90b) supportcd by an

appropriate exnotional repcrtoire. Emotions seemed to be playing a hnctional rolc in thc

procesr of prepantion, cvaluation. and management of performance.

J Performance Parîtdigm as an Investigative Context

The real audicnce of stage performance temporariiy dispaced the theoretical "imaginary

audience" of adolescence (Elkind, 1907; Adams et al., 1994). This heuristic substitution

permitted an examination of the role of emotion in perceiving and evaluating the scmtiny of

authonty figures. peers. and parents. The self-conscious stage peperformance engcndered

increasingly intense emotion over the perfomance process. This was significant for situation

(Performance and Rehearsal) and time (Before and After). The children were very conscious

of their group goal. that of successful performance and of their progress toward it. Thc four

Performance Conditions were significantly different in their capacity to engender positive or

negative emotions. The adolescents were acutely sensitive to the thwarting or promoting of

their efforts towards their performance goals. The sirnilarity of the reaction of the groups to

the Technical Reheards (Early Arts and Music) in contrast to the Late Arts group's reaction to

the Dress Rehearsal highlights the importance of the type of performance context The marked

overall elevation of htensity and of Fear/unxieîy for al1 the school groups attested to the

significance of the formality of Performance. It aimost seemed as I there were unwritten rules

which govemed Technical Rehearsai, Dress Rehearsal. and actual Performance. These

dictated not only performance standards. but also the pemissible social interactions. The

adolescents who were so vulnerable to authority at Rehearsal were, in a sense, liberated in

Performance. Once the curtain rosc, the Perîormance was between them and the audience, and

they al1 knew how to move an audience!

4.2 Performance Anxiety

The prformers in this research project were from a "normal" (as opposed to ciinical)

adolescent population (OFfer & Sabshin, 1974; Offer. Ostrov & Howard. 198 1 ). This

perfomancc project sampled only a srnail slice of adolescent life. that of one week of

preparation and performance. Consequently, it did not shed light on Lhe rest of thcir adolescent

expericnce. This was a study of emotional states not of personality traits, although the latter

cannot be discounted as a contributing factor.

Adolescents are particularly vulnerable to social phobia:

with increasing ability to understand the cornplexities of social interaction and to develop negative self-focused attention, the older child becornes capable of karing negative cvaluation from others. Alihough social anxiety is a common cxperience among children and adolescents. unremitting anxiety has significant implications for adjustment and development (Albano, DiBartolo. Heirnberg. Barlow. 1995. p. 389).

The key difference for the adolescents who took part in this study was that the anxiety, t'or

most of them. was gone by the time they filled out their A k r Performance diary page. Their

performance anxiety would fit in the category of "situationally induced mxiety" which Offer et

al. found to be prevalect among normal teenagers (198 1. p. 92).

Before Rehearsal. anxiety was experienced by Late Arts studcnts and (to a lcsser

extent) Music students. In attempting to understand their reaction it is helpful to consider

Gordon's distinction between "what one fears" and "why one fears it" (1990. p. 67) [author's

italics]. Examples from the two groups illustrate this. The Late Arts students. d of whom

werc d m a majors, most with solo parts, were worried about their appeannce and their

performance: I was putting on make-up and 1 feel stupid because the make-up is the wrong colour. I was putting on make-up and chose a shade that was too dark for my complexion. 1 keep thinking that 1 will make a big mistake. My old school is coming. Our teachers were rushing us. Old embarnssments from the past. What aie hey saying about me? Do 1 look bad? 1 had dreams of this and I was messed up. What happrns if 1 forget my lines. or if 1 fall or something?

Several of the Music students mention specifically fear of e m b m m z n t :

We were singing some songs that 1 think were rneant for 2 yeür olds. but fun. We were singing an embarrassing but fun song. We were singing a very stupid sonp. and so it's embarrassing to sing it. The choir couldn't hit the right note and people started to laugh. Wondering whether kids will make fun or me.

For those womed about the make-up and the "babyish" song, it wasn't so much a question of

foolish in front of the other students. The choir girls were not wrong in their appraisal of the

situation. Two of the boys in the audience mentioned king imtated by the choir and one

specifically rcferred to "the stupid song". The feared e m b m s m c n t of the Laie A n s and

Music students is consistent with Beck and Emery's (1985) notion of vulnerability and kar or

k ing devalucd and with the literature regarding adolescent self-consciousness (Elkind. 1967;

Simmons & Blyth. 1987). For girls. self-consciousness is often part of the temale adolescent

preoccupation with body image as documented by the Canadian Institute for Child Health

(1989), Harter (1990), and Offer. Ostrov, Howard. & Atkinson (1988) in a cross-cultural

study of tcn countries. It is a credit to the arts programmes at the schools that physical

appearance did not seem to constitute a source of shame. These settings would appear to foster

at least that aspect of healthy development (Zaslow & Takanishi, 1993) which focuses on

emphasizing skills over body type.

The conductor said that, in general. the Music students womed more about performing

duMg the Technicd Rehearsal in front of their peers than during the Concert in front of their

parents. This is in sharp contrast to the Early Arts students who were quite blasé about

performing in front of the other students. This subject is treated in Aaron's book on Stage

Fright (1986). Aaron believes that performance in front of peers generates less stage fright

while Gabbard (cited in Aaron) States the opposite. Aaron explains this contradiction by

pointing out that his sarnple is made up of gifted actors who had already achieved prominence.

The Early Arts performers may weU be gifted and were certainly experienced. Whercas the

Late Arts students were among the youngest in a high school and the Music students attended a

transitional rniddle school. the Early Arts adolescents werc just days away from king

graduates of their school. This could not help but add to their confidence when on stage in

front of their younger school-mates.

Before Performance. aii the school arts groups were nervous. Tht: Early Arts cohorts

were the most anxious, Late Arts the least, with Music in between. Their statements as to the

cause of their nervousness wctl: systematically performance-oriented. Many of the students

suffered from negative thoughts characteristic of performance anxiety (Antony. 1996; Antony

& Barlow. 1997). Their "self-talkw'. however, did not go so Far as to be "self-defeating" as it

was in the cases of math anxiety studied by Tobias ( 1993). Part of the explanation rnay lic in

Gordon's (1990) notion that "forward-looking" emotions involve not only the fear that an

event may occur but also the brlief that the event wiil occur. The Early Arcs e-qurrts were thc

most anxious prior to performance. Yet they managed to perform wcll. jugglc succcssfully

many di ffercnt parts (and costumes). and pull-through major tcchnical I'ailurcs admirabl y. It is

just possible that their skill-base was so solid, that though they were nervous, they did not

really believe thcy would lail. An altemate explanation may be derived Srom thc fact that

growth in expertise entails both rising levels of cornpetence and rising standards of accepüiblc

performance.

4.3 School Stage Performance and Expertise

The two Early Arts cohorts were not significantly different in either Type or Intensity

of emotion experienced. Whether their similarity was due to talent or training is no t known.

The children who are accepted at audition For this arts school are called "talented" by the Board

of Education to distinguish them from the ''gifted" who are also given the opportunity for

speciai schooling beginning in grade four. Presumably, then. these children already have

speciai ialents when they arrive at the arts school. It would be highly unusual, however. if

each child had "natural" talent in dl four domains of art, music. drma. and dance. Although

the children did choose a major in their TmaI year. they were stiil expected to train and perforrn

in the other three domains. The initial view adopted during the design of this investigation was

that the Early Arts students would be the most expen becausc of the school's philosophy and

cornmiment in terms of hours dedicated to teaching the arts, because of the early age at which

the children enter the special school and. consequently. the number of years they have k e n

training (most in their tifth ycar). Keating asserts that "the evidcnce is overwhelrning that

growth in expertise is accompanied by, and to some extent dependent on. the automatization of

basic processes in the relevant domain" (L990a. p.62). This is the buis for solid technique

which provides the bundation for continuing enhancement of skills. Furthermore, it would

appear that the education received by these Early Arts children would qualify as

"developmcntal integration of expertisd' as described by Keating ( L 980. 199 1. p.7 2)

characterized by 1) content knowiedge. including dedarative. procedural. and conceptual. 2)

citical thinking, when defined as a "'cognitive disposition or orientation toward knowlcdge and

learning" and not limited to logic and inference. 3) creative thinking. which secmed pervasivc

in the Early Ans school. if creative behaviour is an indication of this. and 4) communication.

which is prccisely what performance is al1 about. The Early Arts children yc acceptcd on the

ment of their talent; as adolescents they graduate on the merit of their training.

Early adolescents were choscn as the children in the spottight because the childrcn who

best characterized expertise. both in terms of talent and training. were the grade 8 gnduating

classes of a performiiig arts school beginning in grade 4. Thcsc two Early Ans groups. thc

graduate classes of two succeeding years. were my most expen adolescents. In order to

examine a range of expertise. 1 included a Late Arts group (grades 7 - 9) from a perforrning

arts school which kgan in grade 7. Students in the music programme at a regular middle

school were chosen to represent the normal situation of children in grades 7 and 8. where

music is compulsory, at least in Ontario. A novice precision skating team was included to

sample an after-school activity. Thus, early adolescents. aga 1 1 to 15. were chosen initially

for methoûblogical expediency. Once this population was targeted. however, the fact that early

adolescents frequently exhibit very intense emotions constituted an added advantage.

4.4 EarIy Adolescent Performers in Transition

priberty - when I had that terrible energv

(P. K . Page. 1996)

The bLstag-environment fit" (Eccles et al.. 1993) does seem to explain sorne of the

differences between the groups. such as the lack of trepidation at Rehearsal on the part of the

Early Ans students and the choir's "typicaï' adolescent agitation about peer censure. Both

Eccles et ai. (1993) and Csikszentmihalyi and Larson (1984) emphasize the role of suuctun.

and challenge in enhancing adolescent motivation at school. The performance process of ail

the groups was charactenzed by a high level of stmcture. Almost al1 of the adolescents were

challenged by their performance tasks. There were a few exceptions. A disgmntled Early Arts

2 student. in answer to the claim. Yoiir participation in such a prori~iction requires n s~ibsrantial

amorint of timr und energ-. replicd "not at this school it doesn't*'. One Music student

mentioncd that h e band was not "hard enough". The mother of a Late Arts student telephoned

me to complain that her daughter was nor king stimulated by the arts programme of that

school. Most of the other diary comments attestcd to the tàct that the childrcn had to do their

best in order to achieve a successful performance.

The maintenance of motivation at school for early adolescents is panicularly important

because, unfortunately. it is often at this stage when some educators may give up bccausc of

the "turmoil thcory of adolescence" (Offer et al., 198 1, p.84). Keating. in his article on

adolescent thinking. makes the saternent that "the prxtice of revising cumculum to lessen the

cognitive challenges for preadolescents and early adolescents while educators await some

specific physiological maturation is not supponed by the best available data" (1990a. p.63).

Although he is refemng spcitically to brain maturation. this assertion could apply cqudy weU

to the notion that there is little point in attempting to teach anything difficult during pubescence

until hormones have calrned down. This idea has been upheld by several teachers of rniddle or

junior high schools in personal interviews. Keating postdates that adolescence is a ''critical

penod for the development of a critical habit of mind" (1996. p.233). based on the following

"potentiai" adolescent developments: increased differentiation of abilities. more independence

of thinking. and considerable emotional investment In athletics, early adolescence has

traditionally b e n one of the most productive periods of achievement for exactiy these reasons.

The arts teachers in this research projecc appeared ready to capitaliu: on these chmc teristics of

the adolescent. They scemed to have a very good sense of the relative proticiency of the

adolescents in iheir charge. and were, therefore. able to exploit Fully their *'terrible energy".

Good performances are tailored to the projected potential of the performers; roles or solos are

dlocated so that each child will be challenged - not bored by a too-simple task or overwhelmed

by an unattainable standard.

4.5 Cooperation/Companionship in Performance

a. Cooperative Performance

Cooperative performance rcquires that students interact face-to-fnce. necessitating

social collaborative skills. Not only must the performers be individzïally acco~mtable, they

must dso exhibit positive interdependence. i.e. be Linked togelher in a common effort. These

elcments of cooperativc leaming (Johnson et al.. 1984, 1994)) have rcpercussions on the

emotional experience of the individuals involved. Face-to-face intuaction may cnhancc

involvement or creak friction. Individual accoun~bility. of course. puts thc onus of

responsibility on the performer. whereas positive interdependencc can provide support and

lesson the strain on the individual.

Cooperative performance does not compel positive feelings. As has already k e n

mentioned. the rehearsal penod was rife with tension. In their performance diaries. the

students described in detail many irritations. Early Arts I girls, for example. were angry about

impossible costume changes. IncidentaiIy. the following year. Early Arts 2 girls in leotards

were conspicuous in the midst of the strings section and scattered incongruously in other

places. Presurnably the teachers came to understand that their demands of the previous year

were unredistic and then compromised on the dress code. This was perhaps a concrete

example of anger serving the purpose of negotiaüon ( A v e d . cited in Oatley. 1993). AI

Rehearsd, the perforrners expressed a lot of anger toward authority figures for unfair

demands. criticism and yelling. The Rehearsal was the moment when absolutely everyone

worked togelher - artistic director, stage manager, teachers. perforrners. and technical crew -

sometimes for the tirst time. They had to cooperate in order for the production to go smoothly.

Many of the performers had formed de f i t e opinions on coopentive performance.

Almost all Late Arts students and about two-thirds of Early Arts 2 thought that cooperation

learned in performance tnnskrred to other aspects of school. such as school projecis. Those

Music students who responded were evenly divided on their opinion. A few examples from

each school are given:

Late Arts: Yes. if you CO-opente with fellow actors then it enablcs you to CO-operatc all around more casier (sic). Yes, 1 do. Participating in a stage production gives us a chance to know cach other. It's iikt: a huge group project. That's why i t helps me in other areas. Yes, 1 leam to work with others and how to give everyone equal süy in what we art: doing. I can learn from others and they can leam [rom me.

Early Arts 2 Yes, becausc you learn how to work with others even it' you dislike thcm. Yes. but it makes some people want to be stars. Yes, teaches you to work as a group. Yes, need to work togcther to make thing happen.

Music No, not at all, i t makes it worse. Weii I don't mean to bi: conceitcd but I get dong great in groups. It does not make a differcnce to me! No, 1 don't think 1 coopcrate bettrr becausc there an: other school subjects Iikc Physical Education that teach you to coopente too.

The above quotations suggest that the type of coopentive experience is important in

determining an inclination for transfer to other school situations. Lütc Arts students were

performing a narrative where their roles were interdependent. The Early Arts production was

essentidly a variety show. The Music students played and sang in a typical. traditionai school

concert.

6. Companionship, Cornpetition, and Conversation

Companionship was important to the adolescent performers. There did not appear to

bc the class-mates-as-competitors versus fnends-as-cornpanions distinction found by

Csikszentmihalyi & Larson (1984). Instead. the performance diaries retlect relationships

which are consistent with Robson & Gitev's (1991) fiding that arts students considcr their

peers friendly and supportive. During the rehearsai when nsing tension rcsulted in mounting

anger and irritation. this emotion was almost always directed towards authority figures.

Within the diaiy pages. the reference to çnticism by fellow perfomers was negligible.

Criticism by separate performers. as opposed to fellow performers. occurred in only one

instance. The artistic director and drama teacher at the Early Arts school mentioned that there

was a lot of competition between the grade four children; it was presrnt to a lesser cxtent

between those in grade six. but it was not really a factor in grade eight. Therc were oniy Lhree

diary references that might have been prompted by the il1 effects of cornpetition. Two

references were to stars: "Because everyone wants to be star''. One angry Music pcrfomer. on

her second diary page. where she quit the diary. wrotc. "Die Judith!''

A concrete cxample of cmpathy was providcd by an Early Arts girl who was very upsct

because her duet w u changcd to a solo for herself: this made hcr fw1 badly vis-à-vis her fricnd

who had b ~ n cut. Thc Skaters were devastated about their poor performance at the

cornpetition. yet diere was no attribution of blame toward the girls who Ml. Many of the

adolescents from the Music group statcd that bcing in Music gave them the opponunity to makc

ftiends. Involvement in these formai performance activities appeared to provide these early

adolescents with a stablc social group which helped to protect them from pwr dienation and

personal isolation (Adams et al.. 1994). Conversation appeared to be as important to these

early adolescents as it was to the older teenagers in Csikszenunihalyi & Larson's ( 1984) study.

'Taking" prompted excitement and "not being allowed to talk" triggered boredom and

irritation.

What is it 0 1 1 enjoy most abolit petfiorming? This question provided an index of

enjoyment of being with the other perfomers. The proportions of those who chose "king

with" either alone or in combination with artistic expression were: Erirly Arts 2 6 M. Late

Arts 70%. Music 77%. Skate 756. Clearly. these adolescents did enjoy the association with

the other performers.

4.6 General Implications

a. Theoretical Implications

A complex emotion, in the analysis of Johnson-Laird and Oatley. is a contextual emotion bat has propositional content involving evaiuation of performance in relation to a mode1 of self but that might be related either to the self, as in shame at one's own action. or to anothrr. as in sympathy for his or her unhappy plight. (Oatley. 1992).

This research project has sought to reveal complex emotions in contexL This context

encompassed events. goals. and other people. including cachers and peers. Linked over time

and place within a stage performance tiamework. Both the quantitative and qualitative data

demonstrated that events. goals. and social interaction and evaluation were important sources

of cmotional responsc.

The resu1t.s of bis rescarch emphasize the importance of knowledge and kliets in the

full experiencc of emotion. They lend credence to Gordon's (1990) distinction betwecn

"factive" (backward-looking) and "epistemic" (forward-looking) emotions. The time-frarne of

the performance process cxposed the temporai aspects o l emotional experience as a function of

the progression toward the common goal.

b. Research implications

This project has shown the Iegitirnacy of doing research camed out over time in an

experiential adolescent milieu in which situation, context, and social interaction were shown to

be inftuential in affecting performers' emotions. A recognition of these factors is considered

essential to the study of psychosocial development in adolescence (Adams, Montemayor. &

Gullotta, 1996). This investigation of emotion in performance has reveaied the crucial

importance of situational environment and personal interaction and reaction. as well as ability.

in the ml-life context of adolescent artistic performance.

c. Applied Implications

This study found that adolescents were capable of highly sustained and enduring

cognitive and emotional effort toward goals in which they had a personal and coilabontive

investrnent and real opportunity. It has demonstrated that adolescents were able to mainiain

high motivation and manage iheir emotions in a sensible manner dunng a very svessful period

which included conllictual interaction with teac hcrs. This research projec t reaffirmed that

adolescents were able to cxpend considerable arnount of Lime and effort when intrinsically

motivated. More importantly. it discovered the intense pleasulr: that hard-won

accomplishments could bring to a group OC youngsters who ari: frequenlly scen as bored and

unmotivated. This points to the very real value ~Cexploiting intrinsic motivation for leaming.

4.7 Limitations

a. Design and internai Va lidity

In this project. the Performance Conditions wcn: based on the natunlly occumng

evcnts OC the stage performance process. In this sense. it deliberately eschzwed a high degree

of intemal validity. delïned by Cook and Campbell as rcferring to "the approximate validity

with which we infer that a relationship be~ween two variables is causal or that the absence of a

relationship impiies the absence of cause' (1979. p.37). m i s study sought to discover the

emotional correlates of seif-conscious adolescent performance without postuiating a suictly

causal relationship.

b. External Validify and Generalizabilify

The case for approximate extemal validity of this research project is more prornising.

Cook and CampkU define external validity as referring to "the approxirnate validity with

which we can infer that the presumed causal relationship c m be generalizcd to and across

altemate measures of the cause and effect and across different types of persons, settings. and

Limes*' ( 1979. p.37). They consider construct validity to be a lorm of extemai validity. The

choice or Fear/kmiety rose systematicdy Before Rehearsal and more so Before Performance

for all the school arts groups. This corresponds to what one would predict for performance

anxiety. which is well documented in the psychiauic. psychological. and theatrical literature.

The occurrence of Happiness/jou with goal achievement (school groups) and Angerfitation

with goal frustration (skaters) is also consistent with expectation (Oatley & Duncan. 1992.

1994). This correspondence reinforces the value of the ernotion diaries as a valid instrument

for measuring emotion.

One might reasonably expect that the prevdence of anxiety prior to stage performance

and the happiness &ter successful performance. as well as the mix of boredom and imtation

during ail-day rehearsals would generalize to olber middle class adolescent groups in other

performances in othcr schools.

c. A nalyses and statistical pu wer

Neither the schools nor the studcnts were randomly chosen. [nstead. the schools wcrc

selected to represent a gradation in cornmitment and expertise. The students were volunteers.

Repeated measurcs analyses of Intensity of cmotion and of positive versus negativc

emotions werc performed in ordcr to iakc advantage of the statistical control afforded by the

within-subject design of ihis projcct (Cook & Campbell. 1979; Marascuilo & Serlin. 1988).

Unfortunately. comparing the basic Emotion Types of the groups neccssitated carrying out

individual chi-square analyses separately for each Pcrlormanct: Condition. In order to reduce

the risk of a Type 1 error, a more exmme alpha level of .O 1 was adopted (Stevens. 1992) with

a resulting loss in power.

d. Measurement

Self rrpon and social desirabiliv. Emotions dianes are self-report documents and as

such are prone to bias towards socially desirable responses. This certainly did occur with

some of the older adolescents in my emotion diary pilot project. In order to encourage frank

and honest expression in the performnce dia- survey. I guaranterd total anonymity (Offer a

al.. 1988). Cross-referencing between direct observation at Rehearsal and Performance.

professional videotapes of the Early Arts performances. interviews with teachers, conductors

and directors and the prrformers' comments within the diaries provided many exarnples of

corroborating evidence of the adolescents' truthfulness. A few examplcs are provided. As

mentioned earlier. both the girls' Choir and the conductor noted the possibiiity of

embarrassment al singing the childish Song in front of peers. One Early A m girl wrotc that

because she had torgotten her costume, her partner and teacher were both angry with her. Thc

partner. in hcr diary. indignantly reported that the teacher was angry at both of them. Two

participants mentioned the girl falling off the riser. This accident resulted in a trip to the

hospital. Technical troubles were the source of many diary cornplaints: the screeching sound

system was obvious to the audiencc as well.

Scoring. Only one item in the motion cliaty had numerical value. that OC Intensity.

Mon: sconble items would make the diary more arncnable to quantitative analysis.

Missing data. A clause stating that the participant could drop out at any tirne was

included in the Ethics Review. the parental consent form. and the rccniiiment tdk, and rightly

so. However. this resulted in several incornpletc dianes. 1 made the decision to include all

diaries wherc thc participant füled out thc cover page and at least one diary page. Some werc

angry at Rehcarsal and did not continue. To reject those diaries would bc to diston Lhc data in

favour of the happicr participants. The missing data resulted in some shifting ns, according to

the circumstances. For the repeated measures analyses. of course. any one-page omission

resulted in al1 diary pages king excluded.

in spite of these limitations. the general findings of this diary research arc comparable

to those of other seif-report studics (Csikszentrnihalyi & Larson, 1984; Oadey & Duncan.

1994).

4.8 Future directions

The administration of a personality inventory in conjunction with ün emotion diary

study such as this could show whether introverted or anxious adolescents differ from

exvaverted (Eysenck. H., 1987; Eysenck. H. & Eysenck. M.. 1985) adolescents in their

ability to perform on stage and in their associated emotional expenence. This codd have

implications for those adolescents who make Life choices based on avoidance of self-conscious

performance sitiintions

A hrther improvement would involve doing a longitudinal study. sampling everyday

emotions, as well as emotions engndered by classroom presentations and academic

examinations. This rcsearch would examinc not only the type and intensity of cmotions

experienced but dso the performance-specific sources of these emotional responses.

An in-depth analysis of the pngmatics of adolescent etnotional language on a much

wider scalc would serve to qualify and modulate the meaning of many of the cornplex zmotion

words descnbed by Johnson-Laird & Oatley (1989). The adolescents in this study exhibited a

sophistication and a sensitivity to the language of emotions which went far beyond what is

represented by the usual teenage stereotype.

Conclusion

Peflorrning requires a huge cornmitment of fime and energy. Wh? do y011 do if? In

answer to this question on the final diary page, many of the adolescents mentioned "Fun". the

joy of the artistic endeavour. the physical activity. or the companionship. Sevcral.

suy5singly, even referred to "learning". Some noted that their parents did make them. but

that they iiked it anyway. A selection of the responses is provided below. From the school

groups: 1 love it. It's the best feeling - dl that hard work paid off. It finds another part of you the artistic side and it shows in everything you do. Because it's very rewarding and it's fun. It shows what I've leamed al1 year. 1 love performing & need to use my energy up some way. Because it's fun, exciting and a great expenence. 1 do it because I enjoy it, and love perfonning. Wanting to achieve something, like someone's enjoyment.

It gives me something to do. So I can be good at something. and l e m how to play an instrument. My mom rnakes me and 1 h d of Like it Because it's fun to work with the people and when you listen to music you c m relate. 1 dont know. I hate the band teacher. I enjoy it, it's fun, the pieces we play are Fun. our teachers an: reaily good and fun. It's fun and I have a REAL responsibility. Because it broadens my horizon. Because 1 like being involved. Because I felt 1 should do what I'm good at and leam more. Because 1 enjoy to sing and the songs we sing are really fun (sic). Because 1 enjoy it and because being in band is better than being in the choir ATwr the past two years 1 have corne to really enjoy playing my instrument. 1 love participating at school. It's no fun if you don't. 1 tell myxlf to do the best you c m do. And I stick with that. 1 also like being with other string players.

Twcnty skaters (those angry. unhappy. girls) rcsponded. ail positively. using tcrms

such as "like". "love". "fun":

It's Fun and everyone's friendly. I like being part of a tearn & I love skating. Because I get excited and I like performing on the icc. 1 like to skate also for exercise. Because it's team effort. it's fun. it keeps you fit. and I love skating. Because 1 like participating in this kind of stuff.

Thesc quotations not only elaborate the reasons for performing but also emphasiu: the

rneaningfulness of the performance experience. "Fun" refers to the state of bring wholly

rngaged in what one is doing (Oatley. 1992). In his analysis of enjoyment, Csikszentmihalyi

(1975). proposes the word "tlow" to describe the "holistic sensation" characterized by total

involvement in an activity in which opportunities match capabilities. attention is centred on a

limited stimulus field, demands are coherent and non-contradictory. and feedback is clear and

unarnbiguous. The above features seemed to be present during the performance endcavour

exarnined in this research project, apart from the specific Rehcarsal incidenis already

mentioned. The overdi engagement was genedly maintained in spite OC the experience of

dysphoric emotions that occurred in certain phases of the performance process (Oatley. 1992).

The distinction betwcen the emotions felt after performance (happiness for the school

groups, anger for the skaters) and the fun and enjoyment descnbed above may be understood

by separating conceptually the performance product from the performance process. The iargct

goal was the successful performance product; happiness was contingent upon a fortunate

outcorne. The performance process. however, was more enduring; it included the long and

arduous preparation as well as the act of performing on stage. The performers' candid

explmations of why thry prrform suggest that they were prfonning "îlow" activities. The

Skaters provided the strongest evidence of this phenornenon. for. in spite of king devastated

by dekat. they maintained their love of precision skating.. Working together toward the god

involved these adolescent performers in meaningful participation. both with the activity and

with each other. This process enhanced happiness with successful performance and buffered

anger and sadness at defeat As the title of Mihaly Csikszentrnihalyi's 1975 book suggests.

and as this research on the emotionai correlates of coopentive performance in early

adolescence has iilusmted. the emofions which may be mgendercd by the performance

process extend well "beyond boredom and anxiety." Many adolescents reported being bored

or imlaed at rehearsal; most admitted to feeling anxious prior to going on stage. The

pervasive expenence of happiness over the course of the performance process, however.

appeared to be due to the inherent pleasure and promise of the artistic endeavour within a social

context of companionship. encouragement, and support.

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Oatley, K. & Duncan, E. ( 1992). Incidents of emotion in daily Life. In KT. Strongman (Ed.), Internarional Review of Strtdies on Emotion. 2. Chichester: Wiley.

Oatley. K. & Duncan. E. (1994). The experience of emotions in everyday Me. Cognition and Emotion, 8 (4). 369-38 1.

Oatley. K. & Johnson-Laird. P. (1996). The communicative theory of emotions: Empirical tests, mental models. and implications for social interaction. In L. Mat in & A. Tesser (Eds.). Striving and feeling: interactions among goals, uffects. und self-regthtion- Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Offer. D.. Ostrov. E.. & Howard. K. ( 198 1). The Adolescent: A psychologicalself-pomaN. New York: Basic Books.

Offer. D.. Ostrov. E.. & Howard, K., & Atkinson. R. (1988). The reennge workf: Adolescents' self-image in ten countries. New York: Plenum Medical Book Company.

Offer. D. & Sabshin. M. ( 1974). Normal i~ : Theoretical and clinicnl concepts of mentrd health. New York: Basic Books.

Page. P.K. ( 1996. May 13). Idras. Toronto: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio.

Preece. M.A. ( 1987). Human Growth. In R.L. Gregory (Ed.). The Oxford compcinion to the mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Robson, B.E. & Gi tev, M. ( 199 1). In search OF perfection. Medicadproblems of performing artists. Philadclphia. PA: Hanley & Bel fus.

Robson, B.E. & Gitev. M. (1993. October). To sleep perchance ro drenm. Paper presentcd at Nctwork of Performing & Visual Arts Schools Conference. Miami. Rorida.

Sansone, C. & Harackiewicz, M. (1996). "1 don't kel likr it": The funetion of intercst in self-mgulation. In L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.). Striving and feeling: Intercrcrions omong goals. affects. and se(f-regrilatioio Mahwah. New Jcrsey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Simrnons, R. & Blyth. D. ( 1987). Muving into adolescence: The impact ofpr<bet?al change and school context. New York: Aldine de Gruytcr.

S tcvens, J. ( 19%). Applied mtiltivariate statistics for the social sciences. (2nd cd.). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Takanishi, R. (L993). The opportunities of adolescence - Research. interventions. and policy. American Psychologist, 48. 85-87.

Tobias. S . (1995). ûvercoming math anxieg. (Rev-ed.). New York: Norton & Company.

Zaslow, M.J. & Takanishi. R. ( 1993). Priorities for research on adolescent development. American Psychologist. 48. 185- 193.

6. APPENDICES

Appendix A

Performance Diary

COVER PAGE

We would like you to keep this special diary of your emotions before and after your rehearsal as we11 as before and after your sctual performance.

PIease record your emotional state at some time on the day of your final Rehearsal before vou wrform and again on the same day as soon as possible iifter vour rehearsal. at some tirne on the day of the actual Performance before vou ~erform and again on the sarne day as soon as possible after vou have oerformed.

Personal PIease be as fiank as possible. We would just Iike to have the forrns you f i I l in. wt: do not nced to know your name.

We would like somc pcrsonal information though, if' you would not mind.

.............. 1. Age 2. Sex (Plcase check.) Male 0 Femaie 0

.............. 3. Grade

4. In which grade did you enter this school? (Please check onc.) gr. four O gr. five O gr. six Cl grade seven 0 grade eight O

5. Why did you want to corne to a performing arts school? ................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................

6. What is your major? Art O Dance d Drarna Cl Percussion D

7. What type(s) of performance are you doing in this production? (Plcase check one or more) Art O Dance 0 Drama O Music: Band 0 Strings b Choir d

8. Will you be performing solo? This could incIude either a solo i n dance or music (instrumental or voice), however brief, or a dramatic role. (Plcase check one.) No b Yes

Performance D i q Ddma 8 Keith Oatley & Janet Sinclair 1993

Appendix A: Performance Diary Diary Page 1

FiIl in this page before vour Rehearsal performance. on the sarne dav

.......................................... .......................................... 1. Date Time

2. What is your name for the emotion or mood you are feeling? .....................................

3. Would you cal1 it a type of any of the following? (Check one.) Happiness / joy O Sadness / grief O Anger / irritation O Fear / anxiety O None of the abcvc O

4. How strong is the feeling? (Circlç one below.) Barelynoticeable O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I O As intense as [ havcevcr fclt

5. Do you have any bodilv sensations? (Check one or morc.) Dry mouth 0 Teiiseness (of body, jaw, fists) O Trembling d Feeling sweaty d Stomach (churning. butterflies) O Heart bcating noticabty d Feeling hot b Feeling cold 0

6. PIease Say what you were doing, and what happened, if anything, to start the emotion:

6. b Do thouehts corne inta vour mind that are hard to sto~ , and make it hard to concentrate on anything else? No 0 Not sure O Yes O Flease Say what these thoughts are.

7. 1s the feeling mixed, (Check one.) No 0 Not sure O Yes 0 If Yes, what emotions are in the mixture?

...................................... ................................ and

1s there more than one emotion at exactly the same time? (Check one.) No Cl Not sure D Yes O

Or did one kind of feeling turn into another? (Check one.) The feeling stayed the same until it finished Cl It changed 13

8. 1s the feeling related to confidence in your abilities? (Check one) No b Yes d 1s the feeling related to audience reaction? (Check one) No O Ys 1s the feeling mainly about other performers? (Check one) No O Yes d

9. About how long before the rehearsal performance are you now completing this page? .................. .................... hours minutes

Performance D i q Ddma O Kcith Oatley & Janet Sinclair 1993

Appendix A: Performance Diary Diary Page 2

Do this oage after vour Rehearsal performance on the same dav, when reflectin~ on how it went.

.......................................... .......................................... 1. Date Time

2. What is your name for the emotion o r mood you are feeling? .....................................

3. Would you cal1 it a type of any of the following? (Check one.) Happiness / joy O Sadness / grief 0 Anger / irritation Cl Fear / aruciety 0 None of the above 0

4. How strong is the feeling? (Circle one below.) Barely noticeable O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 As intense as I have cvcr f d t

5 . Do you have any bodilv sensations? (Check one or more.) Dry mouth d Tenseness (of body. jaw. fists) 0 Trembling d Feeling sweaty O Stomach (churning. butterllies) d Heart beating noticably d Feeling hot d Fecling cold a 6. Please Say what you were doing, and what happened, if anything, to start the emotion:

7. 1s the feeling mixed, (Check one.) No O Not sure O Yes O If Yes, what emotions are in the mixture?

...................................... ................................ and

1s there more than one emotion at exactly the same tirne? (Chcck one.) No O Not sure O Yes O

Or did one kind of feeling turn into another? (Check one.) The feeling stayed the same until it finished 0 It changed O

1s the feeling related to your own performance? (Check one) No 0 Ycs 0 Is the feeling related to audience reaction? (Check one) No b Yes D 1s the feeling mainly about other performers? (Check one) No d Yes b

About how long after the rehearsal performance are you now completing this page? .................... hours .................. mi nutes

Did you (personally) perform your best? .................................................................. .................................................... Do your think that your group performed its best?

Performance Divy Ddma 8 Kcith Oatlcy & Janct Sinclair 1993

Appendix A: Performance Diary Diary Page 3

Fil1 in this page before vour eveninp Performance. on the same dav

....... .............................. ....................,..............*. 1. Date ,. Time

2. What is your name for the emotion or mood you are feeling? .....................................

3. Would you cal1 it a type of any of the following? (Check une.)

Happiness / joy d Sadness / grief O Anger / irritation d Feu / anxiety d None of the above d

4. How strong is the feeling? (Circlc one below.) Barcly noticeable O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO As intense as I have w e r felt

5. Do you have any hodilv sensations? (Check ont: or more.) Dry mouth d Tenseness (of body. jaw. tists) O Trembling d Feeling sweaty d Stomach (churning, buttertlies) O Heart beating noficably O Feeling hot O Feeling coId O

6. Please say what you were doing, and what happened, if anything, to start the emotion:

6. b Do thouphts corne into vour mind that are hard to stoo, and make it hard to concentrate on anything else? No Cl Not sure Cl Yes O Please Say what these thoughts are.

7, 1s the feeling rnixed, (Check one.) No O Not sure O Yes O If Yes, what emotions are in the mixture?

...................................... ................................ and

1s there more than one emotion at exactIy the same time? (Check one.) No D Not sureCl Yes D

Or did one kind of feeling tiirn into another? (Check one.) The feeling stayed the sarne untit it finished O It changed CI

8. 1s the feeling related to confidence in your abilities? (Check one) No 0 Yes d 1s the feeling related to audience reaction? (Check one) No Cl Y s O 1s the feeling mainly about other performers? (Check one) No O

9. About how long before the actuat performance are you now completing this page? ................ hours ................ minutes

Performance Diary k a 8 Kcith Oatiey & Janet Sinclair 1993

Appendix A: Performance Diary Diary Page 4

Do this page after vour eveninp Performance, when reflectin~ on how it went.

1. Date ................... .. .................. Tirne ..........................................

2- What is your name for the ernotion or mood you are feeling? .....................................

3. Would you cal1 it a type of any of the following? (Check one.) Happiness 1 joy O Sadncss 1 grief d Anger / irritation d Fear 1 anxiety 0 None of the above d

4. How strong is the feeling? (Circle one helow.) Barely noticeable O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 As intense as 1 have ever felt

5. Do you have any bodilv sensations? (Check one or more.) Dry mouth O Tcnseness (of body. jaw. fists) Cl Trembling 0 Feeling sweaty 0 Stomach (churning. butterflies) d Hem beating noticably O Feeling hot il Feeling cold O

6. Please Say what you were doing, and what happened, if anything, to start the emotion:

7. 1s the feeling mixed, (Check one.) No O Not sure 0 Yes fl

If Yes, what emotions are in the mixture?

................................ and ......................................

Is there more than one emotion at exactly the same time? (Check ont!.) No O Not sure O Yes d

Or did one kind of feeling turn into another? (Check one.) The feeling stayed the same until it finished Ci It changed Oi

8. 1s the feeling reiated to your own performance? (Check one) No 0 Yes 0 1s the feeling related to audience reaction? (Check one) No O Yes a 1s the feeling rnainly about other perforrners? (Check one) No O Ycs d

9. About how long after the performance are you now completing this page? ............... hours ................ mi nutes

10. Did you (personally) perform your best? .................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................

Do your think that your group performed its best? ...................................................... .................................................................................................................................................

Performance Diary Ddma 8 Keith Oatley & Jancr Sinclair 1993

Appendix A

Performance Diary

FINAL PAGE

Please fil1 this page in when you have done al1 four diary pages.

How easy or difficult was it to do this diary? Please say briefly ...................................................................................................................

How do you feel while you are actually on stage performing in front of the audience ? .............................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................. ..............................................................................................................................................

Perfonning requires a buse cornmitment of tinic and cnergy.

Why do ycu do it :' ............................................................................................................

What is it you enjoy rnost about performing? (PIease check one or more.)

being with the other pertormers) U the artistic expression of acting (or dancing or playing or singing) O

Do you feel that your experience in performing helps you in other aspects of school performance such as class presentations or discussions ?

Do you feel that your experience in cooperating with others during stage productions enables you to collaborate better with other students i n class o r school projects?

1s there anything important concerning your feelings about perfonning that we have not asked about? Please say briefly ..............................................................................

Performance Diary Dima O Kcith Oatley & Janet Sinclair 1993

Appendix B

Parental Consent Form

Dear Parent or Guardian, We would like permission for your son or daughter to take part in a study on the

relationship between emotion. motivation. and coopentive performance. Your child will he asked to complete a mini performance &q, in thc form of a questionnairc. in conjunction with the June stage production. A diary page is tïlled out both before and after the rehearsal

performance on June 2 1, as well as before and &ter the evening performance on June 33. Each of the four diary pages takes approxirnately five minutes. A final page asks more general

questions such as "What is it that you enjoy most about performing?" The questionnaires will bc shown to the students and the procedure explained. prior to

asking them if they would be interested in participating. Those who volunteer to take part will be asked not to put their names on the performance daries. thus ensuring that their replies will

rcmain anonymous. If they change their rnind. they are Crcc to opt out, at any timc. The school will not be identiîïed in the wntten report. 1 would be pleascd to mect with interestcd students and parents in the Ml to discuss the results.

Your child's school was chosen. not only because of thc obvious exccptional

performance ability of the students, but also because of the high levcl of personal motivation and cornmitment which is characteristic of this group.

Please indicate below below whether or not you would like your child to participate. If !es, please sign as well. For more information, cal1 me, Janet Sinclair. at 484 9782 or Professor Keith Oatley at 923 664 1 in the Ccntrc for Applied Cognitive Scicnce at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

I give permission O

1 DO NOT give permission a

for to complete a pe>formoncr dia-. (name of child)

Signature of parent or guardian:

Please return this consent form to the school by Tuesday 8 June. [Decorated drop box marked PERFORMANCE STUDY outside the office]

Appendix C

Recruitment Talk / Instructions to Subjects

[Prior ro starring, Parental Consenr forms and Demonstration Dianes have been distribrlted to each snrdenr, 1

Good Aftemoo~. I am here to invite you to take part in a research study on emotion in performance. which will take place in conjunction with your Drama Night. Pleasc rezd the Parental Consent form which brieîiy explains the project. Then we will go through the Demonsbation Diaries together. Pleasc feel frce to ask any questions you may have. You will

be asked to complete a mini Performance Diary [hoid upj dunng the p-iod between your final rehearsal and your evening performance. The Diary consists OF a cover page - 4 diary pages

- and a thal page. It takes approximately 5 minutes per page: a total cornmitment of about 20 to 25 minutes. [ n e ? look rhrortgh the diaries.] Do you have any questions'?

On Monday. March 7 at 1 pm. before your Dress Rehearsal, you will reccivc your

Performance Dia- in its envelope with your name on the envelope onlp. not on the Diary. At that time. you will fil1 out the cover page and diary page 1. the heforc Rehearsal

page. Now. some of you may be involved in more than one number. but 1 would ask you to concentratcon whichever aspect of your performance that is most important to you. As soon

as you have iïnished the Rehearsal performance, please complete diary page 2. thc &r Rehearsal page. At this point you are already half way through the Diary. Thcse two

Rehearsal pages arc included in your Demonstration Booklet In the real PetIomancc Diary. there arc two more pages. exactly the same. which are to be tïlled out bcfore and df- your evening Performance. You may find it more convenicnt to do these ai homc. Lastly, wc ask you to complete the final page. Over 130 students have already participated in this project; some of thesc more general questions were suggested by them. You will return the Diarics to me personally in the foyer the morning after your evening Performance. i.e. Wedncsday the

9th of March or Thursday the 10th of March. When you return your Performance Diary to me. [dento] you will tlrst takc i t out oT the

envelope which has your narne on it. The Diary itself will not have your name on it and therefore your responses will be totally anonymous. You will drop the questionnaire through the slot in this bin. The Diaries will not be examined until they have al1 been retumed.

1s there mything else you would like to ask? I l you would like to take part, would you please sign the volunteer sheet and take home

your parental consent forrn. which must be retumed by Friday. Thank you.

Appendix D

Envelope A ttachments

Begin with Matinée Dress Rehearsal Monday 7 March

Finish with Evening Performance Tuesday 8 March OR Wednesday 9 March

RETURN DIARY !

to Mrs. Sinclair in the foyer

before school the morning after your performance

either: Wednesday 9th or Thursday 10th March

Would you like to attend a meeting in the fa11 to leam the results of this study ?

If yes, please check: you O your parent(s) O O

Thank you very much

Appendix E

Coding Instructions

Coding is done according to die glossary in Johnson-Laird. P.N. & Oatley. K. (1989). The language of emotions: Anaiysis of a semantic t6eld. Cognition & Ernotion. 3. 8 1 - 123.

Emotion Type Coded = EmoTcod

Look at the word in the EmoTypeCh column (Emotion Type Chosen): If this word is one of happiness/jqv, sadness/grief; anger/irritation, or frcrhnxiety.

then copy i t

If the word is noneof. then look to the column: S 'sEmoName for clxiîïçation (Subject's Name for the Ernotion)

anticipation. calm. excitement rclaxed, relief, satisfaction are considered to be of the Emotion Type happiness

frustration, imitation are considered to be of the Emotion Type mger

anxious, nervous. scared are considered to be of the Emotion Type fear

bored is considered to be of the Emotion Type sudness tired belongs to nonrof; thcrefore noneof is left as is.

If there are two words in S 's EmoName: and the first one is unc1assiIïable or absent, then, look at the second word. If the second word is unclassifiable or absent. then proceed as bdow.

Lf the word in S 'sEmoName is unclassifiable or absent. then: Look to the nght in the columns S 'sInitEmoNm, and S 'sAndEmoNm

(Subject's Initiai Emo tion Narne, SubjectS And Emotion Narne) for interpretive clues (Le. for the mention of one of the Four "basic"

Emotion Types).

These columns give the components of a mixed Emotion Type.

If' the word in S 'sInitEmoNm is vague or ambiguous but the word in S 'sAndENm is one of the four basic Emotion Types. choose it.

If there are no interpretive clues, then leave noneof as is.

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