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Cobia culture in Taiwan: current status and problems

I Chiu Liaoa,b,*, Ting-Shih Huangc, Wann-Sheng Tsaic,Cheng-Ming Hsuehd, Su-Lean Change, Eduardo M. Leanoa

a National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 202, TaiwanbNational Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 912, Taiwan

cPenghu Marine Biology Research Center, Fisheries Research Institute, Paisha, Penghu 884, TaiwandNo. 32, Nei-an Village, Siyu Township, Penghu, Taiwan

eTungkang Marine Laboratory, Fisheries Research Institute, Pingtung 928, Taiwan

Received 18 November 2003; received in revised form 27 February 2004; accepted 2 March 2004

Abstract

Cobia, Rachycentron canadum, is a widely distributed species from the Indo-Pacific waters to the

southern Atlantic Ocean. In Taiwan, it is an indigenous and an ideal species for cage culture. Due toits high market value in both domestic and international markets, the technology for its culture has

rapidly developed in the past few years. These include mass propagation through natural spawning of

captive broodstocks, larval rearing techniques, nursery production in tanks, ponds and nearshore

cages, and grow-out culture in offshore cages. Reproduction in captivity is relatively easy because

sexual maturity often occurs within 2 years of culture. Spontaneous spawning occurs year around at

water temperatures of 2327 jC, with peak during spring and autumn. Fertilized eggs hatch within

2137 h at water temperature of 3122 jC. Larval growth is fast, and larvae are vitally robust and

environment tolerant compared to other marine fishes. Fry can be mass-produced in outdoor ponds at

relatively low cost. Weaning of fry from 20 days old onwards to pellet feeds is feasible. Nursery

rearing from 1030 to 1000 g can be done in either outdoor ponds or nearshore cages. Major

diseases affecting cobia include bacterial (pasteurellosis, vibriosis and streptococcosis), parasitic

(myxosporidea, Trichodina, Neobenedenia and Amyloodinium infestations), and viral (lymphocystis)

ones.

In recent years, intensive and super-intensive recirculation systems for nursery (from 2 to 100

150 g) were developed with survival rates of more than 90%. In nursery and grow-out offshore

cages, 100600 g cobia were cultured within 11.5 years when they reached 68 kg for export to

Japan, or 810 kg for the domestic market. Currently, around 80% of marine cages in Taiwan are

devoted to cobia culture. However, some problems still exist in cobia culture that needs to be

addressed and solved to increase production. These include high mortality due to stress during

0044-8486/$ - see front matterD 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2004.03.007

* Corresponding author. Department of Aquaculture, National Taiwan Ocean University, 2 Pei-Ning Road,

Keelung 202, Taiwan. Tel.: +886-2-24623055; fax: +886-2-24634994.

E-mail address: [email protected] (I C. Liao).

www.elsevier.com/locate/aqua-online

Aquaculture 237 (2004) 155165


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transport from nursery tanks/inshore cages to grow-out cages and diseases during nursery and grow-

out culture resulting in low survival, and consequently poor harvest.

D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cobia culture; Broodstock management; Larval rearing; Nursery; Grow-out; Disease problems

1. Introduction

Cobia, Rachycentron canadum, is widely distributed in tropical and sub-tropical waters

(Briggs, 1960; Hassler and Rainville, 1975; Chen, 1986; Ditty and Shaw, 1992), and it has

been cultured as a recreational fish species. However, because of its good meat quality

(Shiau, 1999; Chen, 2001), its potential for aquaculture was recognized in recent years. InTaiwan, cobia is now popularly cultured in sea cages either for domestic consumption or

for export, mainly to Japan (Su et al., 2000; Her et al., 2001; Liao, 2003). Its culture began

in the early 1990s when the technology of mass fry production was developed in 1997

(Chang et al., 1999). To date, several marine fish hatcheries are producing cobia

fingerlings for stocking in nursery tanks or inshore cages. The different phases of cobia

production in Taiwan are shown in Fig. 1.

Marine cage aquaculture is getting popular in Taiwan where land and freshwater

resources are limited (Su and Liao, 2001). Among many species of cultured marine fish,

cobia is a prominently popular species for cage aquaculture because of its fast growth rate

and comparatively low production cost. Total cobia production increased from 1800 mt in1999 to 3000 mt in 2001, but plunged to 1000 mt in 2002 due to high incidence of disease

outbreaks and losses from typhoon damage (Fig. 2). The domestic consumer acceptability,

however, increased resulting in the higher market price.

Fig. 1. Flowchart of cobia aquaculture in Taiwan.

I C. Liao et al. / Aquaculture 237 (2004) 155165156


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With increasing interest in cobia production, culture system in both nursery and grow-

out cages was intensified. This paper presents review and current status of cobia culture in

Taiwan including broodstock management, mass fry production and nursing. It also

describes development of intensive and super-intensive recirculation system for fry

nursing, current production in grow-out cages, marketing, as well as problems encountered

in the whole production process.

2. Broodstock management and mass fry production

The purpose of broodstock management is to supply good quality eggs and larvae,

which generally include collection, selection, and domestication of broodstock, appropri-

ate feeds, maturation and spawning, and egg collection and incubation (Liao et al., 2001).

In the case of cobia, broodstocks were usually collected from the wild before artificial

propagation was developed. Currently, cobia intended for broodstock are produced from

hatcheries and reared in open cages until they attain sexual maturity (about 1.52 years

when fish weighs about 10 kg). Handling and spawning of mature brooders have beendescribed in detail (Su et al., 2000; Liao et al., 2001; Liao, 2003). Maturing brooders are

selected from sea cages and transferred to land-based spawning ponds (400600 m2 area;

1.5 m depth) with flow-through seawater, at a density of 100 fish per pond and a sex ratio

of about 1:1 (male/female). Fish are fed to satiation with raw fish (e.g. sardines, mackerels,

squids) once or twice a day.

Brooders spawn spontaneously year around, with a peak in spring and autumn when

water temperature is maintained at 2327 jC. The fertilized eggs are collected using a

seine net installed against the current created by paddlewheels. The eggs are then

transferred to outdoor larval rearing ponds (earthen ponds; < 5000 m2 area ; 11.2 m

water depth) with well-maintained green water (Chlorella sp.) and abundant number ofcopepods. Water exchange is minimal or unnecessary in the early stage as long as the

green water is maintained.

Fig. 2. Annual production of cobia in Taiwan. *Low production is due to high incidence of disease outbreaks andloss due to typhoons.

I C. Liao et al. / Aquaculture 237 (2004) 155165 157


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Eggs hatch 2137 h after fertilization at temperature of 3122 jC. Cobia larvae are

vigorous and more resistant to some stressors compared to other tropical marine fish (e.g.

grouper). They open their mouth and starts feeding at day 3 after hatching. Rotifers and

copepod nauplii are provided at this stage, with higher preference to copepods during thefirst feeding stage. Larvae are reared up to day 20 with survival rate of 510%.

3. Fry nursery

The cobia fry are nursed in three phases (Fig. 1). The first phase includes rearing the fry

from 0.2 to 25 g (day 20 to day 45). At this stage, the fry grow rapidly into fingerlings,

reaching 810 cm at the end of the first nursery phase. Size grading is undertaken once

every 4 day to 1 week. At this stage, the fry can be totally weaned to floating pellet feeds.

In the second nursery phase, cobia fingerlings are reared from 25 to 30 g (day 45 to day

75) in large ponds (>300 m2) with green water. Feeds are provided manually to

satiation five to six times daily at the weaning stage. The size of the pellet feeds is

increased gradually as the fish grows. Feeding rate on the other hand is reduced from 5%

body weight (BW) for 1030 g to 23% BW for 100200 g. Size grading is undertaken

only once during this stage.

In the third nursery phase (from 30 to 600 1000 g; day 75 to day 150 180), the cobia

are cultured either in outdoor ponds or inshore cages. Size grading is usually done only

once during this stage. It is not advisable to stock cobia juveniles smaller than 30 g in

offshore cages because of their weak resistance to strong water current, also the necessityin occasional grading to prevent cannibalism, and prevention of mortality due to bacterial

infections. Moreover, the smaller mesh size needed for small-sized cobia prevents water

current flow inside the cage, resulting in higher incidence of parasitic infestation.

Some family-owned and commercial cage farms are located in protected bays, such as

in Shao-Liu-Chiu island in Southern Taiwan, where the second and third nursery phases

are carried out in the same area as the grow-out cages to avoid mortality associated with

transportation stress. Small cobia (25 g) are more tolerant to transport stress than the

larger ones (Liao, 2003).

Recently, a recirculation system was designed for nursing cobia fry (48 g) under

intensive and super-intensive rearing and mass production of juveniles (100150 g) forstocking in offshore grow-out cages (Huang et al., 2002). Several trial runs confirmed

efficiency of the system for rearing of cobia fry at high stocking density. Table 1 shows the

result of one trial run using the intensive recirculation system at different stocking

densities (125, 250, 370 and 500 fish/m3). Survival rate at all stocking densities tested

was above 95%. Results show that optimum stocking density using this system is 370/m3

based on survival, specific growth, and food conversion rates. In 2001, this system was

employed to produce 34,000 fish of 150 g cobias, which were supplied for offshore grow-

out cage culture.

A super-intensive recirculation system was also designed to culture cobia fry at higher

densities than the intensive recirculation system, especially during over-winter stage. Therecirculation system was equipped with temperature control apparatus, microstrainer,

drumfilter, protein skimmer, biological filter, automatic water supply and drain system,



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oxygenation unit, and UV sterilizers (Huang et al., 2002). Using this system, step-wise

trial runs were conducted with three stages of culture at stocking density as high as 594

fish/m3. The first stage was from 4 g (initial weight) to 18 g during the first 15 days of

culture. The second stage was 45-day culture when cobia reached 4550 g, and the third

stage was 30-day culture with final weights of 100 g or larger. Survival rate ranged from

92% to 100% in the three stages. In 2002, this system produced more than 80,000 cobia

with body weights of 120 320 g which were then transported to offshore cages for

grow-out.

4. Grow-out

Cobia are cultured in offshore grow-out cages for the final production stage until they

reach the market size of 68 kg (for export) or 810 kg (for domestic consumption).

Culture period ranges between 6 and 8 months depending on the market size. In Taiwan,

there are two types of offshore grow-out cages for cobia production: small family-owned

cage farm; and big commercial cage farm. As mentioned earlier, most of these cage farms

integrate nursery and grow-out culture in one area, for convenient transfer of fish stocks

from the nursery to grow-out cages. A typical family-owned cage farm is shown in Fig. 3,where rectangular cages are used in the first and second nursery phases. Circular cages are

used for grow-out, which measures 812.7 m in diameter and 78 m depth corresponding

to a total water volume of 350 1000 m3. The stocking density and expected harvest at the

nursery and grow-out stages are summarized in Fig. 3.

For commercial cage farms, bigger circular cages are used for the nursery phase (Fig.

4). Each nursery cage is 7 m in diameter and 5 m in depth, where 30 g cobia are stocked

and cultured for 45 months when cobia are about 800 g and ready for transfer in grow-

out cages. Each grow-out cage measures 16 m in diameter and 9 m in depth. In one

commercial cage farm, highest average production was 25 mt per 1800-m3 cage after 6

8 months of culture (personal communication).Sinking and floating pellet feeds are used for cobia in grow-out cages. The pelleted

feeds has a crude protein (CP) content of 4245% depending on feed manufacturers.

Table 1

Growth performance of cobia in intensive recirculation nursery system at different stocking densities after 4

weeks of culture

Stocking density (fish/m3

)125 250 370 500

Initial weight (g) 7.1F 0.2 7.5F 0.7 7.3F 0.4 7.2F 0.2

Final weight (g) 92.1F1.3a 85.2F 4.0b 75.9F 3.8c 69.7F 2.2d

Specific growth rate (SGR; %) 8.6F 0.1a 8.1F 0.4a 7.8F 0.1ab 7.6F 0.1b

Feed conversion rate (FCR) 0.96F 0.02b 0.94F 0.01b 0.99F 0.01a 1.00F 0.02a

Survival rate (%) 97.8F 1.9a 97.8F 0.9a 96.0F 1.2a 95.2F 1.6a

Production (kg/m3) 11.3F 0.2d 20.7F 1.1c 28.3F 2.1b 33.5F 0.7a

Values are mean of three replicates.

Row means (FS.E.) with the same letter superscript are not significantly different ( P>0.05).



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Fig. 3. Culture operation of a typical family-owned cobia cage farm in Taiwan.



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Fig. 4. Culture operation of a typical commercial cage farm for cobia in Taiwan.



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Usually, feeds manufactured exclusively for cobia culture have higher CP as well as fish

oil contents (1516%), which are more expensive than feeds produced for other marine

fish. Fish are usually fed once a day and 6 days a week, depending on the weather

condition, at a feeding rate of 0.50.7% BW. The feed conversion ratio in grow-out stageis about 1.5. Survival rate at harvest for family-owned cage farms ranged from 50% to

70% while that of commercial cage farms is only 30% to 40%.

5. Harvesting and marketing

After 48 months of grow-out period, fish over 6 kg are selectively harvested for local

market or exporting to Japan. The stock is usually starved for one day prior to harvest.

Right after harvest, fish are killed, bled and chilled prior to transporting to processing

plants, where fish are thoroughly rinsed and packed in layers of ice in insulated boxes.

Fish are sold whole for the domestic market, while those exported to Japan for the sashimi

market are sold either whole or headless. For markets other than Taiwan and Japan, cobia

is processed as fillet. In 2002, total cobia production in Taiwan was recorded at only 1000

mt due to high incidence of disease outbreaks and losses due to typhoons. Most of the

harvested produce were only sold in the domestic market. Currently, the domestic price for

cobia larger than 8 kg is 180NT$/kg (1US$ = 33NT$), 170NT$/kg for 7 8 kg, 160NT$/kg

for 6 7 kg, and 150NT$/kg for < 6 kg.

6. Problems

6.1. Diseases

The initial success of cobia production in the late 1990s has resulted in increase in

number of cage farmers, as well as intensification of the culture system to increase

production. As such, several disease incidents occurred in recent years causing dramatic

reduction in production during 2002. Diseases caused by bacteria, virus and parasites

occur in all stages of culture of cobia. During the larval stage, problems encountered

include Epistylis and Nitzchia infestations. During the nursery stage, a viral disease(lymphocystis) is common but not fatal, as long as good water and feeding management

are employed. The parasite Amyloodinium ocellatum also cause problems, which can

result in high mortality when left uncontrolled. Trichodina infestation is also common

during the nursery stage. Myxosporidean infestation was also reported among cobia

juveniles (4580 g) reared in nursery cages causing mass mortality (about 90% within 1

month) (Chen et al., 2001). In the grow-out stage, the ectoparasite Neobenedenia sp. is

common which, together with secondary bacterial infection (by Streptococcus sp.), can

cause blindness of cobia juveniles. The feeding activity of blind cobia is highly affected

resulting to slower growth, dark body coloration and lower market value.

Pasteurellosis, caused by the bacterium Photobacterium damsela subsp. piscicida, isone of the major problems among cage-cultured cobia juveniles (Tung et al., 2000),

especially during the onset of the winter season. Mass mortality is usually experienced



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when outbreaks of pasteurellosis occur. Another bacterial disease problem in grow-out sea

cage culture is vibriosis. The first vibriosis outbreak was recorded in 2000 (Rajan et al.,

2001) which caused 45% loss in stocks. The disease caused by Vibrio alginolyticus has

characteristics of hemorrhagic lesions on skin and skeletal muscles. Other secondaryinvaders include V. vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus.

6.2. Environmental condition

Taiwan is a sub-tropical country situated in the western Pacific rim where strong

typhoons occur annually, during summer and autumn seasons. Low water temperature is

also encountered during the winter season in the central and northern parts of the country.

Since one culture production run of cobia requires at least 1 year (12 months), the risk of

losing stocks in offshore cages during typhoon season is high. As such, some cage

farmers, especially family-owned farms, install culture cages in protected bays and coves,

where water current is weak. Most of these areas, however, also harbors fishing boats, thus

oil spills are common. Cobia cultured in these protected areas have lower meat quality

(inferior in terms of chewiness) compared to those cultured in open sea areas exposed to

strong current. Moreover, meat often tastes oily.

Over-wintering is another problem for grow-out cages in central Taiwan, especially in

Penghu islands, where water temperature may drop to a low of 16 jC during the winter

season. Growth of cobia is usually retarded at low temperature and sometimes, high

mortality also occurs when temperature decreases to below 16 jC. As a result, culture

period in these sea-cage areas is longer (up to 17 months) compared to sea-cage areas insouthern Taiwan (1114 months) where the water temperature range is 23.528 jC all

year round.

6.3. Others

Cobia is not very resistant to stressors and requires high level of dissolved oxygen

because of their high metabolic rates due to their active behavior. As such, mortality

problem during transport is still considered as one of the most serious problems in cobia

culture. Improvement in the transportation of cobia, especially juveniles, was recommen-

ded since the development of cobia culture in Taiwan (Liao, 2003), but no suchimprovement has yet been devised.

Marine cage culture is popular in Taiwan but regulations for open ocean aquaculture are

still lacking (Su and Liao, 2001). As cobia cannot survive below 16 jC, most of the sea

cages are located in Southern Taiwan where tropical climate prevails. These areas,

however, are also utilized for fishing and other purposes (Liao, 2003), thus competition

for available sea area is apparent. The government plays an important role in the overall

development of the cobia culture industry. However, the current policy on aquaculture is

somehow inappropriate for cobia cage culture industry. Aside from the disease outbreaks

and some environmental problems, the lack of good planning and regulatory enforcement

when cobia was developed as a potential aquaculture species has led to non-sustainableproduction in the past few years. Some policies even hinder further development of cobia

culture in offshore cages. Thus, Taiwan lose international competitive advantage for the



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export industry among many Asian countries which are venturing in cage culture of cobia.

With the high risk associated with off-shore cage aquaculture, the lack of insurance policy

from the government is also of serious concern for most cage farmers.

7. Prospects and future development

Although many disease and environmental problems are faced by aquafarmers in

Taiwan, cobia remains to be the most popular species for culture in offshore cages. This is

because of its fast growth, high market value, good meat quality, the established

technology in mass production of larvae, the current innovation in intensive and super-

intensive nursery rearing in tanks, and improved formulated feeds. However, the lack of

regulations in open ocean aquaculture in Taiwan has resulted in the uncontrolled

proliferation of sea cage farms. Nonetheless, this interest of fish farmers to venture into

cobia production, and the continuously increasing production since its introduction in the

1990s, only proves the profitability of cobia cage culture compared to other marine fishes.

Disease outbreaks remain to be the biggest threat in cobia culture in Taiwan, causing a

significant decline in total production in 2002. At present, researches on the development

of vaccines against major bacterial pathogens (P. damsela subsp. piscicida, V. alginoly-

ticus, and Streptococcus sp.) are undergoing. Another alternative approach to this problem

is the use of immunostimulants (e.g. h-glucan, levamisole, etc.) to enhance the nonspecific

immunity of fish to various diseases. Stocking of more resistant large-sized fish in off-

shore cages also contributed in preventing apparent loss of stocks due to diseases. Diseasesurveillance must also be strengthened and continuously undertaken to monitor disease

outbreaks. Moreover, selective breeding must also be urgently employed for improving

both growth and resistance to diseases.

With the recent developments in both nursery and grow-out culture of cobia,

improvement in many aspects of production is still needed. Automation in terms of

feeding, grading, thinning, harvesting, and net washing are still needed to be developed as

these activities are highly labor intensive especially in offshore grow-out cages. The recent

innovation of the intensive and super-intensive recirculating system for nursery rearing can

only be applied in rearing cobia juveniles for up to 300 g. This system allows the transfer

of cobia juveniles directly into offshore nursery cages in the same area where the grow-outcages are located. This strategy prevents the occurrence of high mortality due to

transportation stress of large-sized cobia. However, this system might be too expensive

for many fish farmers as high investment is necessary to set-up the facilities. Therefore,

other strategies in mass-production of cobia juveniles during the nursery stage should still

be developed. One of which is the possibility of culturing cobia in ponds under semi-

intensive or intensive system. If this is successful, however, transportation problem will

still be the issue to be resolved.

Marketing of cobia produce should not only target domestic market but more

importantly the export market. To have a sustainable export market, however, a floor-

production volume should be identified and maintained in order to supply the importdemand of foreign countries. This is important in order to maintain the competitiveness of

the cobia export industry in Taiwan.



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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the National Science Council for project funds (Project

Code: NSC 91-2313-B-056-002), and the anonymous cobia farmers in Taiwan whowillingly shared information regarding the culture operations in their respective cage

farms.

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