Cognitive and Motor Development Chapter 2 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2012 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved

Cognitive and Motor Development

Chapter 2

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2012 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.

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Cognitive & Motor DomainsEvolution of domains

Categorizing human behavior into domains evolved because it is useful in organizing and simplifying the study of human development

Cognitive and motor development interact continually throughout the lifespan as they reciprocally inhibit or facilitate each other

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Interaction

Cognitive Development

Motor Developmen

t

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Cognitive & Motor DomainsHow does our gradually changing motor ability affect our cognitive development?

How does our evolving cognitive development affect our motor development?

What are some significant areas of integration?

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Psychomotor or Motor?Psychomotor: interaction between mind (psycho) and movement (motor)

Stimulus comes from higher brain centers

Motor Any human movmentInitiated from lower brainIncludes reflexive movement

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Jean Piaget and Cognitive Development

1896-1980

Cornell University, 1964

Swiss psychologistinterested in the process

of thinking

Established the clinical

method of research

Collected data in question-and-answer

sessions

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Cognitive DevelopmentPiaget’s Theory

Four major stages of cognitive developmentSensorimotor Prepoperational Concrete operational Formal operational

All children follow the sequence in orderRate and degree of completion may differ

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Piaget’s Cognitive DevelopmentStage Age/Period of

Occurrence

Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years

Preoperational 2 to 7 years

Concrete operational 7 to 11 years

Formal operational Early to mid-adolescence

11 to 12 years

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Piaget’s Cognitive TheoryAdaptation

Cognitive development occurs through adaptationA way of adjusting to the demands of the envirnomentTwo facets of adaptation

AssimilationAccommodation

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Adaptation

Assimilation Accommodation

Process by which children attempt to interpret new experiences based upon their present interpretaiton of the world

Adjustments or modifications in the thinking process which will become a part of a child’s new cognitive repetoire

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Components of the Process of Adaptation

Component Process

Assimilation Children try to interpret new experiences based on their present interpretation of the world

Accommodation Children try to adjust existing through structures to account for (accommodate) new experiences

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Assimilation Child tries to grabs a large ball with one handHis experiences of the past tell him that he can use one hand to grab hold of an object because it worked with rattles and smaller objectsThe child assimilates his past experiences

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AccommodationUsing the same example, when the child is unable to grasp the football, he may try to adjust or accommodate by using two hands or even adapting the one-handed grasp

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Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

Theory lacks scientific controlPiaget used his own children to studySubject’s were not studied across the lifespanPiaget may have underestimated a child’s capabilities

Theory does not discern between competency and performanceTheory does not account for the influence of motivation and emotionStages of developoment were too broadDevelopoment is described, but never explained

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Criticisms of Piaget’s TheoryMost criticized aspect of the theory is that formal operational thought can be achieved as early as 11 years of age

No account for adult development in his theoryCognitive development continues throughout adulthood

Child may have been completely competent, but due to motivational or emotional circumstances could not perform the task well

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageEmphasizes role of infant reflexesIntelligence develops as a result of movement actions and their consequencesMovement is critical to thought processesSix substages

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageSubstage Age of Occurrence

Exercise of reflexes Birth to 1 month

Primary circular reactions 1 to 4 months

Secondary circular reactions 4 to 8 months

Secondary schemata 8 to 12 months

Tertiary circular reactions 12 to 18 months

Invention of new means through mental combinations

18 to 24 months

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Substage 1-Reflexes

Exercise of reflexesBirth through 1 monthRepetition of reflexes helps child to form the foundation for cognitive understanding

Reflexive movements do not need higher brain centers to be initiatedReflexive movements lead to new behaviors

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Substage 2-Primary Circular Reactions

Primary circular reactionsOnset of increased voluntary movement1-4 months

Consciously create movementCalled circular and primary because movements always occur in close proximity to the infant

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Substage 3-Secondary Circular Reactions

Secondary circular reactions

4-8 monthsContinuation of primary circular reactions

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Substage 3-Secondary Circular Reactions

The infant’s interaction with the environment expandsChild begins to integrate vision, hearing, grasping and movement behaviorsCan imitate behaviorsNo permanence – remove object – object is gone

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Substage 4-Secondary SchemataSecondary schemata

8 months to 1 yearPast movement actions applied to new situations New behaviors emerge

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Substage 4-Secondary SchemataNew behaviors are facilitated by increasing movement capabilities such as crawling and creeping which allow exploration of the environment

Repetition of experimentation and trial-and-error exploration continue

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Substage 4-Secondary SchemataChild can predict some actions and situations

Roll ball to child – he crudely roles it back – he anticipates you rolling the ball to him again

The ability to predict (Piaget) is the onset of intellectual reasoning

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Substage 5-Tertiary Circular Reactions

Tertiary circular reactions1-1.5 yearsUse of active experimentation to learnChild realizes that discovery of an object and use of the object are separate entitiesFirst level of visualizing an object beyond its immediate use

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Substage 5-Tertiary Circular Reactions

Tertiary circular reactionsChild sees the ball and knows she can have fun, but also realizes she does not have to play with it right now – it will be there laterCan distinguish self from othersSeeks immediate family members for help – social and emotional development

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Substage 6-Mental Combinations


1.5-2 yearsChild recognizes objects and others as independent from herselfChild is beggining to understand properties of objects

Size, shape, color, texture, weight, use, etc.

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Substage 6-Mental Combinations


Semimental functioning

“thinking with the body” is replaced with “thinking with the mind

Child reflects

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Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageSUMMARY

Increasing awareness of the difference between the self and othersRecognition that objects continue to exist even though they are no longer in viewProduction of the mental images that allow the contemplation of the past, present, and future

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Childhood-Preoperational Stage

Preoperational stage (2-7 years)Verbal communication begins to emergeLanguage development is the most important aspect of Preoperational StageWalking facilitates language developmentChildren are unable to think logically

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Childhood-Preoperational

Substage Age of OccurrencePreconceptual 2-4 yearsIntuitive 4-7 years

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Childhood-PreoperationalPreconceptual Substage

Preconceptual substage (2-4 years)Ability to use symbols to represent someone or something in the child’s lifePretend play commonEgocentrism

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Childhood-PreoperationalPreconceptual Substage

PreconceptualFlawed thinking

Drooping flower is sad – unrealistic

Transductive reasoningMissed breakfast, so it can’t be morning

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Childhood-PreoperationalIntuitive Substage

Intuitive substage (4-7 years)Reduced egocentrismImprovement in the use of symbolsChild is incapable of “conservation”

Ability to recognize that certain properties of a substance remain unchanged when the appearance is rearranged

Child cannot consider multiple aspects of a problem

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Childhood-PreoperationalSUMMARY

Second stage of cognitive developmentEmphasizes use of symbols and language developmentTwo substages: preconceptual & intuitivePiaget emphasizes the limitations in a child’s cognitive development

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Later Childhood ~ AdolescenceConcrete Operations

Concrete operational stage (7-11 years)Follows conservationEnhanced ability to decenter attention from one variable in a problem solving situationReversibility ~ Able to mentally modify, organize, or even reverse thought processes Limited to thinking about objects, events, or situations that are real

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Children in the concrete operation stage can reverse the order of the balls as they go through the tubePreoperational stage children will see no difference in ball order

Rev

ersi

bili

ty

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SeriationAbility to arrange a set of variables by a certain characteristic

Height in basketball can determine position

Piaget emphasized that learning can be enhanced through movement

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Later Childhood ~ AdolescenceFormal Operations

Formal operational stage (11-12 years)Ability to consider ideas that are not based on observable objects or experiencesAbstract ideas are possibleHighest stage of cognitive ability

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Interpropositional thoughtApplicable to complex movement

Enhanced level of cognitive ability Allows child to relate one or more parts of a proposition or situation to another part to arrive at a solution to a problem

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Hypothetical-deductive reasoningA problem-solving style that allows child to choose between possible solutions and then pick the best oneAids in emotional development and emerging values

Child ponders – “do I follow the crowd; do I want to fit in”

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Adulthood ~Postformal Operations

Postformal operations stageAnswers become more relative and less absoluteThrive on detecting and inconsistencies in ideas and attempt to reconcile themAdvanced thinking exists in a minority of people who are also highly educated and live in a culture that encourages new ideas and freethinking

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Adulthood - Theories of Intellectual Development

Total intellectual declineGradual, consistent, pervasive decline in overall intellectual ability throughout adult yearsLacks strong scientific support todayStudies backing this theory

WAISSeattle Longitudinal Study

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Adulthood -Theories of Intellectual Development

WAIS – Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

Found declines in intellectBut, this test is not designed to measure intellect – it is designed to ascertain psychopathological behaviors clinically

Seattle Longitudinal StudySubjects increase performance until age 30 or early 40sBy the age of 50-60 years, there is a plateauLess decline when process is a central part of one’s lifeEven by age 88 – not everyone declines in all aspects of intellect

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Partial intellectual decline

Widely accepted theoryIntellectual decline occurs in some areas and not othersChinese elders are revered – studies find that intellectual is less than in US

Negative thoughts about memorycan hamper confidence and affectmemory as one grows older

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Contextual perspectiveLearning and memory depend in part on factors like cultureNoncognitive, situational factors can affect degree of declineSelf-fulfilling prophecy?

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Biological changesSlower neural activationLess efficient circulatory systemBrain decreases in size (variable)

Neuronal losses are very gradual

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“there are no simple rules about when age differences in memory

will and will not occur, and if they do, whether differences will be small, modest, or large” (Zacks et al.,

2000)

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Implicit memoryUnintentional, automatic, without awarenessTested without subject knowing

Explicit memoryDeliberate and effortfulTested by traditional tests of recall or recognition

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Two types of memory follow different developmental pathsExplicit memory develops until adulthoodImplicit memory develops with no decline in adulthood

Elders perform similarly to young people

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Age-related decline in memory is evident with new learning at an older ageWell-established information learned early in life is easier to retrieve

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Older adults respond more slowlyEspecially during timed tasksDecline in speed of processing information is well-documented

Practicing cognitive abilities will delay or avoid decline

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A lifestyle that involves movement can play an important role in the effort to allay the decline of intellectPhysical activity increases motor neuron size and decreases neural synapse densityReaction time and cognitive performance improve in those who exercise

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FINAL WORD. . .Only certain aspects of one’s intellect may declineIntellect can be maintained and even improved

Lifestyle choices can optimize cognitive attributesPhysical activity

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Role of Practice & Physical Activity

What can be done to allay cognitive decline?

Practice cognitive abilities

Cognitive training

Exercise

Practicing cognitive abilities during older adulthood can delay or offset declines that might otherwise occur

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Exercise and physical activityReduces decrements and restores cognitionReduces depressionImproves sleepIncreases appetiteIncreases energy levelDecrease morbidity & dementia related disease

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Risk factor in cognitive declinePoor fitness level

Protective factor in cognitive declineHigh fitness level

Dose (how much exercise)-Response (improve cognition) is not known

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Knowledge Development& Sport Performance

Declarative knowledgeFactual informationWhat to do

Procedural knowledgeProduction systemHow to do something

Expert performers have more knowledge of task- specific concepts

By improving task-specificknowledge of a skill, performance may improve

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Knowledge Development and Sport Performance

“development of sport-specific declarative knowledge is related to the development of cognitive decision making skills or procedural knowledge…”“development of shooting skill and dribbling skill are related to the motor execution components of control and execution.”

French & Thomas, 1987, p. 24.

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Key Terms

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Cognitive and Motor Development Chapter 2 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2012 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved