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Colonization 1898

Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

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Page 1: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

Colonization 1898

Page 2: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

The British Empire 1921

Page 4: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

Colonization 1945

Page 5: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

The Interwar Years•The Versailles Conference

• “Racism” (1935)

• Nazism

• The first antiracist tract: Julian Huxley and We Europeans

Page 6: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

1945-1950: Foundation of a New World Order

• 1945: Hiroshima, London, Paris: Putting the “S” in

UNESCO• March 12, 1947: the Truman Doctrine • August 15, 1947: The Independence of India

(“Midnight’s Children”)• July 18, 1950 the UNESCO “Statement” “The Race

Question” (and later “Statements”): An interesting case of

intersection, and problematic collaboration, between

(social and “hard”) sciences and politics

Page 7: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL,

SCIENTIFIC, AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION

The Governments of the States Parties to this Constitution on behalf of their peoples declare:

That since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defenses of peace must be constructed;

That ignorance of each other's ways and lives has been a common cause, throughout the history of mankind, of that suspicion and mistrust between the peoples of the world through which their differences have all too often broken into war;

That the great and terrible war which has now ended was a war made possible by the denial of the democratic principles of the dignity, equality and mutual respect of men, and by the propagation, in their place, through ignorance and prejudice, of the doctrine of the inequality of men and races;

Page 8: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

Thomas Huxley, “Darwin’s Bulldog”, with his grandson, Julian

Page 9: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

Julian Huxley, Statesman of science

and Master coiner of scientific terms:

'evolutionary synthesis''ritualization'

'clade''cline' 'grade'

'morph' 'ethnic group'

Page 10: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:

The Race Question is a UNESCO statement issued on 18 July 1950

following World War II. Signed by some of the leading researchers of

the time, in the field of psychology, biology, cultural anthropology and

ethnology, it questioned the foundations of scientific racist theories

which had become very popular at the turn of the 20th century,

alongside eugenics. These racist theories had been a main influence

on the Nazi racial policies and eugenics programme.

Page 11: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

The original statement was drafted by •Ernest Beaglehole, New Zealand psychologist and ethnologist •Juan Comas, Spanish anthoropologist•L. A. Costa Pinto, Brazilian sociologist•Franklin Frazier, sociologist specialized in race relations studies, •Morris Ginsberg, founding chairperson of the British Sociological

Association, •Humayun Kabir, writer, philosopher and Education Minister of

India twice, •Claude Lévi-Strauss, one of the founders of ethnology and leading

theorist of cultural relativism, •Ashley Montagu, anthropologist, who was the rapporteur. •The text was then revised by Ashley Montagu

Page 12: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

1950 “Statement”

1. Scientists have reached general agreement in recognizing

that mankind is one: that all men belong to the same species,

homo sapiens. It is further generally agreed among

scientists that all men are probably derived from the same

common stock;

2. From the biological standpoint, the species homo sapiens

is made up of a number of populations, each one of which

differs from the others in the frequency of one or more genes.

3. A race, from the biological standpoint, may therefore be

defined as one of the group of populations constituting the

species homo sapiens. These populations are capable of

interbreeding with one another

5. These are the scientific facts. Unfortunately, however,

when most people use the term ‘race’ they do not do so in the

sense above defined.

Page 13: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

6. National, religious, geographic, linguistic and cultural groups do not necessarily coincide with racial groups: and the cultural traits of such groups have no demonstrated genetic connexion with racial traits. Because serious errors of this kind are habitually committed when the term ‘race’ is used in popular parlance, it would be better when speaking of human races to drop the term ‘race’ altogether and speak of ethnic groups.9. Whatever classification the anthropologist makes of man, he never includes mental characteristics as part of those classifications. It is now generally recognized that intelligence tests do not in themselves enable us to differentiate safely between what is due to innate capacity and what is the result of environmental influences, training and education. 14. The biological fact of race and the myth of ‘race’ should be distinguished. For all practical social purposes “race’ is not so much a biological phenomenon as a social myth. The myth of ‘race’ has created an enormous amount of human and social damage. In recent years it has taken a heavy toll in human lives and caused untold suffering

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The unity of mankind from both the biological and social viewpoints

is the main thing. To recognize this and to act accordingly is the first

requirement of modern man. It is but to recognize what a great

biologist wrote in 1875: ‘As man advances in civilization, and small

tribes are united into larger communities, the simplest reason would

tell each individual that he ought to extend his social instincts and

sympathies to all the members of the same nation, though

personally unknown to him. This point being once reached, there is

only an artificial barrier to prevent his sympathies extending to the

men of all nations and races.’ These are the words of Charles

Darwin in The Descent of Man (2nd ed., 1875, p. 187-8). And,

indeed, the whole of human history shows that a co-operative

spirit is not only natural to men, but more deeply rooted than any

self-seeking tendencies.

Lastly, biological studies lend support to the ethic of universal

brotherhood; for man is born with drives toward co-operation, and

unless these drives are satisfied, men and nations alike fall ill.

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Unesco, “Statement on the nature of race and on race differences”, June 1951

“The concept of race is unanimously regarded by

anthropologists as a classificatory device providing a

zoological frame within which the various groups of

mankind may be arranged and by means of which studies

of evolutionary processes can be facilitated. In its

anthropological sense, the word ‘race’ should be reserved for

groups of mankind possessing well developed and primarily

heritable physical differences from other groups”.

Page 16: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

Julian Huxley, “Colonies in a Changing World”

The Political Quarterly, 13, 4 (October 1942), pp. 384-399.

Page 17: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

Kenan Malik

Strange Fruit. Why Both Sides Are Wrong in the Race Debate

Oxford: Oneworld, 2008

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Unesco Man embodied the hopes of a generation that had witnessed the

most appallingly bestial behaviour that such behaviour would never be

repeated. His nature reflected the political aspirations of that generation.

Whereas the Ubermensch of racial science was entirely moulded by the

laws of nature, Unesco Man was a cultural being: biology played little role in

his make-up. He was biologically singular but culturally plural. All humans

belonged to a single race but inhabited diverse cultural and social worlds. In

the postwar world the empire of race gave way to the empire of culture.

The founders of Unesco, and the creators of Unesco Man, saw themselves

as standing in the tradition of the Enlightenment. They wanted not just to

challenge barbarism but also to shape a new world and to create a new

vision of humanity. Barbarism, they believed, derived from ignorance and

prejudice. To ensure a future without another world war or a new Holocaust

required cultural and moral progress. Only through education could such

progress be ensured…

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But what began as a battle against barbarism in the name of the

Enlightenment soon became a war on the Enlightenment itself. As

the French philosopher, Alain Finkielkraut, has so memorably put

it, ‘Testifying at the trial against barbarism’, Unesco came to

‘identify the Enlightenment with the defence and not with the

prosecution’ …

Page 20: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

Following the experience of Nazism, the Holocaust and the

Final Solution, biological theories of human differences became

discredited. But if racial science was buried in the postwar

world, racial thinking was not. While the biological arguments

for racial superiority were thrown into disrepute and overt

expressions of racism were discredited, many of the

assumptions of racial thinking were maintained intact -- in

particular the belief that humanity can be divided into discrete

groups, that each group should be considered on its own terms

and that differences, not commonalities, shaped human

interaction. These assumptions were cast, however, not in

biological terms but in the language of cultural pluralism…

Page 21: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

The new anthropological concept of culture, George Stocking has noted, ‘provided a functionally equivalent substitute for the older idea of “race temperament”’:

It explained all the same phenomena, but it did so in strictly non- biological terms... All that was necessary to make the adjustment ... was the substitution of a word. For 'race' read ‘culture’ or ‘civilisation’, for ‘racial heredity’ read ‘cultural heritage’, and the change had taken place.

Cultural anthropology knocked down the evolutionary ladder of Victorian racial theory but it did not dispense with it entirely; it simply turned it on its side.

Page 22: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

Anthropologists now saw humanity as horizontally, rather than

vertically, segmented. Human beings were not arranged at different

points on an ever-rising vertical axis, as the social evolutionists had

believed, but at different points along a stationary, horizontal, axis.

… Dispossessed of faith in evolutionary progress, the new breed of

anthropologists envisioned society, and social differences, in a

relatively static fashion. But envision it in terms of difference they

did. The empire of culture, unlike the empire of race, was not

hierarchically ordered but difference still sat on the throne.

Malik, Kenan. Strange Fruit., pp. 158, 168-9.

Page 23: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

• The Race Issue in International Politics

• The international antiracist movement

• Civil Rights movement and decolonization: “racism” acquires

its current meaning.

• Soviet propaganda

• The Debate in the UN: ICERD, racial discrimination vs. racism

• Racism and Immigration: In Western Europe by the 1960s the

word ‘race’ began to be used as a label for immigration as a

political issue.

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Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002), sociologia dei processi culturali (e moltissimo altro)

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Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc Wacquant, “On the Cunning of Imperialist Reason” (1998)

Page 26: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

“Cultural imperialism rests on the power to universalize particularisms linked to a singular historical tradition by causing them to be misrecognized as such… today numerous topics directly issuing from the intellectual confrontations relating to the social particularity of American society and of its universities have been imposed, in apparently de-historicized form, upon he whole planet. …

The neutralization of the historical context resulting from the international circulation of texts and from the correlative forgetting of their originating historical conditions produces an apparent universalization further abetted by the work of ‘theorization’”.

Page 27: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

“The USA is the only modern society to apply the

‘one-drop rule’* and the principle of ‘hypodescent’,

according to which the children of a mixed union

find themselves automatically assigned to the

inferior group – here the blacks, and only them.

* One-Drop Rule: “This rule was created during the time of slavery and basically stated that a person with as little as one drop of black blood in their heritage was to be considered black”

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“How are we to account for the fact that

‘theories’ of ‘race relations’ which are but thinly

conceptualized transfigurations, endlessly

refurbished and updated to suit current concerns,

of the most commonly used racial stereotypes

that are themselves only primary justifications of

the domination of whites over blacks in one

society, could be tacitly (and sometimes

explicitly) raised to the status of universal

standard whereby every situation of ethnic

domination must be analysed and measured?

Page 29: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

The fact that this racial (or racist) sociodicy [i.e. socially accepted justification] was able to ‘globalize’ itself over the recent period, thereby losing its outer characteristics of legitimating discourse for domestic or local usage, is undoubtedly one of the most striking proofs of the symbolic dominion and influence exercised by the USA over every kind of scholarly and, especially, semi-scholarly production, notably through the power of consecration they possess and through the material and symbolic profits that researchers in the dominated countries reap from a more or less assumed or ashamed adherence to the model derived from the USA”.

Page 30: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

Race, Ethnicity, and Racism in Medical Anthropology, 1977-2002

Clarence C. Gravlee and Elizabeth SweetUniversity of Florida, Northwestern University

Medical Anthropology Quarterly 22(1): in press; June 2008

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The concept of race is nearly four times more common in articles based on research in the U.S. Than it is in articles about other regions. By contrast, there is no significant regional difference in the use of ethnicity. This finding reinforces the view of race as a culture-bound construct and suggests that ethnicity may be more useful as an abstract theoretical construct for making comparisons across time and space.

Page 34: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

Più degli strumenti con cui le scienze sociali o umane studiano il mondo sono importanti le domande che portiamo alla nostra ricerca. E la sostanza delle domande non sono mai veramente cambiate dai tempi della Grecia classica, dove vennero poste per la prima volta. E le risposte che ci si diede allora, creando a tal fine l’epica, la tragedia (ad Atene, in coincidenza con la democrazia, 510-322aC), la storia (“ricerca”, “indagine”, Erodoto [484-425]), la filosofia (Platone, La repubblica , Aristotele, Politica) mi sembrano molto più interessanti delle loro rielaborazioni posteriori. In Grecia, dove venne inventato l’Oriente, che col suo presunto dispotismo sarebbe stato l’irriducibile Altro da noi, gli unici popoli liberi. Sounds familiar? La Grecia, dove venne sviluppato quello che il classicista e storico militare americano Victor Davis Hanson in un suo libro del 1989 ha definito “the Western way of war”. (Dopo l’11 settembre Hanson è diventato un neoconservatore.) La Grecia, dove gli stranieri che non parlavano greco venivano derisi, chiamandoli, per quei suoni rozzi che emettevano, bar-baros, (“balbuziente”, “babbaleo”).

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Mario Perniola, professore di Estetica, Roma “Tor Vergata,” Berlusconi o il d’68 realizzato (Mimesis, Udine-Milano, 2011)

“Per chi ha vissuto il Sessantotto dall’interno di quel movimento, non è difficile trovare in Berlusconi quella volontà di potenza, quel trionfalismo farneticante, quella estrema determinazione di destabilizzare tutta la società da cui il movimento era pervaso.

• Fine del lavoro e della famiglia, • descolarizzazione, • distruzione dell’università, • deregolamentazione della sessualità, • contro-cultura, • discredito della competenze mediche e crollo delle strutture sanitarie, • ostilità nei confronti delle istituzioni giudiziarie considerate come repressive, • vitalismo giovanilistico, • trionfo della comunicazione massmediatica, • oblio della storia e presentismo spontaneistico:

tutto ciò con Berlusconi è ormai diventato realtà.

Page 36: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

“L’ostilità nei confronti della cultura, che negli anni Sessanta ha trovato il suo culmine nella ‘Rivoluzione culturale maoista’ attraverso le persecuzione degli intellettuali, si è presentata in Occidente in maniera molto più morbida, ma non meno pericolosa: è stata un’onda lunga su cui Berlusconi ha fatto il surf.

Tuttavia in Cina a partire dai primi anni Ottanta è avvenuta una radicale inversione di tendenza, che ha riabilitato il confucianesimo e ha posto il sapere come una priorità assoluta. Finalmente col movimento degli indignados, che ha avuto origine nel mondo arabo, anche in Occidente sembra annunciarsi una inversione di tendenza che trova nella nozione estetica di dignità il suo punto di riferimento fondamentale”.

Page 37: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

CONFUCIANESIMO (Confucio, 551-479 a.C.): un sistema di governo efficace deve basarsi su un preciso schema di relazioni fra gli individui, e il sovrano dovesse essere virtuoso e giusto. Potere politico e livello sociale devono essere sostenuti da valori etici. [Taoismo, la seconda scuola del pensiero cinese per importanza e influenza, concentrava la sua attenzione sull'individuo inserito nel regno naturale piuttosto che sull'individuo inserito nella società.]LEGISMO (Hans Feizi, m. 233 a.C., e Li Si, m. 208 a.C.): la natura umana è incorreggibilmente egoista, e per mantenere l'ordine sociale è necessaria l'imposizione di leggi dall'alto, applicate con severità. I legalisti esaltavano il potere dello stato, e si concentravano più sulla prosperità e sulla forza militare dello stato che non sul benessere dei sudditi.MOISMO (discepoli di Mozi, 470-ca. 391 a.C.): scuola filosofica rivale del confucianesimo nel periodo delle Cento scuole di pensiero. Filosofia basata sull'idea di amore universale: "tutti sono uguali davanti al cielo", e gli uomini dovrebbero cercare di imitare il cielo impegnandosi nella pratica dell'amore collettivo. Ogni conoscenza debba essere basata sulle percezioni sensoriali piuttosto che sul pensiero astratto; Mozi può essere considerato un precursore dell’empirismo.

Page 38: Colonization 1898. The British Empire 1921 The Rhodes ColossusThe Rhodes Colossus, a caricature of Cecil Rhodes after announcing plans for a telegraph

Rivoluzione culturale in Cina, 1966-1969,

Congiura di Lin Biao per uccidere Mao Dze Dong, di cui era il successore designato, 1971.

Nel 1972 Zhou Enlai permise la pubblicazione dei testi classici cinesi. La Banda dei Quattro, estrema sinistra, moglie di Mao, dietro istigazione di Mao, lancia una campagna politica, “Critichiamo Lin Biao critichiamo Confucio”, che durerà dal 1972 al 1974, un tentativo di interpretare la storia sociale cinese entro il contesto delle teorie politiche maoiste. Nel 1975 il bersaglio divenne Zho en Lai, il ministro degli esteri.

Come Confucio avrebbe cercato di restaurare la dinastia Zhou nel periodo dei regni combattenti, facendo così fare un "salto all'indietro" alla storia, così Lin Biao con il suo presunto colpo di stato progettato ai danni di Mao, avrebbe tentato di riportare indietro la storia cinese.

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Che la sia stata lanciata alcuni anni dopo la morte di Lin Biao è significativo, perché infatti il suo vero obiettivo era Zhou Enlai, che veniva vista come artefice di un ritorno del potere di Deng Xiaoping e delle strutture del Partito Comunista Cinese contro la libertà di critica delle "masse" nei confronti del "partito", libertà considerata cardinale nel pensiero dialettico di Mao.1974, “Critichiamo il confucianesimo, rivalutiamo il legismo” .

Deng Xiaoping si dichiara fautore del moismo, e predica l’empirismo con cui lancia il programma di modernizzazione, e l’apertura al mercato.

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Scrive Perniola: , “Mutatis mutandis, è come se i politici italiani discutessero se è meglio lo stoicismo, l’epicureismo o lo scetticismo” (p. 54).

La rivoluzione culturale è stata la versione francese del’68, ma oggi l’Accademia Cinese delle Scienze Sociali promuove lo studio del greco e del latino presso il suo Istituto di Letterature Straniere.

E le università tecniche di Hong Kong hanno investito un miliardo di dollari per passare al triennale al quadriennale, e hanno introdotto materie umanistiche nei loro curricula.

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Il razzismo nel colonialismo fascistaIl razzismo nel colonialismo fascista, collegato alla teoria del diretto dominio, viene imposto in seguito alla conquista dell’ Etiopia del 1935. Esso era fortemente legato al problema che i quadri del partito definivano “la piaga del meticciato”. Prima di allora infatti nelle vecchie colonie (Eritrea, Somalia e Libia) , poiché erano scarsamente popolate e la religione islamica di quei paesi rendeva più difficile il rapporto con le donne locali, le unioni miste si erano diffuse in misura minima e trascurabile. La vittoria etiopica comportò invece l’acquisto di un paese grande quattro volte l’Italia e con una popolazione valutata tra gli otto e i dieci milioni di abitanti. Nel 1936, inoltre, vi erano in Africa Orientale diverse centinaia di migliaia di italiani di sesso maschile, soldati,camicie nere ma anche lavoratori. Il 9 gennaio 1937 il Consiglio dei ministri approvò il primo schema di decreto-legge per garantire la difesa della razza e regolare i rapporti tra italiani e indigeni. Il decreto che sarebbe stato emanato il 19 aprile dello stesso anno con il n.880 sanzionava “i rapporti di indole coniugale tra cittadini e sudditi” con una pena che andava da uno a cinque anni di reclusione.

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Per avere una legislazione ad hoc e più completa, però, bisognerà aspettare il 29 giugno 1939 con la legge 1004 “sanzioni penali per la difesa del prestigio della razza di fronte ai nativi dell’Africa Italiana” declinata in ventritrè articoli, che oltre a definire con precisione quali erano i comportamenti “lesivi al prestigio della razza”e le connesse sanzioni prendeva per la prima volta in considerazione, nell’articolo 20 , la questione dei meticci: “Con separate norme sarà regolata la posizione dei nati da genitori di cui uno cittadino italiano o parificato e l’altra nativo ed assimilato”. Infatti con la legge del 13 maggio 1940 n.822 la questione avrà una legislazione propria. In particolare:art. 2. Il meticciato assume lo status del genitore nativo ed è considerato nativo a tutti gli effettiart.3. Al meticcio non può essere riconosciuto dal genitore cittadinoart.4. Al meticcio non può essere attribuito il cognome del genitore cittadino art.5.Il mantenimento, l’educazione e l’istruzione del meticcio sono a totale carico del genitore nativo art.7. Sono vietate l’adozione e l’affiliazione di nativi e di meticci da parte di cittadini.   Claudia Ciorciolini

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•Rispetto al 1855 o al 1899 ha più senso pensare nel 2012 di poter applicare l’etica alla politica internazionale?

•Fintanto che perdura nelle forme attuali l’egemonia occidentale, è ipotizzabile una ricostruzione veritiera della storia del mondo? Una percezione dell’attualità che permetta di ripensare quali siano i nostri interessi nazionali?

•Perché neanche l’ONU ha riconosciuto la schiavitù come una forma di genocidio?• •Che ne sarebbe dell’irrisione della “cultura del piagnisteo” se si ritrovasse la memoria delle prime vittime del colonialismo, gli europei su cui vennero affinate le tecniche poi esportate nel Nuovo Mondo?

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1. Il fatto stesso che qualcuno possa immaginarlo non dipende forse dall’idea che esista una “comunità internazionale” sorretta da “valori” in grado di trascendere quegli interessi nazionali contrapposti che rendono necessaria la politica internazionale? Per definizione l’interesse è in conflitto con l’etica, no? Ma in tal caso, è credibile il richiamo a valori etici supremi a giustificazione della propria politica estera? Se quei valori sono il meglio della cultura occidentale, è concepibile che vengano usati per mascherare il peggio di quella cultura?

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2. Il nostro sapere non è stato forse eretto sulla soppressione di quei fatti e di quegli interrogativi con cui si sono confrontati Melville e Conrad. Senza verità può esserci giustizia, in Italia come altrove? Può esserci una democrazia senza una democrazia tra nazioni?

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3. non sarà mica perché essa pertiene alla categoria dell’economico che l’etica protestante è riuscita a porre quale base del capitalismo?

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4. Alcuni popoli, gruppi sociali e religiosi in Europa. Inghilterra e Spagna. A conferma che non c’entra nulla la differenza nel colore della pelle. Cos’era? L’interesse economico? O qualcosa di più profondo? Qual è stato il cuore delle tenebre?