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Problem phrases:
Supposed to: Do not omit the d. Suppose to is incorrect.
Used to: Same as above. Do not write use to.
Toward: There is no s at the end of the word.
Anyway:Also has no ending s.Anyways is nonstandard.
Couldn't care less: Be sure to make it negative. (Not I could care less.)
All walks of life: Not woks of life. This phrase does not apply to oriental cooking.
Chest of drawers: Not chester drawers.
For all intents and purposes: Not intensive purposes.
Easily Confused or Misused Words
affect / effect
Effectis usually a noun that means a result or the power to produce a result: The sound of the falling
rain had a calming effect, nearly putting me to sleep. Affectis usually a verb that means to have an
influence on: His loud humming was affecting my ability to concentrate. Note that effectcan also be a
verb meaning to bring about or execute: The speaker's somber tone effected a dampening in the
general mood of the audience.
all right / alright
Although alrightis widely used, it is considered nonstandard English. As the American Heritage
Dictionarynotes, it's not all right to use alright.
all together / altogether
All togetheris applied to people or things that are being treated as a group. We put the pots and pans all
together on the shelf. All togetheris the form that must be used if the sentence can be reworded so that
alland togetherare separated by other words: We put all the pots and pans together on the shelf.
Altogetheris used to mean entirely: I am altogether pleased to be receiving this award.
allusion / illusion
Allusionis a noun that means an indirect reference: The speech made allusions to the final report.
Illusionis a noun that means a misconception: The policy is designed to give an illusion of reform.
alternately / alternatively
Alternatelyis an adverb that means in turn; one after the other: We alternately spun the wheel in the
game. Alternativelyis an adverb that means on the other hand; one or the other: You can choose a
large bookcase or, alternatively, you can buy two small ones.
beside / besidesBesideis a preposition that means next to: Stand here beside me. Besidesis an adverb that means
also: Besides, I need to tell you about the new products my company offers.
bimonthly / semimonthly
Bimonthlyis an adjective that means every two months: I brought the cake for the bimonthly office
party. Bimonthlyis also a noun that means a publication issued every two months: The company
publishes several popular bimonthlies. Semimonthlyis an adjective that means happening twice a
month: We have semimonthly meetings on the 1st and the 15th.
capital / capitol
The city or town that is the seat of government is called the capital; the building in which the legislative
assembly meets is the capitol. The term capitalcan also refer to an accumulation of wealth or to a capital
letter.cite / site
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Citeis a verb that means to quote as an authority or example: I cited several eminent scholars in my
study of water resources. It also means to recognize formally: The public official was cited for service to
the city. It can also mean to summon before a court of law: Last year the company was cited for
pollution violations. Siteis a noun meaning location: They chose a new site for the factory just outside
town.
complement / complimentComplementis a noun or verb that means something that completes or makes up a whole: The red
sweater is a perfect complement to the outfit. Complimentis a noun or verb that means an expression of
praise or admiration: I received compliments about my new outfit.
comprise / compose
According to the traditional rule, the whole comprises the parts, and the parts compose the whole. Thus,
the board comprises five members, whereas five members compose (or make up) the board. It is also
correct to say that the board is composed (not comprised) of five members.
concurrent / consecutive
Concurrentis an adjective that means simultaneous or happening at the same time as something else:
The concurrent strikes of several unions crippled the economy. Consecutivemeans successive or
following one after the other: The union called three consecutive strikes in one year.connote / denote
Connoteis a verb that means to imply or suggest: The word espionage connotes mystery and intrigue.
Denoteis a verb that means to indicate or refer to specifically: The symbol for pi denotes the number
3.14159.
convince / persuade
Strictly speaking, one convinces a person that something is true but persuades a person to do
something. Pointing out that I was overworked, my friends persuaded [not convinced] me to take a
vacation. Now that I'm relaxing on the beach with my book, I am convinced [not persuaded] that they
were right. Following this rule, convinceshould not be used with an infinitive.
council / councilor / counsel / counselor
A counciloris a member of a council, which is an assembly called together for discussion or deliberation.
A counseloris one who gives counsel, which is advice or guidance. More specifically, a counselorcan be
an attorney or a supervisor at camp.
discreet / discrete
Discreetis an adjective that means prudent, circumspect, or modest: Her discreet handling of the touchy
situation put him at ease. Discreteis an adjective that means separate or individually distinct: Each
company in the conglomerate operates as a discrete entity.
disinterested / uninterested
Disinterestedis an adjective that means unbiased or impartial: We appealed to the disinterested
mediator to facilitate the negotiations. Uninterestedis an adjective that means not interested or
indifferent: They seemed uninterested in our offer.
elicit / illicit
Elicitis a verb that means to draw out. Illicitis an adjective meaning unlawful. No matter how hard I tried
to elicit a few scandalous stories from her, she kept all knowledge of illicit goings-on discreetly to herself.
emigrant / immigrant
Emigrantis a noun that means one who leaves one's native country to settle in another: The emigrants
spent four weeks aboard ship before landing in Los Angeles. Immigrantis a noun that means one who
enters and settles in a new country: Most of the immigrants easily found jobs. One emigrates froma
place; one immigrates toanother.
farther / further
Fartheris an adjective and adverb that means to or at a more distant point: We drove 50 miles today;
tomorrow, we will travel 100 miles farther. Furtheris an adjective and adverb that means to or at a
greater extent or degree: We won't be able to suggest a solution until we are further along in our
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evaluation of the problem. It can also mean in addition or moreover: They stated further that they would
not change the policy.
few / less
Fewis an adjective that means small in number. It is used with countable objects: This department has
few employees. Lessis an adjective that means small in amount or degree. It is used with objects of
indivisible mass: Which jar holds less water?figuratively / literally
Figurativelyis an adverb that means metaphorically or symbolically: Happening upon the shadowy
figure, they figuratively jumped out of their shoes. Literallyis an adverb that means actually: I'm not
exaggerating when I say I literally fell off my chair. It also means according to the exact meaning of the
words: I translated the Latin passage literally.
flammable / inflammable
These two words are actually synonyms, both meaning easily set on fire. The highly flammable
(inflammable) fuel was stored safely in a specially built tank. Use nonflammable to mean notflammable.
flaunt / flout
To flauntmeans to show off shamelessly: Eager to flaunt her knowledge of a wide range of topics,
Helene dreamed of appearing on a TV trivia show. To floutmeans to show scorn or contempt for: Lewisdisliked boarding school and took every opportunity to flout the house rules.
foreword / forward
Forewordis a noun that means an introductory note or preface: In my foreword I explained my reasons
for writing the book. Forwardis an adjective or adverb that means toward the front: I sat in the forward
section of the bus. Please step forward when your name is called. Forwardis also a verb that means
to send on: Forward the letter to the customer's new address.
founder / flounder
In its primary sense foundermeans to sink below the surface of the water: The ship foundered after
colliding with an iceberg. By extension, foundermeans to fail utterly. Floundermeans to move about
clumsily, or to act with confusion. A good synonym for flounderis blunder: After floundering through the
first half of the course, Amy finally passed with the help of a tutor.
hanged / hung
Hangedis the past tense and past participle of hang when the meaning is to execute by suspending by
the neck: They hanged the prisoner for treason. The convicted killer was hanged at dawn. Hungis the
past tense and participle of hang when the meaning is to suspend from above with no support from
below: I hung the painting on the wall. The painting was hung at a crooked angle.
historic / historical
In general usage, historicrefers to what is important in history, while historicalapplies more broadly to
whatever existed in the past whether it was important or not: a historic summit meeting between the
prime ministers; historical buildings torn down in the redevelopment.
i.e. / e.g.
The abbreviation e.g. means for example (from Latin exempli gratia): Her talents were legion and varied
(e.g., deep sea diving, speed reading, bridge, and tango dancing). The abbreviation i.e. means that is or
in other words (from Latin id est):The joy of my existence (i.e., my stamp collection) imbues my life with
meaning.
it's / its
It'sis a contraction for it is, whereas itsis the possessive form of it: It's a shame that we cannot talk
about its size.
laid / lain / lay
Laidis the past tense and the past participle of the verb lay and not the past tense of lie. Layis the past
tense of the verb lie and lainis the past participle: He laid his books down and lay down on the couch,
where he has lain for an hour.
lend / loan
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Although some people feel loanshould only be used as a noun, lendand loanare both acceptable as
verbs in standard English: Can you lend (loan) me a dollar? However, only lendshould be used in
figurative senses: Will you lend me a hand?
lightening / lightning
Lighteningis a verb that means to illuminate; lightningis a noun referring to the electrical charges the
cause flashes of light during storms: The lightning struck, lightening the sky.nonplussed
Meaning perplexed or bewildered, nonplussedis very often thought to mean just the oppositecalm,
unruffled, cool-as-a-cucumber. A common mistake is to think the word means not plussed, but no such
word exists. Nonplussedoriginates from the Latin non(no) and plus(more, further), and means a state in
which no more can be doneone is so perplexed that further action is impossible. The lexicographer
grew increasingly agitated and nonplussed by the frequency with which she noted the misuse of
nonplussed.
passed / past
Passedis the past tense and past participle of pass. Pastrefers to time gone by; it is also a preposition
meaning beyond. In the past decade, I passed over countless opportunities; I was determined not to let
them get past me again.penultimate
Meaning next to last, penultimateis often mistakenly used to mean the very last, or the ultimate: The
perfectionist was crestfallen when he was awarded the penultimate prize; the grand prize went to
another.
precede / proceed
The verb precedemeans to come before. Proceedmeans to move forward. He preceded me into the
room; once I caught up with him I proceeded to tell him off.
principal / principle
Principalis a noun that means a person who holds a high position or plays an important role: The school
principal has 20 years of teaching experience. Principalis also an adjective that means chief or leading:
The necessity of moving to another city was the principal reason I turned down the job offer. Principleis
a noun that means a rule or standard: They refused to compromise their principles.
stationary / stationery
Stationaryis an adjective that means fixed or unmoving: They maneuvered around the stationary barrier
in the road. Stationeryis a noun that means writing materials: We printed the letters on company
stationery.
their / there / they're
Theiris the possessive form of they; thererefers to place; and they'reis the contraction of they are.
They're going there because their mother insisted they become proficient in Serbo-Croatian.
venal / venial
Venalis an adjective that means corruptible; venialis an adjective that means a slight flaw or offense: In
the Catholic church, a venial sin is one that is minor and pardonable, whereas a mortal sin is a serious
transgression involving more venal or depraved behavior.
who's / whose
Who'sis the contraction of who is.Whoseis the possessive form of who. Who's going to figure out
whose job it is to clean the stables?
your / you're
Youris the possessive form of you; you'reis the contraction you are. If you're planning on swimming,
then be sure to bring your life vest and flippers.
One of the chief characteristics of English is its teeming vocabulary, an estimated 80% of which has come from
other languages! Linguistic borrowing has occurred over many centuries, whenever English speakers have come
into contact with other cultures, whether through conquest and colonization, trade and commerce, immigration,leisure travel, or war.
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While English has borrowed most heavily from the languages of Europe and the Near East, it has also acquired
many loan words from Asia, sometimes through the intermediary of Dutch, the native language of the merchant-
sailors who dominated the Spice Islandstrade in the 17th century.
Many of these borrowed words no longer seem foreign, having been completely assimilated into English. Some
examples are boondocks, gingham, and ketchup. Others are still strongly associated with their country of origin,
such as terms for specific "ethnic" dishes or the different schools of martial arts.
Common Rules
AlumniThis word construction is taken directly from its Latin origins. Therefore, the noun forms are gender specific:"alumna" refers to one woman; "alumnae" refers to a group of women; "alumnus" refers to one man; "alumni"refers to a group of men or a group of men and women. It's rare to see the feminine plural form, "alumnae." Mostoften the form "alumni" is used for any group of graduates.
Alumni AbbreviationsIdentify past and current students by their class years with an apostrophe before the year in the year 2000 orlater. For graduates in the 1900s, use the four-digit year (1951). If a person received more than one degree fromCarnegie Mellon, use both years and put a comma between them. In this case an apostrophe may be used for the"19" in subsequent years.
Right: Laura San Giacomo (1984) had a supporting role in "Pretty Woman."Right: Paul Christiano (1964, '65, '68) served as provost during the 1990s.
Letters are often used before the year to indicate the school that granted the degree.
Right: James Gosling, CS1983, created the computer language JAVA.Right: Earl Wild, A1937, participated in Carnegie Mellon's centennial celebration.
Consistency is the key as to the method of indicating the alum's year of graduation. The choice is yours as tousing parens or commas and the use of spaces. Pick one and use consistently throughout your publication.
Collective NounsThe collective nouns "faculty" and "staff" are singular nouns. If you wish to use a plural construction, use"members of the faculty/staff" or "faculty/staff members."
Right: The faculty is represented by Faculty Senate.Right: Members of the faculty are dedicated researchers and teachers.Right: Staff members disagree among themselves about the best benefits options.Right: The Carnegie Mellon staff numbers almost 3,000.
Passive VoiceAvoid using the passive voice, which can contribute to imprecise, weak or wordy prose.
Think about this sentence: "Jane's classes were taught in the morning." Taught by whom? Is Jane a teacher or astudent? An active construction would clarify the sentence: "Professor Smith taught Jane's morning classes."
When a passive construction makes an appearance in an early draft, think about the sentence. Try to alter theconstruction and choose an active verb. Concise sentences with active verbs and a few, carefully selectedmodifiers communicate most clearly to the reader.
Sometimes passive voice is a better choice. For example, when the recipient of an award is more important thanthe awarding body, it's better to keep this information in the lead of the sentence: "Director of Homeland SecurityTom Ridge was awarded an honorary doctorate"
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That/WhichThese words cause so much confusion, they deserve a section of their own. "That" and "which" often are usedincorrectly in clauses.
When referring to a human being (or an animal with a name), any clause should be introduced by the word "who"or "whom."
When referring to an object or nameless animal with an essential clauseone that cannot be eliminated withoutchanging the meaning of the sentenceuse the word "that" to introduce the clause. Essential clauses do notneed commas.
When referring to an object or nameless animal with a non-essential clauseone that can be eliminated from thesentence without changing the basic meaninguse the word "which" to introduce the clause. If non-essentialclauses appear in the middle of sentences, they may need to be set off by commas.
A simple test: Once your sentence is written, try reading it without the clause. If the sentence still means about thesame thing, your clause should be introduced by "which." If taking out the clause changes the meaningdrastically, it should be introduced by "that."
Right: The club meeting, which was held in Skibo Coffeehouse, was lively.Meaning: The club meeting was lively. (We must already know which club meeting it is.)Right: The club meeting that was held in Skibo Coffeehouse was lively.Meaning: The only meeting being held in Skibo Coffeehouse was lively. (Another way to think of essential clauses
you don't really need the word "that.")Better: The club meeting held in Skibo Coffeehouse was lively.
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Commonly Misused Words
adverse/averse"Adverse" means unfavorable. "Averse" means reluctant.
adviser/advisor"Adviser" is preferred although both are correct.
affect/effect"To affect" means (1) to influence, change or produce an effect; (2) to like to do, wear or use; or (3) to pretend."To effect" means to accomplish, complete, cause, make possible or carry out. If you're looking for a noun, you'reprobably looking for "effect." If you're using a verb, you're safest with "affect."
afterwardnot afterwards
all rightnot alright
allude/refer"To allude" means to speak of without mentioning. "To refer" means to speak of directly.
allusion/illusionAn "allusion" is an indirect reference. An "illusion" is a false impression or image.
alumna/aeAn alumna is one woman. Alumnae are a group of women.
alumni/usAlumni are more than one man or a group of men and women. An alumnus is one man.
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around/about"Around" should refer to a physical proximity or surrounding (I'll look for you around the front of Baker Hall)."About" indicates an approximation (Let's have lunch about 11:30 a.m.).
beside/besidesUse "beside" to mean (1) at the side of (sit beside me); (2) to compare with (beside other studies); or (3) apartfrom (that's beside the point). Use "besides" to mean (1) further-more (besides, I said so); (2) in addition to (andelm and maple trees besides); or (3) otherwise (there's no one here besides Bill and me).
between/amongUse "between" to show a relationship between two objects only.
Use "among" when it's more than two.
"Between" takes an objective pronounme, her, him. "Between you and me" is okay. "Between you and I" is not.
biannual/biennial"Biannual" is twice a year. "Biennial" is every two years.
complement/compliment"Complement" is something that supplements. "Compliment" is praise or the expression of courtesy.
compose/comprise/constitute"Compose" is to create or put together. "Comprise" is to contain, to include all or embrace. "Constitute" is to makeup, to be the elements of.
Examples: The whole comprises the parts. The parts constitute the whole. The whole is composed of parts.
The department comprises 12 people. Twelve people constitute the department. The department iscomposed of 12 people.
continual/continuous"Continual" is a steady repetition."Continuous" is uninterrupted.
criteriaplural (more than one criterion, which is a quality, a value or a standard of judgment)
curriculaplural (more than one curriculum, which is a program of academic courses or learning activitiesthe H&SScurricula)
curricularadjective (H&SS' curricular philosophy)
curriculum
singular (the History curriculum)
dataplural noun, usually takes a plural verb; if used as a collective noun, when the group or quantity is regarded as anoun, it takes a singular verb (the data is sound).
daylight-saving timenot daylight-savings time
different fromnot different than
disinterested/uninterested
"Disinterested" means impartial. "Uninterested" means someone lacks interest.
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dissociatenot disassociate
entitled/titled"Entitled" means having the right to something (she is entitled to the inheritance). Use "titled" to introduce thename of a publication, speech, musical piece (the piece is titled, "Love and Illusion").
farther/further"Farther" refers to physical distance. "Further" refers to an extension of time or degree.
fewer/lessIn general, use "fewer" for individual items that can be counted. Use "less" for bulk or quantity that is measured(not counted). "Fewer" usually takes a plural noun; "less" usually takes a singular noun.
half-mast/half-staffTo use "half-mast," you must be referring to a flag on a ship or at a naval station. A flag anywhere else is at "half-staff."
historic/historical"Historic" means important. "Historical" refers to any event in the past.
hopefullyUnless you're describing the way someone spoke, appeared or acted, do not use this one. Too many people use"hopefully," an adverb that must modify a verb only, as if it were a conditional phrase.
Right: I hope we can go.Wrong: Hopefully, we can go.Wrong: Hopefully, the report will address that issue.Right: It is hoped the report will address that issue.Right: She eyed the interview list hopefully.
important/importantly"Importantly" is incorrect unless it is an adverb.
Right: He strutted importantly through the castle.Right: More important, he said, the quality of the program must not suffer.
imply/infer"Imply" means to suggest or indicate indirectly. To "infer" is to conclude or decide from something known orassumed.
In general, if you imply something, you're sending out a message. If you infer something, you're interpreting amessage.
in regard tonot in regards to
"As regards" or "regarding" may also be used.
insure/ensure"Insure" means to establish a contract for insurance of some type. "Ensure" means to guarantee.
General rule? Use "ensure."
irregardlessThe word is "regardless." "Irregardless"? No such word.
-ize
Do not coin verbs with this suffix, and do not use already coined words such as "finalize" (use "end" or "conclude")or "utilize" (use "use").
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lay/lie"Lay" means to place or deposit, and requires a direct object (forms: lay, laid, laid, laying). "Lie" means to be in areclining position or to be situated. It does not take an object (forms: lie, lay, lain, lying).
lectern/podiumYou stand on a podium and behind a lectern.
let/leaveTo "let alone" means to leave something undisturbed. To "leave alone" means to depart from or cause to be insolitude.
like/asUse "like" to compare nouns and pronouns. Use "as" to introduce clauses and phrases.
literally/figuratively"Literally" means in an exact sense. "Figuratively" means in a comparative sense.
Right: The furnace literally exploded.Right: He was so furious he figuratively blew his stack.
locatedIn most cases, you'll find you don't really need this word. Instead of "The store is located in the University Center,"you can simply write "The store is in the University Center." Instead of "Where are you located at?" (which is theworst construction of all), write "Where are you?"
many/muchIn general, use "many" for individual items that can be counted. Use "much" for bulk or quantity that is measured.midnight/noonUse instead of 12 a.m. or 12 p.m. Do not put a "12" in front of either one.
me/myselfAvoid using "myself." In most constructions, it's the objective pronoun you really want:
Right: It's between you and me.Wrong: You can tell your supervisor or myself.
more than/overUse "more than" when you mean in excess of; use "over" when referring to physical placement of an object, anending or extent of authority.
Right: More than 25 professors participated.Wrong: The university has over 50 buildings.
norUse this word anytime you use "neither."
oral/verbal"Oral" refers to spoken words. "Verbal" can refer to either spoken or written words, but most often connotes theprocess of reducing ideas to writing.
partially/partlyThese two are not interchangeable. "Partially" is used to mean to a certain degree when speaking of a conditionor state. "Partly" implies the idea of a part, usually of a physical object, as distinct from the whole.
Right: I'm partially convinced.Wrong: The building is partially completed.Right: The building is in a state of partial completion.Right: The building is partly completed.
past experienceWhat other kind of experience is there? Just use "experience" alone.
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peddle/pedalTo "peddle" is to sell. To "pedal" is to use pedals, as on a bicycle.
people/personsUse "person" when speaking of an individual. The word "people," rather than "persons," is preferred for pluraluses.
pom-pom/pompon"Pom-pom" is a rapidly firing weapon. A cheerleader's prop is correctly called a pompon.
premier/premiere"Premier" is first in status or importance, chief, or a prime minister or chief executive. "Premiere" is a firstperformance.
presently/currentlyMany writers use these terms as if they were synonymous. But "presently" means in a little while, soon."Currently" means now. In most cases you can do just f ine without using "currently." For example, "we arecurrently revising the plan" works better when simply stated, "we are revising the plan."
pretense/pretext"Pretense" is a false show or unsupported claim to some distinction or accomplishment. "Pretext" is a falsereason or motive put forth to hide the real one, an excuse or a cover-up.
principal/principle"Principal" as a noun is a chief person or thing; as an adjective, it means first in importance. "Principle" is a nounmeaning a fundamental truth, doctrine or law; a guiding rule or code of conduct; a method of operation.
rebut/refuteTo "rebut" is to argue to the contrary. To "refute" is to win the argument.
regardless"Regardless" is a word. "Irregardless" is not a word.
shall/will"Shall" is used for the f irst-person future tense and expresses the speaker's belief regarding his or her futureaction or state.
If "will" is used for first-person future, it expresses his or her determination or consent. At other times, "will" is usedfor the second- and third-person future tense.
student bodyUse "student" or "students" instead.
that/whichSeeCommon Rules.
theater/theatreThe preferred word in the United States is "theater," unless the British spelling is part of a proper name, as in"Kresge Theatre" or "Chosky Theatre."
toward/towards"Toward" is correct. "Towards" is not.
uniqueCommonly overused, this word literally means one of a kind, without equal. "Unique" should never be modified by"truly," "rather" or "very." Something is either unique or it's not.
use/utilizeUse "use." "Utilize" is the awkward verb form of the obsolete adjective "utile." Why bother?
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who/whomWe rarely see the word "whom" in writing. But if your sentence has an objective clause referring to a person oranimal with a proper name, you're being ungrammatical if you don't use whom.
The word "who" substitutes for subjective pronounshe, she or they; "whom" must be used in the sense of him,her or them. If you don't want to use "whom," restructure your sentence. Don't just stick in "who" when it isincorrect.
-wiseDo not use this suffix to coin words like "weatherwise."
Xerox/photocopyA trademark for a brand of photocopy machine should never be used as a noun or verb.
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Commonly Misspelled WordsThis is just a small sampling to get you thinking. When in doubt, use a computer spell program or look it up (orboth).
accommodateacknowledgmentaesthetics (not esthetics)antiquatedcatalog (not catalogue)commitmentconscienceconsensuscounselordeductibledissensiondrunkennessecstasyembarrassexhilarateforewordharasshors d'oeuvresinadvertentindispensableinoculateinsistentirresistiblejudgmentknowledgeableliaisonmementonickel
occurredoccurrenceperseveranceprerogativeprivilegeproceedsponsortyrannousvacuumvilify
Hardas adjective (a hard time) poses no problem.Hardis also a flat adverb, however, meaning strenuously, withdetermination, strongly, as in We tried hard. It is not interchangeable with hardly, which means scarcely: We hardly tried.Hardly can also (in British English especially) mean severely, cruelly, harshly, and that sense can sometimes create
ambiguity, as in She was hardly used in the campaign, meaning either her talents were scarcely employed or she washarshly treated during the campaign. Note that the position ofhardly can controlShe was used hardly calls only for the
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harshly sensebut a shift in diction (scarcely used, ill-used, orunderused, for example) can do an even surer job ofavoiding ambiguity.
Commonly Misused Words and Expressions
A.D. anno domini means in the year of the Lord, so should come before the year:A.D. 2000; B.C. comes after theyear: 32 B.C.
accomodate should be accommodate
acronym should be used only of initialisms that make pronounceable words, like radarorNafta, notMRIorCIA
actionable means that which is subject to legal action or litigation, and use should be restricted to law
aggravate to worsen or increase in severity; does not mean to annoy or vex
agree sometimes stripped of necessary prepositions; should be agree on, to orwith, etc.
alright should be all right
an used before words, initials, etc., that have a vowel sound (regardless of the first letter): an MIA soldier; it isaffected to use before historic and other words with a sounded initial h
anchors away should be anchors aweigh
and/or an ugly construction; state in some other way in newspaper writing
annoint spelled with one n: anoint
anytime not one word; spelled any time
approximate often used unnecessarily for aboutto add false gravity to a statement
around often used by consultants as a universal preposition in the erroneous belief that it sounds intelligent:problems
around cost-cutting, questions around personnel issues
artic should be arctic; so too with antarctic
as follows not to be used before colons, as it is unnecessary
as per used often as an inelegant and lazy introduction:As per your request,
as to whether as to should be omitted
baited breath should be bated
balls of brass the expression is bulls of brass, or the brazen bulls that guarded the golden fleece; balls of brass, as infortitude symbolized by metallic male organs, is a bastard form
be it this is the ugly subjunctive; avoid it:I will fight it, be it communism, Nazism
begs the question the logical fallacy ofpetitio principii: assuming as the premise the very thing to be proved; does not meanprompts the question, as inBudget talks beg the question of deficits.
bell-wether a castrated sheep that wears a bell and leads the flock; a leader (pejorative)
blatant originally meant noisy, obstreperous; also means obviously objectionable; should not be used to meanobvious
borrow the verb describing receipt of a loan, not the making of it; you cant borrow me some money
bribe often used in an over-broad sense to encompass payment for goods and services; should be used pejorativelyto indicate improper purchase of influence or favors
calender should be calendar
catholic lower-case, means universal, not strict or conservative, the views of the church notwithstanding
caveat means warningorcaution, not exception, reservation orclarification
cheap the thing bought is cheap, not its price; it is nonsense to say the price was cheap; so with expensive
chomp the expression is champ at the bit
claim should be used in the sense lay claim to, rather than as a synonym forargue orstate
commentate should be comment
could care less should be couldns care less as in, nothing is less important
could of should be could have
crescendo the crescendo is the rising action in music, not the climax itselfdata/media these are plurals, though perhaps not for long
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different than incorrect; should always be different from
dilemna should be dilemma; as well fortrilemma, polylemma etc.; refers to a unavoidable choice between twounattractive options, not just any decision
disconnect a verb; the noun is disconnection
due to should follow a form of be or be attached to a noun;Due to budget constraints, there will be no Christmas
party is incorrect; The cancellation was due to weatheris correct
e.g. exempli gratia: for example; used to introduce an example; requires a following comma, not necessary to
italicize
effete exhausted, worn-out, lacking vigor or energy; does not mean effeminate
enervate to rob or deplete of energy; to do the opposite is to innervate
et al. means among others; when reading aloud, is read as among others rather than in Latin; not necessary to
italicize
exception the exception proves the rule does not mean that the exception is eventually determined to be the rule;prove
in this case means test, so the exception tests the validity or universality of the rule
facet refers to a face of a stone, not just any aspect of anything
feel badly should befeel bad; linking verbs such as be, seem, smell, appear, feel, etc. take adjectives; an adverb would
modify the manner in which you feel, not how you feel
fey fated to die or soon to die
forbid should be followed by to, notfrom, in all its forms;forbade is pronouncedforbad
forte the e is silent when used to mean ones strong point; it is sounded when used in the music sense
frequent robbed of its charm by overuse, and much misused; often illogically used to mean visitas a verb without
regard to frequency
fulsome means offensive through excess; not just a synonym for fullorcomplete
gender refers to the grammatical classification of a word only;sex is proper for male/female distinctions
graduate a college takes this action, not a student, so one is graduated from college, one does notgraduate college
grow as a transitive verb, it should be restricted to agriculture: you cangrow beets, but cannotgrow the economy;
however, the economy grew is correct
hale the correct phrase is hail and farewell, not hale and farewell
harass accenting the first syllable is an affectation that grew out of the Clarence Thomas hearings
however this should not be used as a coordinating conjunction as andorbutis; a sentence should still make sense it if
is omitted
hypocrisy feigning to be other and better than one is; assuming a false appearance or dissimulation of true nature or
beliefs; not necessarily contradicting ones words in ones actions
i.e. id est: that is; used to define, not to give an example; requires a following comma, not necessary to italicize
if and when an ugly construction; usually the and when can be omittedif I was should beIf I were; in conditional future (subjunctive), use the plural were even for singular nouns
ilk of that ilkdoes not mean of that kind or sort; it is used when the proprietor and property have the same name
(Fowler)
immolate to destroy or sacrifice, not necessarily by fire; does not meanset fire to
impact often used as a verb, though it is properly a noun; the verb to use is affectorinfluence
impeach to impugn or charge with a misdemeanor; does not mean to remove from office
inflammable means the same as flammable: able to catch flame
intensive purposes should be intents and purposes
ironic/irony does not mean coincidental, counterintuitive, strangely appropriate, unexpected, orpoetically just; it is where
the literal meaning and the intended meaning are in opposition, as a light form of sarcasm, usually understood
by part of the audience and at the expense of the rest; or, a turn of events that is the opposite, and as if inmockery, of what was to be expected
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irregardless no such word; use regardless
judgment no e
just assume should bejust as soon
just deserts spelled with ones because it is what is deserved
lily in ShakespearesKing John, the lily is painted, not gilt: To gild refined gold, to paint the lily
limpid transparent, diaphonous; not a fancy synonym for limp
literally does not mean very; means according to the literal meaning of words, not the figurative; if someone is
literally a jackass then he has actually taken the form of donkey
livid of a blue-leaden color, as if bruised
long-lived means having a long life, long-lifed; should be pronounced like the adjective live, not the verb
lowest common
denominator
a mathematical term, often incorrectly used to denote the worst or most base element: daytime t.v. appeals to
the lowest common denominator
manor the expression is to the manner born; does not mean privileged, but instead suited for the role
medieval not spelled midevil or any other such way; evalmeans time or age
metaphysical does not mean beyond physical, supernatural; speculative inquiry into the first principles of things, including
such concepts as being, substance, essence, time, space, cause, identity, etc.
militate to have weight or effect; usually used with against
millenium spelled millennium, with two ns
mischievious should be mischievous; pronounce without the third i,too
momento should be memento
moot open to discussion; academic or hypothetical (as in the practice sessions of law students); does not mean
obviated by developments or circumstances; a moot pointis still debatable, not rendered inconsequential
motivate transitive, so it must take an object;I finally motivated to go outis a bad way to sayI got off my arse; also,
does not mean to state the motivation:Motivate your answeris an incorrect way to sayExplain the reasoning
behind your answer.
much to do should be much ado about nothing
myself should not be used to replaceIorme; should only be used as a reflexive (action taken upon oneself: I kicked
myself.) or intensive (for emphasis:I myself am honest.)
noisome foul-smelling; harmful or injurious; related to annoy, not noise
nor must be paired with neither, not in all negative constructions: he was not fat nor tallis incorrect
octupi incorrect plural; the original Greek would be octopoda oroctopodes, but octopuses is best
one in the same should be one and the same
orientate should be orient
penultimate means next to last, not the ultimate or very most; antepenultimate means second to last,preantepenultimatemeans third from last
peruse to thoroughly examine or read; often misused to mean take a cursory look
plethora a favorite word of the semiliterate; means undesirable overabundance, not simply a multitude; from the
disease plethora, a morbid overabundance of blood
plus should be limited to its mathematically sense, and not substituted forandorin addition to: it is wrong to say
I met my dad plus my mom.
predominately should bepredominantly
pudding the expression is: the proof of the pudding is in the eatingnot the proof is in the pudding
reticent often used too broadly; means quiet, reserved, not reluctant
seperate should beseparate
supposably should besupposedly
suppositious should besupposititious; means fraudulently substituted for the genuine thing or person; counterfeit, false
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the fact that should be avoided as a way to cautiously abstract a condition:I hate the fact that she dates someone else.Omit the fact.
they incorrectly used as a gender-neutral third person singular; avoid this use by rephrasing the sentence
this point in time redundant; at this pointorat this time is sufficient
traduce to slander; sense of to pervert, transmogrify is obsolete
transpire to escape from secrecy; to become public: news quickly transpired; should not be used as a fancy alternative
to happen oroccur
try and should be try to
upmost should be utmost
utilize often replaces use to vainly add gravity to a statement; use use
vacillate means oscillating or tergiversating; changing ones opinion; not simply delaying or avoiding, or many of the
other meanings credited to it
wet of an appetite, should be whet, meaning to sharpen or make more acute
whether or not or notshould be omitted
zoology pronounced ZOH-ology, not ZOO-ology
Use one word for a phrase.
Many unecessary phrases are used by both native and non-native English speakers. Avoiding these phrases is a
simple way to make your writing clearer. The following examples should all be replaced by a single word.
avoid better
in view of the foregoing circumstances therefore
are found to be in agreement agree
has the ability to can
has the capability of can
(with) the passage of time (with) time
at this point in time now
due to the fact that because
examined in comparison to compared to
for the purpose of for
by means of by
a small number of few
a large number of many
Or can be deleted completely:
avoid "The CD57 expression on CD8+ cells in certain viral infections, such as CMV and HIV, has beendemonstrated."
better "CD8+ cells express CD57 in certain viral infections, such as CMV and HIV."
The correct phrase is almost always shorter.
A few specific phrases are commonly mistranslated by Japanese authors:
almost the same = equivalent, comparable
One commonly misused expression is "almost the same".
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Results may be "the same" or "identical", or they may be "equivalent" (the closest expression to the same), "similar", or
"comparable" in scientific writing. But "almost the same" is a more casual and inappropriate expression.
avoid: 'Patients in groups A and B had almost the same incidence of vascular complications'
better: 'Patients in groups A and B had an equivalent incidence of vascular complications'
avoid: 'Almost the same pattern of Zic 1 expression was seen in wild-type embryos'
better: 'A similar pattern of Zic 1 expression was seen in wild-type embryos'
Comparable and equivalent are used for quantitative comparisons:
example:
"Equivalent levels of sox 7 protein expression were found in..."
"Comparable levels of sox 7 protein expression were found in..."
on the contrary = in contrast
'On the contrary' is a subjective statement that indicates disagreement or opposition to a statement or opinion given by
someone else. Therefore it is usually only used in spoken English.
'In contrast' is an objective statement of a marked difference or opposite effect, and should therefore be used in
scientific writing.
avoid On the contrary, no H3 antibody reactivity was seen in yeast
better In contrast, no H3 antibody reactivity was seen in yeast
avoid On the contrary, there were no adverse effects in group B
better In contrast, there were no adverse effects in group B
But in spoken English:
"I think the American stock market will continue to grow."
"On the contrary, I think it will begin a slow decline very soon."
On the other hand = However/In contrast
The transition on the other handis frequently misused in English translations from Japanese. This phrase is usually used
as a translation ofmata ippou dewa,which is a transition that indicates a slight change in topic. In English, in this
situation it is usually unecessary to use any transition. If there is a comparison/contrast being made, then transitions
such as however,or if a difference is really being emphasised, in contrast(but not on the contrary) may be used (see
above).
Overall, on the other handis very rarely used in Scientific English, generally being more appropriate for conversation,
and if you are in doubt, don't use it.
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Double negatives
Double negatives are used in English to make a very positive statement, and this is usually not appropriate for a scientific
paper. In addition, in Japanese a double negative can actually strengthen the negativeness of a statement, which does not
translate into English.
avoid
"Background staining was not seen..."
"No background staining was not seen..."
better "No background staining was seen..."
Avoid casual English
Casual language should be kept for conversation or other forms of writing. It must be replaced by the correct term, which is
often shorter:
avoid better
nowadays presently, currently
for instance for example
despite the fact that although
goes under the name of is called
on the contrary in contrast
firstly initially
to begin with initially
be that as it may however
at last finally
in as much as because
by the way delete
as a matter of fact delete
'til now (until now) to date*
*This last example also uses a contraction which cannot be used in scientific writing at all. Other examples include:
avoid better
it's it is
weren't were not
didn't did not
haven't have not
can't cannot
Common style errors
Transitional words allow ideas to flow from one sentence to the next. They are used extensively in Japanese, but in scientific
English care should be taken not to overuse them.
Transitions may:
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1. add information (in addition, furthermore, moreover);
2. show an effect or a result (therefore, thus);
3. contrast ideas (however, in contrast, whereas, although);
or:
4. summarise ideas (in conclusion, in summary).
Some transitions that are used in more casual conversation should be avoided.
avoid:
- Indeed, - In fact,
- On the other hand, - As a matter of fact,
- Accordingly - For instance,
- Nevertheless - Additionally
administer/administrate
To administrate means to manage or organize. A drug is administered, not administrated. Administration, however, is the
noun ofadminister, which may lead to this common mistake.
avoid Gastric ulcers were induced in rats by administrating 20% acetic acid.
better Gastric ulcers were induced in rats by administering 20% acetic acid.
avoid IFN was self-administratedsubcutaneously.better IFN was self-administeredsubcutaneously.
alteration/alternation
Alternation (the occurrence of two things by turns) is often wrongly used to mean alteration (simply a change).
Alteration may be used as a synonym of mutation.
avoid SMID is associated with mtDNA alternations.
better SMID is associated with mtDNA alterations.
better SMID is associated with mtDNA mutations.
common/popular
Popularis often mistakenly used to mean common, prevalent or widespread. This can be very inappropriate since
popularactually means especially liked or preferred.
avoid Strain of the ACL of the knee is apopularinjury among budo practitioners
better Strain of the ACL of the knee is a common injury among budo practitioners
avoid Cancer was the mostpopularcause of death in this population
better Cancer was the most common cause of death in this population
better Cricket is apopularsport in Australia
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conservative/conserved
DNA sequences may be conserved between species, and these regions are called conserved regions, not conservativeregions. Conservative implies a medical treatment that is by limited or well-established procedures.
avoid The conservative region of the pit 1 gene was amplified by PCR.
better The conserved region of the pit 1 gene was amplified by PCR.
avoid All clones contained the highly conservative sof sequence.
better All clones contained the highly conserved sof sequence.
avoid Due to complications, we selected conserved treatment for this case.
better Due to complications, we selected conservative treatment for this case.
describe/report
A patient is a person; a case is a disease. Patients or cases are described; only cases are reported.
good We describe a patient with gynecomastia induced by omeprazole.
good We report a case of omeprazole-induced gynecomastia.
dose/dosage
A doseis a specific amount whereas dosageimplies a regimen and is therefore usually indicated as amount per unit oftime.
example:
"Patients received an initial doseof 25 mg and thereafter a dosageof 10 mg twice a day for 2 weeks."
etc
Etc can only be used when the contents of a noninclusive list are obvious to the reader. However, etc is an imprecise
expression and should generally be avoided in scientific writing. When giving a partial list use such as or including at
the start of the list, and put nothing at the end of the list.
avoid (A, B and C, etc)
better (such as A, B and C)
avoid Physical factors (joint laxity, knee muscular force, etc) were compared to activity scores.
better Physical factors (such as joint laxity and knee muscular force) were compared to activity scores.
avoid
Trp is involved in substrate binding in most glycosyl hydrolases, including lysozyme, cellulases, xylanases
etc.
better
Trp is involved in substrate binding in most glycosyl hydrolases, including lysozyme, cellulases, and
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xylanases.
Try to avoid using eg (for example; from the Latin exempli gratia) and ie (that is; from the Latin id est).
If you do use them: Do not use etc after eg; and use ie when the list is specific and all-inclusive, or when clarifying or
defining something.
example:
Change in height (ie, height velocity) may only be transiently reduced in asthmatic children
example:
Lysosomal cysteine proteases have been implicated in specific pathological states (ie, arthritis and cancer metastasis)
Also avoid and so on, and so forth, and and the like.
mutant/mutation
A mutationis an alteration in the primary sequence of DNA.
Mutantrefers to an strain of organism, population, allele or gene which carry one or more mutations.
good We characterised four meiotic yeast mutants(i.e. strains of yeast)
good We characterised four meiotic yeast mutations(i.e. changes in the yeast DNA sequence)
good This G to T mutationin the lim 2 gene was linked to cataract formation in the TO3 mutantmouse
good Mice were homozygous for this mutantallele
Therefore a mutanthas no genetic locus, only a phenotype. A mutationcan be mapped, but a mutantcannot.
avoid We mapped the XYZ mutantto chromosome 6q16
better We mapped the XYZ mutationto chromosome 6q16
on/upon
Uponalways means onand should be changed accordingly.
remarkable/marked
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Remarkableis commonly wrongly used to indicate a change that is notable but not significant. The correct word is
marked.
avoid "There was a remarkableincrease in binding."
better "There was a markedincrease in binding."
reproductive/reproducible
Reproductiverefers to the biological process by which organisms produce offspring, and cannot be used to describe
results that could be repeated. Results that can be repeated are reproducible;they could be reproduced or duplicated.
avoid "Results were reproductivein all three experiments."
better "Results were reproduciblein all three experiments."