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A Comparison of Primary & Secondary Data
Primary Data Secondary Data
Collection purpose For the problem at hand For other problemsCollection process Very involved Rapid & easyCollection cost High Relatively lowCollection time Long Short
Uses of Secondary Data
• Identify the problem
• Better define the problem
• Develop an approach to the problem
• Formulate an appropriate research design (for example, by identifying the key variables)
• Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses
• Interpret primary data more insightfully
• Specifications: Methodology Used to Collect the Data
• Error: Accuracy of the Data
• Currency: When the Data Were Collected
• Objective(s): The Purpose for Which the Data Were Collected
• Nature: The Content of the Data
• Dependability: Overall, How Dependable Are the Data
Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data
Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data
Criteria Issues RemarksSpecifications & Methodology
Error & Accuracy
Currency
Objective
Nature
Dependability
Data collection method, response rate, quality & analysis of data, sampling technique & size, questionnaire design, fieldwork.Examine errors in approach,research design, sampling, datacollection & analysis, & reporting.
Time lag between collection &publication, frequency of updates.Why were the data collected?
Definition of key variables, units of measurement, categories used, relationships examined.Expertise, credibility, reputation, and trustworthiness of the source.
Data should be reliable, valid, & generalizable to the problem.
Assess accuracy by comparing data from different sources.
Census data are updated by syndicated firms.The objective determines the relevance of data.Reconfigure the data to increase their usefulness.
Data should be obtained from an original source.
A Classification of Secondary Data
Secondary Data
Ready to Use
Requires Further
Processing
PublishedMaterials
Computerized Databases
Syndicated
Services
Internal External
Internal Secondary DataDepartment Store ProjectSales were analyzed to obtain:• Sales by product line• Sales by major department (e.g., men's wear, house wares)• Sales by specific stores• Sales by geographical region• Sales by cash versus credit purchases• Sales in specific time periods• Sales by size of purchase• Sales trends in many of these classifications were also
examined
Type of Individual/Household Level DataAvailable from Syndicated Firms
I. Demographic Data- Identification (name, address, email, telephone)- Sex- Marital status- Names of family members- Age (including ages of family members)- Income- Occupation- Number of children present- Home ownership- Length of residence- Number and make of cars owned
Type of Individual/Household Level Data Available from Syndicated Firms
II. Psychographic Lifestyle Data
- Interest in golf
- Interest in snow skiing
- Interest in book reading
- Interest in running
- Interest in bicycling
- Interest in pets
- Interest in fishing
- Interest in electronics
- Interest in cable television
There are also firms such as Dun & Bradstreet and American Business Information which collect demographic data on businesses.
A Classification of Published Secondary Sources
StatisticalData
Guides Directories Indexes Census Data
Other Governmen
t Publications
Published Secondary Data
General Business Sources
Government Sources
A Classification of Computerized
Databases
Bibliographic Databases
Numeric Database
s
Full-Text Database
s
Directory Databases
Special-Purpose
Databases
Computerized Databases
Online Off-LineInternet
Published External Secondary Sources
Guides• An excellent source of standard or recurring information• Helpful in identifying other important sources of directories,
trade associations, and trade publications• One of the first sources a researcher should consultDirectories• Helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect
specific data• Examples: Consultants and Consulting Organizations
Directory, Encyclopedia of Associations, FINDEX: The Directory of Market Research Reports, Studies and Surveys, and Research Services Directory
Indices• Helpful in locating information on a particular topic in several
different publications
Classification of Computerized Databases
• Bibliographic databases are composed of citations to articles
• Numeric databases contain numerical and statistical information
• Full-text databases contain the complete text of the source documents comprising the database
• Directory databases provide information on individuals, organizations, and services
• Special-purpose databases provide specialized information
Syndicated Services
• Companies that collect and sell common pools of data of known commercial value designed to serve a number of clients
• Syndicated sources can be classified based on the unit of measurement (households/consumers or institutions)
• Household/consumer data may be obtained from surveys, diary panels, or electronic scanner services
• Institutional data may be obtained from retailers, wholesalers, or industrial firms
A Classification of Syndicated Services
Unit ofMeasureme
nt
Households/Consumers Institution
s
Syndicated Services: Consumers.
Psychographic
& Lifestyles
General AdvertisingEvaluation
Households / Consumers
Scanner Panels with Cable TV
Surveys Volume Tracking
Data
Scanner Panels
Electronic scanner services
Purchase Media
Panels
Syndicated Services: Institutions
Audits
Direct Inquiries
Clipping Services
Corporate Reports
Institutions
Retailers Wholesalers
Industrial firms
Overview of Syndicated Services
Type Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Uses
Surveys Surveys conducted at regular intervals
Most flexible way of obtaining data; information on underlying motives
Interviewer errors; respondent errors
Market segmentation, advertising theme selection and advertising effectiveness
Purchase Panels
Households provide specific information regularly over an extended period of time; respondent asked to record specific behaviors as they occur
Recorded purchase behavior can be linked to the demographic/ psychographic characteristics
Lack of representativeness; response bias; maturation
Forecasting sales, market share and trends; establishing consumer profiles, brand loyalty and switching; evaluating test markets, advertising, and distribution
Media Panels Electronic devices automatically recording behavior, supplemented by a diary
Same as purchase panel
Same as purchase panel
Establishing advertising rates; selecting media program or air time; establishing viewer profiles
Overview of Syndicated Services
Scanner Diary Panels with Cable TV
Scanner panels of households that subscribe to cable TV
Data reflect actual purchases; sample control; ability to link panel data to household characteristics
Data may not be representative; quality of data limited
Promotional mix analyses, copy testing, new product testing, positioning
Audit services Verification of product movement by examining physical records or performing inventory analysis
Relatively precise information at the retail and wholesale levels
Coverage may be incomplete; matching of data on competitive activity may be difficult
Measurement of consumer sales and market share, competitive activity, analyzing distribution patterns: tracking of new products
Industrial Product Syndicated Services
Data banks on industrial establishments created through direct inquiries of companies, clipping services, and corporate reports
Important source of information on industrial firms, particularly useful in initial phases of the projects
Data are lacking in terms of content, quantity, and quality
Determining market potential by geographic area, defining sales territories, allocating advertising budget
Single-Source Data
Single-source data provide integrated information onhousehold variables, including media consumption andpurchases, and marketing variables, such as productsales, price, advertising, promotion, and in-storemarketing effort
• Recruit a test panel of households and meter each home's TV sets
• Survey households periodically on what they read• Grocery purchases are tracked by UPC scanners • Track retail data, such as sales, advertising, and
promotion
A Classification of International Sources
International Organizations
Government Sources
Nongovernment Sources
GovernmentsTrade
Associations
Domestic Organizations in
the United States
International Organizations in
the United States
Organizations in Foreign Countries
International Secondary Data
Exploratory Research Design:
Qualitative Research
A Classification of Marketing Research Data
Survey Data
Observational and Other
Data
Experimental Data
Qualitative Data Quantitative Data
Descriptive Causal
Marketing Research Data
Secondary Data Primary Data
Qualitative Vs. Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
To gain a qualitative understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations
Small number of non-representative cases
Unstructured
Non-statistical
Develop an initial understanding
Objective
Sample
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Outcome
Quantitative Research
To quantify the data and generalize the results from the sample to the population of interest
Large number of representative cases
Structured
Statistical
Recommend a final course of action
A Classification of Qualitative Research Procedures
Association
Techniques
Completion
Techniques
Construction Techniques
Expressive Technique
s
Direct (Non- disguised)
Indirect (Disguised)
Focus Groups Depth Interviews
Projective Techniques
Qualitative Research Procedures
Characteristics of Focus Groups
Group Size 8-12
Group Composition Homogeneous, respondents,
prescreened
Physical Setting Relaxed, informal atmosphere
Time Duration 1-3 hours
Recording Use of audiocassettes and videotapes
Moderator Observational, interpersonal, and communication skills of the
moderator
Key Qualifications of Focus Group Moderators
1. Kindness with firmness: The moderator must combine a disciplined detachment with understanding empathy so as to generate the necessary interaction.
2. Permissiveness: The moderator must be permissive yet alert to signs that the group’s cordiality or purpose is disintegrating.
3. Involvement: The moderator must encourage and stimulate intense personal involvement.
4. Incomplete understanding: The moderator must encourage respondents to be more specific about generalized comments by exhibiting incomplete understanding.
Key Qualifications of Focus Group Moderators, cont.
5. Encouragement: The moderator must encourage unresponsive members to participate.
6. Flexibility: The moderator must be able to improvise and alter the planned outline amid the distractions of the group process.
7. Sensitivity: The moderator must be sensitive enough to guide the group discussion at an intellectual as well as emotional level.
Procedure for Planning and Conducting Focus Groups
Determine the Objectives and Define the Problem
Specify the Objectives of Qualitative Research
Develop a Moderator’s Outline
Conduct the Focus Group Interviews
Review Tapes and Analyze the Data
Summarize the Findings and Plan Follow-Up Research or Action
State the Objectives/Questions to be Answered by Focus Groups
Write a Screening Questionnaire
Variations in Focus Groups• Two-way focus group. This allows one target group to
listen to and learn from a related group. For example, a focus group of physicians viewed a focus group of arthritis patients discussing the treatment they desired.
• Dual-moderator group. A focus group conducted by two moderators: One moderator is responsible for the smooth flow of the session, and the other ensures that specific issues are discussed.
• Dueling-moderator group. There are two moderators, but they deliberately take opposite positions on the issues to be discussed.
Variations in Focus Groups
• Respondent-moderator group. The moderator asks selected participants to play the role of moderator temporarily to improve group dynamics.
• Client-participant groups. Client personnel are identified and made part of the discussion group.
• Mini groups. These groups consist of a moderator and only 4 or 5 respondents.
• Tele-session groups. Focus group sessions by phone using the conference call technique.
• Online Focus groups. Focus groups conducted online over the Internet.
Online Versus Traditional Focus Groups Characteristic Online Focus Groups Traditional Focus Groups
Group size 4-6 8-12
Group composition Anywhere in the world Drawn from the local
area
Time duration 1-1.5 hours 1-3 hours
Physical setting Researcher has little control Under the control of the
researcher
Respondent identityDifficult to verify Can be easily verified
Respondent attentivenessRespondents can engage in other tasksAttentiveness can be monitored
Online Versus Traditional Focus Groups
Respondent recruiting Easier. Can be recruited online, e-mail, Recruited by traditional means
panel, or by traditional means (telephone, mail, mail panel)
Group dynamics Limited Synergistic, snowballing (bandwagon) effect
Openness of respondentsRespondents are more candid Respondents are candid, except for due to lack of face-to-face contact sensitive topics
Nonverbal communication Body language cannot be observed Body language and emotions Emotions expressed by using symbols observed
Use of physical stimuli Limited to those that can be displayed A variety of stimuli (products, on the Internet advertising demonstrations, etc.) can be used
Online Versus Traditional Focus Groups
Transcripts Available immediately Time consuming and expensive to obtain
Observers’ communication Observers can communicate with the Observers can manually send noteswith moderator the moderator on a split-screen to the focus group room
Unique moderator skills Typing, computer usage, familiarity Observationalwith chat room slang
Turnaround time Can be set up and completed Takes many days for setup and in a few days completion
Client travel costs None Can be expensive
Basic focus group costs Much less expensive More expensive: facility rental, food, taping,
transcript preparation
Advantages of Online Focus Groups
• Geographical constraints are removed and time constraints are lessened.
• Unique opportunity to re-contact group participants at a later date.
• Can recruit people not interested in traditional focus groups: doctors, lawyers, etc.
• Moderators can carry on side conversations with individual respondents.
• There is no travel, videotaping, or facilities to arrange so the cost is much lower.
Disadvantages of Online Focus Groups
• Only people that have access to the Internet can participate.
• Verifying that a respondent is a member of a target group is difficult.
• There is lack of general control over the respondent's environment.
• Only audio and visual stimuli can be tested. Products can not be touched (e.g., clothing) or smelled (e.g., perfumes).
Depth Interview Techniques: Laddering
In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from product characteristics to user characteristics. This technique allows the researcher to tap into the consumer's network of meanings. Wide body aircrafts (product characteristic) I can get more work done I accomplish more I feel good about myself (user characteristic) Advertising theme: You will feel good about yourself when flying our airline. “You're The Boss.”
Depth Interview Techniques: Hidden Issue Questioning
In hidden issue questioning, the focus is not on socially shared values but rather on personal “sore spots;” not on general lifestyles but on deeply felt personal concerns.
Depth Interview Techniques: Symbolic Analysis
Symbolic analysis attempts to analyze the symbolic meaning of objects by comparing them with their opposites. The logical opposites of a product that are investigated are: non-usage of the product, attributes of an imaginary “non-product,” and opposite types of products.
“What would it be like if you could no longer use airplanes?” “Without planes, I would have to rely on letters and long- distance calls.”
Airlines sell to the managers face-to-face communication. Advertising theme: The airline will do the same thing for a manager as Federal Express does for a package.
Focus Groups Versus Depth Interviews
Characteristic Focus Groups
Depth Interviews
Group synergy and dynamics + -
Peer pressure/group influence - +
Client involvement + -
Generation of innovative ideas + -
In-depth probing of individuals - +
Uncovering hidden motives - +
Discussion of sensitive topics - +
Focus Groups Versus Depth Interviews
Note: A + indicates a relative advantage over the other procedure, a - indicates a relative disadvantage.
Interviewing competitors
Interviewing professional respondents
Scheduling of respondents
Amount of information
Bias in moderation and interpretation
Cost per respondent
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
Characteristic Focus Groups
Depth Interviews
Definition of Projective Techniques
• An unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding the issues of concern.
• In projective techniques, respondents are asked to interpret the behavior of others.
• In interpreting the behavior of others, respondents indirectly project their own motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings into the situation.
Word Association
In word association, respondents are presented with a list of words, one at a time, and asked to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind. The words of interest, called test words, are interspersed throughout the list which also contains some neutral, or filler words to disguise the purpose of the study. Responses are analyzed by calculating:
(1) the frequency with which any word is given as a response;
(2) the amount of time that elapses before a response is given; and
(3) the number of respondents who do not respond at all to a test word within a reasonable period of time.
Word AssociationEXAMPLE
STIMULUS MRS. M MRS. C
washday everyday ironing
fresh and sweet clean
pure air soiled
scrub don't; husband does clean
filth this neighborhood dirt
bubbles bath soap and water
family squabbles children
towels dirty wash
Completion TechniquesIn sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to complete them. Generally, they are asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind.
A person who shops at Sears is ______________________ A person who receives a gift certificate good for Sak's Fifth Avenue would be __________________________________ J. C. Penney is most liked by _________________________ When I think of shopping in a department store, I ________
A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion, in which the respondent completes a paragraph beginning with the stimulus phrase.
Completion TechniquesIn story completion, respondents are given part of a story – enough to direct attention to a particular topic but not to hint at the ending. They are required to give the conclusion in their own words.
Construction Techniques
With a picture response, the respondents are asked to describe a series of pictures of ordinary as well as unusual events. The respondent's interpretation of the pictures gives indications of that individual's personality. In cartoon tests, cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked to indicate what one cartoon character might say in response to the comments of another character. Cartoon tests are simpler to administer and analyze than picture response techniques.
A Cartoon Test
Let’s see if we can pick up some house
wares at Sears.
SearsSears
Expressive Techniques
In expressive techniques, respondents are presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation.
Role playing Respondents are asked to play the role or assume the behavior of someone else.
Third-person technique The respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person rather than directly expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. This third person may be a friend, neighbor, colleague, or a “typical” person.
Advantages of Projective Techniques
• They may elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose of the study.
• Helpful when the issues to be addressed are personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social norms.
• Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.
Disadvantages of Projective Techniques
• Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater extent.
• Require highly-trained interviewers. • Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the
responses. • There is a serious risk of interpretation bias. • They tend to be expensive. • May require respondents to engage in unusual
behavior.
Guidelines for Using Projective Techniques
• Projective techniques should be used because the required information cannot be accurately obtained by direct methods.
• Projective techniques should be used for exploratory research to gain initial insights and understanding.
• Given their complexity, projective techniques should not be used naively.
Comparison of Focus Groups, Depth Interviews, and Projective Techniques
1. Degree of Structure2. Probing of individual
respondents3. Moderator bias4. Interpretation bias5. Uncovering
subconscious information
6. Discovering innovative information
7. Obtaining sensitive information
8. Involve unusual behavior or questioning
9. Overall usefulness
Relatively highLow
Relatively mediumRelatively lowLow
High
Low
No
Highly useful
Relatively mediumHigh
Relatively high Relatively medium Medium to high
Medium
Medium
To a limited extentUseful
Relatively lowMedium
Low to highRelatively highHigh
Low
High
Yes
Somewhat useful
Focus Groups
Depth Interviews
Projective Techniques
Criteria
Analysis of Qualitative Data
1) Data reduction – Select which aspects of the data are to be emphasized, minimized, or set aside for the project at hand.
2) Data display – Develop a visual interpretation of the data with the use of such tools as a diagram, chart, or matrix. The display helps to illuminate patterns and interrelationships in the data.
3) Conclusion drawing and verification – Considers the meaning of analyzed data and assess its implications for the research question at hand.
A Classification of Survey Methods
Traditional Telephone
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Mail Interview
Mail Panel
In-Home Mall Intercept
Computer-Assisted Personal
Interviewing
E-mail Internet
Survey Methods
Telephone Personal Mail Electronic
Some Decisions Related to the Mail Interview Package
Outgoing Envelope Outgoing envelope Size, color, return addressPostage Method of addressingCover LetterSponsorship Type of appeal PostscriptPersonalization SignatureQuestionnaireLength Size Layout FormatContent Reproduction Color Respondent anonymityReturn EnvelopeType of envelope PostageIncentivesMonetary versus non-monetary Prepaid Versus promised amount
Sample Mailing Lists
List Title Number on List Price
Advertising agencies 3892$45/MBanks, branches 11089 $85/MBoat owners 4289601 $50/MChambers of Commerce 6559$45/MPersonal computer owners 2218672 InquireFamilies 76000000 InquireHardware wholesalers 7378$45/MMagazines, consumers 4119$45/MPhotographic, portrait 33742$45/MSales executives 190002$55/MWives of professional men 1663614 $60/MYMCA’s 1036 $85
* Price shown is per 1000 names (/M), except where noted.
Criteria for Evaluating Survey MethodsFlexibility of Data Collection• The flexibility of data collection is determined primarily by the
extent to which the respondent can interact with the interviewer and the survey questionnaire.
Diversity of Questions• The diversity of questions that can be asked in a survey
depends upon the degree of interaction the respondent has with the interviewer and the questionnaire, as well as the ability to actually see the questions.
Use of Physical Stimuli• The ability to use physical stimuli such as the product, a
product prototype, commercials, or promotional displays during the interview.
Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods
Sample Control
• Sample control is the ability of the survey mode to reach the units specified in the sample effectively and efficiently.
Control of the Data Collection Environment
• The degree of control a researcher has over the environment in which the respondent answers the questionnaire.
Control of Field Force
• The ability to control the interviewers and supervisors involved in data collection.
Quantity of Data
• The ability to collect large amounts of data.
Random Digit Directory Designs
Adding a Constant to the Last DigitAn integer between 1 and 9 is added to the telephone number selected from the directory. In plus-one sampling, the number added to the last digit is 1.Number selected from directory: 404-953-3004 (exchange-block). Add one to the last digit to form 404-953-3005. This is the number to be included in the sample.
Randomizing the r Last DigitsReplace the r (r = 2, 3, or 4) last digits with an equal number of randomly selected digits. Number selected from directory: 404-881-1124. Replace the last four digits of the block with randomly selected numbers 5, 2, 8, and 6 to form 404-881-5286.
Random Digit Directory DesignsTwo-Stage ProcedureThe first stage consists of selecting an exchange and telephone number from the directory. In the second stage, the last three digits of the selected number are replaced with a three-digit random number between 000 and 999.
Cluster 1Selected exchange: 636Selected number: 404-636-3230Replace the last three digits (230) with randomly selected 389 to form 404-636-3389. Repeat this process until the desired number of telephone numbers from this cluster is obtained.
Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods
Response Rate• Survey response rate is broadly defined as the percentage
of the total attempted interviews that are completed.
Perceived Anonymity• Perceived anonymity refers to the respondents' perceptions
that their identities will not be discerned by the interviewer or the researcher.
Social Desirability/Sensitive Information• Social desirability is the tendency of the respondents to
give answers that are socially acceptable, whether or not they are true.
Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods
Potential for Interviewer Bias• The extent of the interviewer's role determines
the potential for bias.
Speed• The total time taken for administering the
survey to the entire sample.
Cost• The total cost of administering the survey and
collecting the data.
Observation MethodsStructured Versus Unstructured Observation
• For structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded, e.g., an auditor performing inventory analysis in a store.
• In unstructured observation, the observer monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to the problem at hand, e.g., observing children playing with new toys.
Observation MethodsDisguised Versus Undisguised Observation
• In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware that they are being observed. Disguise may be accomplished by using one-way mirrors, hidden cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical devices. Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales clerks.
• In undisguised observation, the respondents are aware that they are under observation.
Observation MethodsNatural Versus Contrived Observation
• Natural observation involves observing behavior as it takes places in the environment. For example, one could observe the behavior of respondents eating fast food in Burger King.
• In contrived observation, respondents' behavior is observed in an artificial environment, such as a test kitchen.
A Classification of Observation Methods
Observation Methods
Personal Observation
Mechanical Observation
Trace Analysis
Content Analysis
Audit
Classifying
Observation
Methods
Observation MethodsPersonal Observation
• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs.
• The observer does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon being observed but merely records what takes place.
• For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a department store.
Observation MethodsMechanical Observation
Do not require respondents' direct participation.– Turnstiles that record the number of people entering or leaving a
building.– On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video) – Optical scanners in supermarkets
Do require respondent involvement. – Eye-tracking monitors– Pupilometers ( change in pupils measures the cognitive activity)– Psychogalvanometers (measures galvanic skin response)– Voice pitch analyzers– Devices measuring response latency ( time taken to respond)
Observation Methods Audit
• The researcher collects data by examining physical records or performing inventory analysis.
• Data are collected personally by the researcher.
• The data are based upon counts, usually of physical objects.
• Retail and wholesale audits conducted by marketing research suppliers were discussed in the context of syndicated data in Chapter 4
Observation MethodsContent Analysis
• The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication.
• The unit of analysis may be words, characters (individuals or objects), themes (propositions), space and time measures (length or duration of the message), or topics (subject of the message).
• Analytical categories for classifying the units are developed and the communication is broken down according to prescribed rules.
Observation Methods Trace Analysis: Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past behavior.
The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement rate was used to determine the relative popularity of exhibits.
The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the readership of various advertisements in a magazine.
The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was used to estimate share of listening audience of various radio stations.
The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the affluence of customers.
The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine people's favorite magazines.
Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine browsing and usage behavior by using cookies.
A Comparative Evaluation of Observation Methods
Criteria Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace Observation Observation Analysis Analysis Analysis
Degree of structure Low Low to high High High MediumDegree of disguise Medium Low to high Low High High Ability to observe High Low to high High Medium Low in natural setting Observation bias High Low Low Medium MediumAnalysis Bias High Low to Low Low Medium
Medium General remarks Most Can be Expensive Limited to Method of
flexible intrusive commu- last resort nications
Relative Advantages of Observation
• They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or preferred behavior.
• There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced.
• Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.
• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.
Relative Disadvantages of Observation
• The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
• Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.
• Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive, and it is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior.
• In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or consent.
It is best to view observation as a complement to survey methods, rather than as being in competition with them.
A Comparative Evaluation of Survey Methods for International Marketing
ResearchCriteria Telephone Personal Mail ElectronicHigh sample control + + - -Difficulty in locating + - + + respondents at homeInaccessibility of homes + - + +Unavailability of a large + - + +pool of trained interviewersLarge population in rural areas - + - -Unavailability of maps + - + +Unavailability of current - + - +telephone directoryUnavailability of mailing lists + + - +Low penetration of telephones - + + -Lack of an efficient postal system + + - +Low level of literacy - + - -Face-to-face communication culture - + - -Poor access to computers & Internet ? + ? -Note: A (+) denotes an advantage, and a (–) denotes a disadvantage.
Concept of CausalityA statement such as "X causes Y " will have thefollowing meaning to an ordinary person and to ascientist. Here cause will always occur prior to the effect.____________________________________________________
Ordinary Meaning Scientific Meaning____________________________________________________X is the only cause of Y. X is only one of a number of
possible causes of Y.
X must always lead to Y The occurrence of X makes the (X is a deterministic occurrence of Y more probablecause of Y). (X is a probabilistic cause of Y). It is possible to prove We can never prove that X is athat X is a cause of Y. cause of Y. At best, we can
infer that X is a cause of Y.