ED 395 535

AUTHORTITLEINSTITUTION

PUB DATEN'TEAVAILABLE FROM

PUB TYPE

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

ABSTRACT

DOCUMENT RESUME

HE 029 189

Cashin, William E.Answering and Asking QuestiJn. IDEA Paper No. 31.Kansas State Univ., Manhattan. Center for FacultyEvaluation and Development in Higher Education.Jan 958p.

Center for Faculty Evaluation and Development,Division of Continuing Education, Kansas StateUniversity, 1615 Anderson Avenue, Manhattan, KS66502-4073 (For current prices call 800-255-2757).Guides Classroom Use Teaching Guides (ForTeacher) (052)

MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.*Educational Environment; *Group Discussion; HigherEducation; *Questioning Technilues; *StudentAttitudes; *Student Participation; *Teacher Role

This paper focuses on the answering and asking ofquestions in college-level courses and makes suggestions regardingquestioning techniques for lecture classes and discussion groups."Question" (Q) is defined as "any eliciting of an answer (response)regardless of grammatical form. "Answer" (A) is defined as "anyresponse that fulfills the expectation of the question." "Reaction"(R) is defined as "any response that modifies (clarifies, expands) orrates (positively or negatively) a previous statement (question,answer, or another reaction)." It is pointed out that instructorsexperience difficulty in handling pauses and silence after posing aquestion, and it is recommended that instructors.wait for a response.It is emphasized that it is desirable for an instructor to create aclassroom atmosphere that welcomes questions from students. Thisatmosphere can be evoked by the teacher's asking for questions,listening to the students' questions adequately and answering thequestions without belittling the students. (Contains eightreferences.) (CK)

***********************************************************************

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made*from the original document.

***********************************************************************

iDE*4 FAPERNO.

center torMU&

EMU/MON&DEVELOFWENT

KUUS$$IWUIOI!IIIy

Answering and Asking QuestionsWilliam E. Cashin*

Kansas State University

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE ANDDISSEMINATE THIS t ,^TERIAL

HAS BEEN GRAN ,"E1 BY

William E. Cashin

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

MEL IMPARTMENT 01 EDUCATIONOffice c4 Educafional Research end Improwstne.e'

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIOI,CENTER (ERIC)

VI/Thi document hail bun rsproducedreceived from the moson Or orpenizationormertatirp tt

0 Minor champs Immo bone Ames to improve104oduction qualify

Points of 4 or oihmOne elated in that 4ocument do not neolielleuly represent officialOERI palifion or policy

2

January, 1995

BEST Copy AVAILABLE

1

iD64 BIPERNo. 31

center trRCM

EVALUMON&DEVELOP...Hy.

Kamm Us* UolvertIty

Answering and Asking QuestionsWilliam E. Cashin*

Kansas State University

This paper is concerned with the answering and askingof questions in college-level courses. It makes sugges-tions regarding questioning techniques that are appro-priate for lecture classes as well as for discussiongroups.

We have adapted the approach used by Hyman (1974)because it has been found by many instructors to be auseful way to understand what goes on in class.Therefore, throughout the paper we will use the terms"question," "answer" (response), and "reaction" asfollows:question (0)any eliciting of an answer (response)regardless of grammatical form;answer (A)any response that fulfills the expectationof the question;reaction (R)any response that modifies (clarifies,expands) or rates (positively or negatively) a previousstatement (question, answer, or another reaction).

EXAMPLE"Who is president of the United States?" (0)"That's too easy." (R to 0)"No it isn't" (R to R)"George Washington." (A to 0)

In general, when considering changing an approach toyour teaching, ask yourself: What exactly goes on inclass? What do I do? What do the students do? Forexample, imagine yourself in class when one of thestudents asks you a question. What do you usuallydo? It is quite possible that you simply answer it. Ifyour goal is to increase the students' knowledge, this isquite appropriate. However, if your goal is to developthe students' thinking skills, you may wish to begin adialogue or use another technique to help the studentsdiscover their own answers.

It may be that when you try to recall how you act inclass, ou cannot remember clearly. Video oraudiotaping your class can provide a wealth of detail,and in a format where you can replay portions or canplay it for one or more of your colleagues.

January, 1995

I. Students Asking QuestionsWhat are some things that you can do when asked aquestion other than directly answering it?

1. Repeat the question, paraphrasing it. Thisserves two purposes: it insures that the entire classhears the question; more importantly, it lets the ques-tioner check your understanding of his or her question.When you have not completely understood, often thestudent will rephrase or elaborate upon the question.In doing so the student is often "thinking out loud" andmay come to his or her own conclusions without furtherhelp. This process also gives the other students timeto think about the question and possible answers to it.

EXAMPLE (Introductory Psychology)Student: You've said that learning is defined aschanges in behavior that result from past experience,but can't people learn without any change beingapparent? (01)

Instructor: You're questioning whether learning has tobe tied to observable change (R to 01), right Ann?(02)

Student: Right (A to 02), although given our definitionof psychology, I guess it would have to be perceivablein some way. (R to 02 and A to 01)

2. Redirect the question. You might ask anotherstudent (one who might know the answer) to respond;or you might redirect the question to the class ingeneral, asking for an answer or comment, or anelaboration upon the issue. This procedure not onlyencourages more student participation, but it alsoimplies that peers are a resource for learning.

S.

AcknowledgementThis IDEA Paper was adaptedfrom: W. E. Cashin, S. C. Brock, & R. E. Owens.(1976). Answering and asking questions: A practicalguide for IDEA users. Manhattan, KS: Kansas StateUniversity, Center for Faculty Evaluation and Develop-ment. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED171 216)

Copyright 1995 Center for Facultyivaluation and Development

EXAMPLE (Seminar on Urban Problems)St. 1: If people know about all of these harmful effectsthat pollute the environment, why doesn't the govern-ment stop the polluters? (01)

Inst.: Bill is asking, why don't our political leaders dosomething about those things that we know hurt theenvironment. (R to 01, paraphrasing it.) What aresome reasons the rest of you can think of that mightexplain this apparently illogical behavior?(02, redirecting 01 to entire class.)

St. 2: Well, many of the things people do that causepollution also have a lot of benefits: factories producegoods we want, provide jobs, etc. (A to 01 and 02)

3. Ask probing questions. You might respond to thestudent's question by directing her (or his) attention toa particular aspect of the issue she has raised, ordrawing her attention to some previously learnedcourse material that is relevant to answering thequestion or by going beyond what the student has saidin some way. The intent of probing questions is todraw the student's attention to things that may be onlyimplied in her answer, and so help her answer her ownquestion.

EXAMPLE (American History)St.: I think you can argue that the American Revolutionwasn't justified. The colonists were better off than mostEuropeans. (01)

Inst.: That's a good point, Cindy. (R to 01, praisingstudent) It might help if we considered how the Britishgovernment treated the colonists compared with theirtreatment of people living in England. (02)

St.: Well, it was true that the colonists thought thatthey were not given the rights of British citizens.(A to 02)

COMMENT: The instructor's question (02) focusesupon comparing the colonists with Englishmen ratherthan with other Europeans. The instructor implies thatthis is a more appropriate comparison (because thecolonists thought of themselves as deserving the rightsof Englishmen).

4. Promote a discussion among the students. Thethree previous suggestions usually involve communica-tion between two people, typically the instructor andone student, with the rest of the class simply listening.It may be that you will want to involve the majority ofstudents in trying to answer some questions, forexample, where there is considerable difference ofopinion about the answer.

EX AMPLE (Human Sexuality)St. 1: It really seems to me that abortion has to beconsidered murder, no matter what "justification"people give for it.

St. 2: I disagree, that is just repeating some abstractprinciple without considering the other side of theargument, for example, a woman who has been raped.

Inst.: These two comments, together with other thingsmembers of the class have said, suggest to me thatthere are strong disagreements about abortion. I thinkit might help if we spent some time discussing it. I'dlike you to get into buzz groups of three or four peopleeach (see McKeachie, 1993, for a description of buzzgroups) and spend about ten minutes coming up withas many arguments for and against abortion as youcan. When you've finished we'll discuss them.

One reaction we generally do not recommend when astudent asks a question is to assign that student thetask of looking up the answer. Frequently all thispractice accomplishes is to teach the class notto askquestions.

II. Answering QuestionsBecause Part I concentrated upon ways to help stu-dents answer their own questions, the suggestionsdealt with reactions to student questions rather thananswers. The remaining parts of this guide discussvarious aspects of questioning behavior that are notnecessarily directed towards helping students answertheir own questions.

5. Directly answer the question. One obvious optionan instructor has when a student asks a question is toanswer it. In general, we do not recommend answeringa student's question directly if you wish to fosterthinking or problem-solving skills. However, when thequestions ask for information that other stUdents in theclass are not likely to have (or c uestions asking for theinstructor's opinion), directly an4wering the question isappropriate. Directly answering questions takes lesstime than attempting to have a student or the classcome up with answers. If you choose to answerdirectly, make your answer brief and to the point. Afterresponding you may want to check to see if you havereally answered the question by saying something like:"Does that answer your question?" or "Was that whatyou were asking?" etc.

Sometimes ai instructor would like to use a student'squestion as an opportunity to bring in a related topic thatthe instructor wishes to cover, reasoning that studentslearn better when they see the material as relevant totheir own interests. This should be done with care or itmay only confuse everyone. Answer the student'squestions first, then be explicit that you are coveringsomething else that is on your agenda.

EXAMPLE (Introduction to Literature)St.: Who wrote the first novel in English? (01)

Inst.: Most experts consider Samuel Richardson to bethe first modern English novelist. (A to 01) He wrotePamela in 1740. (R to A, elaborating on answer) While

4

we are on the topic of the novel, I'd like to .. .. (Instruc-tor clues the class that she is going beyond the student'squestion.)

COMMENT: It is not unusual when the instructorherself is handling a discussion or recitation section ofa course for which she gives the lectures, to use theoccasion of students' asking questions about materialpreviously covered to add new material that could notbe included in the lectures because of lack of time. Werecommend against this because it may serve only toconfuse the students and make them feel less positiveabout the course when compared with recitationsections handled by GTA's who primarily answerquestions to clarify those parts of the lecture that somestudents did not understand.

6. Postpone answering the question. Students aremore likely to learn and remember if the instructoranswers their questions when they ask them. Never-theless, on certain occasions you may decide to put offanswering a question, for instance: when you are veryshort of time, especially if the answer is complex, orwhen the material will be covered in an upcomingclass, or when the answer is of interest to only a fewstudents. When the material is covered later, call it tothe student's attention: "Here is the answer to thequestion you asked before, Frank . . . ." If the answerwill not be covered during the course, we recommendthat you offer to answer it after class or make anappointment to get together with the student sometime.By doing this you very clearly communicate to all of thestudents your willingness to try to answer their ques-tions. Generally, you should answer more questionsthan you postpone or you are likely to find the studentsasking fewer and fewer questions.

EXAMPLE (Physiology)St.: Doctor, I still don't really understand the Kreb'scycle, could we review it, please? (01)

Inst.: Fred, we're running out of time. (R to 01) Canyou see me after class and we'll arrange a time whenwe can get together for a half hour or so? (02) Fornow follow as best you can. (Further reaction to 01letting student know that the instructor is aware of thelearning problem.)

7. Discourage inappropriate questions. Usuallystudents ask questions because they wish to learn, butsometimes a student will ask a question to sidetrackthe class, to get attention, or even to embarrass theinstructor. Handling such questions presents adilemma. If you treat them like other questions youmay encourage the student to ask more of the same,but if you turn that student down abruptly you maydiscourage not only that student but the rest of theclass from asking any kind of question. In reacting, it isprobably best to tactfully indicate what about thequestion is inappropriate.

5

EXAMPLE (Physics I)Inst.: Any questions about the material we covered lastclass? (01)

St.: I don't have a question about that (Al to 01) but Iwas reading aboUt a physicist who has a theory aboutracial inferiority and I don't see what right a physicisthas to teach something like that outside of his field.(02)

Inst.: That's a legitimate question, Gail, since this is anintroductory physics course (R to 02, supportingstudent) but it takes us pretty far afield from vectorsand forces. (Further reaction, raising issue of appropri-ateness) How many students would like to spendsome class time talking about Gail's question? (03)

St.: (Only five students raise their hands. Their actioncan be considered A2 to 03)

Inst.: Well, why don't you five see me after class andwe can set up a time to get together to discuss it.(R to A2)

COMMENT: If a majority of the class indicated aninterest in discussing the topic, perhaps the instructorwould want to spend some of the class' time, especiallyif one of the important objectives of the course was forthe students to gain a broader understanding andappreciation of science. It seems to us that lectureoutlines and course syllabi are not railroad tracks thatyou must never leave, rather they are the main roadthat you intend to travel, but with time for some inter-esting side trips. On the other hand, if the primaryobjective of the course was for the students to learnskills needed in their prospective professions, theinstructor might suggest a meeting outside of class orperhaps recommend one or two articles discussing thequestion that interested students could then read.

New teachers especially are often uncertain how to tellwhether a student really wants an answer or has someother purpose. This is probably best learned throughexperience and new teachers will have to risk relyingon their own judgment. One criterion is how relevantthe point of the question is to what the class is trying tolearn.

8. Admit when you do not know an answer. If youdo not know the answer to a student's question, werecommend that you say so. Although one of the rolesof a college teacher is that of "expert" and "informationsource," admitting that you do not know the answer to aquestion will probably not damage the students' confi-dence in ;*ou. In fact, giving the students clues about

how certain you are of your answers is likely toincrease their confidence in you, for example: "Theexperts agree that. . . .," "as I recall they found. . .

"I'll have to look that up.. . .," etc. On the other hand, ifyou try to fake it, there is a good chance the studentswill find you out and your credibility will be seriouslydamaged. Unless the question is tangential to theobjectives of the course, we recommend that youassume responsibility for finding the answer to ques-tions you do not know and report back to the entireclass.

EXAMPLE (Food Management)St.: What effect does the use of the preservative BHThave on the amount of breakage in cookies? (01)

Inst.: That's a good question, Howard (R to 01),unfortunately I don't have a good answer; I don't know.(Al to 01) I'll have to find out and let you know.(Further reaction to Q1)

Inst.: (Next class) Regarding Howard's question lastclass about the effect of BHT on the breakage ofcookies, what they have found is . . . . (A2 to 01)

III. Asking Questions9. Ask open-ended, not just close-endedquestions. A closed-ended question structures theresponse for the student and can be answered by oneword, often "yes" or "no", or by a very brief phrase. Anopen-ended question leaves the form of the answer upto the person answering and so elicits much morethinking or information.

EXAMPLE (Counseling)Inst. A: If one of your counselees told you that she hadplagiarized most of her doctoral dissertation, would youreport it to her major professor? (Closed-endedquestion. Can be answered by a "yes" or "no.")

Inst. B: If one of your counselees told you that he hadplagiarized most of his doctoral dissertation, would youreport it directly to his major professor, inform the majorprofessor anonymously, or say nothing? (This is also aclosed-ended question, the instructor has given thestudent three choices.)

Inst. C: If one of your counselees told you that she hadplagiarized most of her doctoral dissertation, whataction would you take concerning informing her majorprofessor? (Open-ended, probing question leaveschoices of answer up to the student.)

Closed-ended questions are most appropriate when theinstructor wants to check whether the students havelearned or remembered specific information, or to getor keep their attention. If an instructor wishes toencourage student involvement, open-ended questionsare preferable because they require a more complex

student response. Instructors sometimes complain thatstudents never enter into a discussion, that theyanswer only in monosyllables. This may be becausethat is the only kind of answers our questions permit.

10. Ask divergent as well as convergentquestions. The distinction between convergent anddivergent questions is whether there is a single oraccepted "correct" answer (to a convergent question)or are there a number of possible answers, many ofwhich may be acceptable (to divergent questions).Convergent questions may expect the student to repeatsome conventional wisdom. Divergent questions oftenrequire new, creative insights.

EXAMPLE (Sociology)Inst.: According to our textbook, in what ways does thepresent welfare system solve the problems of poverty?(Convergent question, the range of acceptable answersis determined by the textbook.)

Inst.: What are some ways in which the country mightsolve the problems of poverty? (Divergent question, awide range of acceptable answers are possible.)

COMMENT: Notice that question 1 is an open-endedquestion even though a convergent one. Convergentquestions are often closed-ended; divergent questionsmust always be open-ended.

Some answers to divergent questions may be moreacceptable than others in terms of logical consistency,synthesis of relevant data, solutions of major aspects ofthe problem, etc. The major advantage in askingdivergent questions is that the task they set for thestudents is to think about an issue or problem, not todiscover the "correct" answer or the answer the teacheris looking for. Usually students are more willing toattempt answering divergent questions because theyrun less of a dsk of giving a "wrong" answer. Alsodivergent questions require a "higher" level of thinking(cf. Gronlund, 1985). They cannot be answered fromjust memory (unless the student has already beenexposed to answers to the question in a lecture,reading, etc.).

We have emphasized divergent questions becausethey are employed less frequently, even in college-levelinstruction. We do not mean to imply that instructorsshould not ask convergent questions. In so far as whatis taught at the college-level deals with correct an-swers, convergent questions are obviously appropriate.What we do wish to caution against is using mainlyconvergent questions, especially whet. trying to teachdivergent thinking!

IV. Pauses and SilenceOne difficulty found by both novice and veteran instruc-tors is deciding how to handle pauses arid silence afterasking a question. We will argue that pauses andsilence can play a useful role in both lecture anddiscussion classes.

11. Wait, pauses and silence are not inappropriateclass behaviors. The discomfort many, if not most,instructors feel when a pause leads to an extendedsilence probably stems from a cultural norm for socialconversation where the silence is taken to mean thatthere is some inadequacy in the communication. Thisdiscomfort often is especially acute for new teachers orteachers who lack self-confidence. If such an instructorwere to tape record his class, he might find that thesepauses actually last only a few seconds, very often lessthan five, not the "eternity" it seemed during the wait.In the classroom, constant talking is neither requirednor desirable.

12. Wait, give the students time to think. The basicreason for pausing after asking a question is to give thestudents time to think about possible answers. If thequestion is worthwhile (and more than rhetorical), evenat the memory level, it deserves a wait. Questions athigher levels require considerable timeminutesforstudents to think before they can adequately answer.

After an appropriate wait (listening to tape recordingsof one's class is a useful means of checking whetherthe length of the pause was appropriate), you maywant to simply acknowledge the pause by sayingsomething like: "It's a difficult question and takessome time to think about? This clues the studentsthat you are willing to wait for their responses. Oryou may want to rephrase the question or ask aprobing question which would draw the studenls'attention to relevant information.

If you really want the students to answer the question,you must give them enough time. You might want totry one or more of the active learning techniques (cf.Bonwell & Eison, 1991). Give the students a fewminutes to write out an answer. Have the studentswork in groups of two or three to solve the problem,or propose possible solutions. Such techniques requirethat all of the students are actively working on theanswer, not just the smarter or faster students.

13. Walt, or you will establish an undesirablenorrn. Classes, like any group, fairly quickly establishnorms, that is, standards of what will be consideredacceptable behavior in that group. If, in the first weekor two of class, the instructor waits only a few secondsbefore answering her (or his) own questions, the classwill quickly learn that when the instructor asks aquestion she does not expect an answer; wait a fewseconds and she will answer it herself. Students are

often more than willing to let the instructor answer all ofthe questions. If you want your students to answer thequestions you ask, you must be careful to cultivate thatexpectation by waiting after you ask a question.

V. Creating an Accepting AtmosphereIf encouraging students to ask questions is desirablebehavior in most college classrooms, then it is alsodesirable that the instructor create an atmospherewhere students are not afraid to ask questions for fearof embarrassment, etc.

14. Ask for questions. If you want the students toask questions, give them opportunities to do so. Pauseafter making an important point or explaining a topic, orsay "Any questions?" or "Are you with me?" or "Do youwant me to say more?" However, such statementsmust be more than rhetorical or used as a technique foryou to get your thoughts together before going to thenext point. Give the students time to formulate theirquestions before you move on. Also, look at thestudents to make sure you do not miss someone withhis or her hand up.

We think pausing and asking for questions is aneffective teaching device to use routinely; but if you areaware that some students are confused, it becomes amust. When some students are frowning or shakingtheir heads saying something like, "Some of you seempuzzled, what don't you understand?" should solicitquestions that will help you clear up the misunderstand-ing. Some college professors feel that they have donetheir duty by professing the material to the students.We believe that unless instructors help their students tolearn, they are not teaching.

15. Answer questions. If you want your students toask questions, then you should reinforce them whenthey do by answering their questions. Therefore wesuggest that you rarely postpone answering a questionor ignore student questions, which is what we do if youdo not call upon a student who has his hand up.

It is not unusual in a class of any size to have one ormore students who tend to monopolize class time. Oneapproach with such students is to give preference toMose who have not yet said anything. This can bedone explicitly by saying, "Let's take comments frompeople we haven't heard from," or "Vincent, I've alreadyanswered several of your questions, let's hear fromsome of the others first." Very often other students willask "Vincent's question" and so he will get his answersbut others will have a chance to participate, If he stillhas a question after everyone else's has been an-swered, you probably should let him ask it.

7

Also it is not uncommon for a class to have at least onestudent who appears to be antagonistic toward their.structor or hostile to the subject matter and who asksquestions that serve only to express tht student'sdisagreements, which often have little generalizabilityto the rest of the class. Because such questionsusually stem from .emotional rather than intellectualconcerns, answering only on a cognitive level serveslittle purpose. It is probably best to see that studentoutside of class and explain what seems to be going onfrom your point of view. Often such a talk is sufficientto enable the student at least to censor the questionshe or she asks in class, although it may do little tosolve the underlying problem.

16. Answer students questions adequately. It is notenough that you respond to the student's questions, butyou must answer the question to the student's satisfac-tion as best as you can. Your answer should beconcise and to the point, and you should ask thestudent if you have answered the question. Thisfosters both accurate communication of content andsays to the student "Your question is important and Iwill take the time necessary to answer it if I can." If,after two or three attempts, you still have not answeredsatisfactorily, and other students cannot help answer it,then it is appropriate to suggest getting together afterclass.

17. Listen to the question, or to any studentcomments. The way you listen to a question orcomment also communicates your attitude toward thestudents. In most U.S. cultures look at the studentswhen they are talking; show that you are following bynodding, etc.; check whether you really understandwhat they are saying.by rephrasing the question.

Sometimes little things that we do unknowingly commu-nicate something to students that is very different fromwhat we intend. For example, one instructor used tooccasionally take a look at his watch when a studentwould ask a question. He found out in the end-of-course evaluation that one student interpreted this tomean that the instructor felt the questions were wastingtime, rather than that the instructor simply wanted toknow what time it was.

18. Do not put down the students. In general, youshould avoid anything which would embarrass thestudent who asks the question. Here are a few instruc-tor responses well-calculated to insure that the studentasking the question will not ask any more questions.We have suggested possible alternatives.

EXAMPLES(Poor) You should know that we covered that in. . . .

(Better) What about. . .that we covered. . .weeks ago,how does that fit in?

(Poor) You're completely wrong.(Better) How would you reconcile what you're sayingwith. . . .(something previously covered).

8

(Poor) I entirely disagree.(Better) I'm not sure I agree, (or I think I disagree)because. . . .

Rather than responding with a value judgment to astudent's question or comment, ask a probing question.You may help the student arrive at the correct answer,or an acceptable answer; in which case, rather thanproving the student "wrong", you have helped him orher to be "right."

POST SCRIPT

We hope that the distinctions and suggestions made inthis paper will enable you to gain a clearer view of yourclassroom questioning behavior and so will help you toimprove by increasing the number of alternativesavailable to you when considering how to handlequestions in your classes. We would like to repeat ourconviction that there is no one, correct approachseveral roads lead to Rome. The approach you finallydecide upon will depend upon you, your students, yourcourse objectives, and other unique considerations.

References and Further ReadingsBonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active Learning:Creating excitement in the classroom. ASHE-ERICHigher Education Report, No. 1. Washington, DC:George Washington University, School of Education andHuman Development.

Christensen, C. R. (1991). The discussion teacher inaction: Questioning, listening, and response. In C. R.Christensen, D. A. Garvin, & A. Sweet (Eds.), Theartistry of discussion leadership (pp. 153-172). Boston:Harvard Business School Press.

Davis, B. G. (1993). Tools of teaching. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.

Gronlund, N. E. (1985). Stating objectives for class-room instruction (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Hyman, R. T. (1974). Ways of teaching (2nd ed.).Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott.

Hyman, R. T. (1979). Strategic questioning.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Hyman, R. T. (1980). Improving discussion leadershipNew York: Teachers College Press.

McKeachie, W. J. (1994). Teaching tips: Strategies,research, and theory for college and university teachers(9th ed.). Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.

Center for Faculty Evaluation and DevelopmentKansas State University1615 Anderson AvenueManhattan, KS 6650240731400-255-2757 or (913) 532-5970