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8/7/2019 Eco math book (1)
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Chapter 2
Equations. Functions of one variable.
Complex numbers
2.1 ax2 + bx + c = 0 ⇐⇒ x1,2 =−b±√b2 − 4ac
2a
The roots of the gen-eral quadratic equation.They are real providedb2 ≥ 4ac (assuming thata, b, and c are real).
2.2
If x1 and x2 are the roots of x2 + px + q = 0,then
x1 + x2 = −p, x1x2 = q
Viete’s rule.
2.3 ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 The general cubicequation.
2.4 x3 + px + q = 0(2.3) reduces to the form(2.4) if x in (2.3) isreplaced by x − b/3a.
2.5
x3 + px + q = 0 with Δ = 4p3 + 27q2 has
• three different real roots if Δ < 0;
• three real roots, at least two of which areequal, if Δ = 0;
• one real and two complex roots if Δ > 0.
Classification of theroots of (2.4) (assumingthat p and q are real).
2.6
The solutions of x3 + px + q = 0 are
x1 = u + v, x2 = ωu + ω2v, and x3 = ω2u + ωv,
where ω = −12
+ i2
√3, and
u =3 −q2 + 12
4p
3
+ 27q2
27
v =3
−q
2− 1
2
4p3 + 27q2
27
Cardano’s formulas
for the roots of a cubicequation. i is the imagi-nary unit (see (2.75))and ω is a complex thirdroot of 1 (see (2.88)).
(If complex numbers be-come involved, the cuberoots must be chosen sothat 3uv = −p. Don’ttry to use these formulasunless you have to!)
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2.7
If x1, x2, and x3 are the roots of the equationx3 + px2 + qx + r = 0, then
x1 + x2 + x3 =
−p
x1x2 + x1x3 + x2x3 = q
x1x2x3 = −r
Useful relations.
2.8 P (x) = anxn + an−1xn−1 + · · ·+ a1x + a0A polynomial of degreen. (an = 0.)
2.9
For the polynomial P (x) in (2.8) there existconstants x1, x2, . . . , xn (real or complex) such
thatP (x) = an(x− x1) · · · (x− xn)
The fundamental
theorem of algebra .x1, . . . , xn are called
zeros of P (x) and rootsof P (x) = 0.
2.10
x1 + x2 + · · ·+ xn = −an−1an
x1x2 + x1x3 + · · ·+ xn−1xn =i<j
xixj =an−2
an
x1x2 · · ·xn = (−1)na0an
Relations between theroots and the coefficientsof P (x) = 0, where P (x)is defined in (2.8). (Gen-eralizes (2.2) and (2.7).)
2.11
If an−1, . . . , a1, a0 are all integers, then anyinteger root of the equation
xn + an−1xn−1 + · · ·+ a1x + a0 = 0
must divide a0.
Any integer solutions of x3 + 6x2 − x − 6 = 0must divide −6. (In thiscase the roots are ±1and −6.)
2.12
Let k be the number of changes of sign in thesequence of coefficients an, an−1, . . . , a1, a0
in (2.8). The number of positive real roots of P (x) = 0, counting the multiplicities of theroots, is k or k minus a positive even number.If k = 1, the equation has exactly one positivereal root.
Descartes’s rule of signs.
2.13
The graph of the equation
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
is
• an ellipse, a point or empty if 4AC > B2;
• a parabola, a line, two parallel lines, orempty if 4AC = B2;
• a hyperbola or two intersecting lines if 4AC < B2.
Classification of conics.A, B, C not all 0.
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2.14x = x cos θ − y sin θ, y = x sin θ + y cos θ
with cot 2θ = (A
−C )/B
Transforms the equa-tion in (2.13) into aquadratic equation in
x
and y
, where thecoefficient of xy is 0.
2.15 d =
(x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2The (Euclidean) distance
between the points(x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
2.16 (x− x0)2 + (y − y0)2 = r2Circle with center at(x0, y0) and radius r.
2.17(x− x0)2
a2+
(y − y0)2
b2= 1
Ellipse with center at(x0, y0) and axes parallelto the coordinate axes.
2.18
y
x
r(x, y)
x0
y0
y
x
b
a
(x, y)
x0
y0 Graphs of (2.16) and(2.17).
2.19(x− x0)2
a2− (y − y0)2
b2= ±1
Hyperbola with center at(x0, y0) and axes parallelto the coordinate axes.
2.20Asymptotes for (2.19):
y − y0 = ± b
a(x− x0)
Formulas for asymp-totes of the hyperbolasin (2.19).
2.21
y
xx0
y0 ab
y
x
ba
x0
y0
Hyperbolas with asymp-totes, illustrating (2.19)and (2.20), correspond-ing to + and − in(2.19), respectively. Thetwo hyperbolas have thesame asymptotes.
2.22 y − y0 = a(x− x0)2
, a = 0
Parabola with vertex
(x0, y0) and axis parallelto the y-axis.
2.23 x− x0 = a(y − y0)2, a = 0Parabola with vertex(x0, y0) and axis parallelto the x-axis.
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2.24
y
x
y0
x0
y
x
y0
x0
Parabolas illustrating
(2.22) and (2.23) witha > 0.
2.25
A function f is
• increasing if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1) ≤ f (x2)
• strictly increasing if x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1) < f (x2)
• decreasing if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1) ≥ f (x2)
• strictly decreasing if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1) > f (x2)
• even if f (x) = f (−x) for all x
•odd if f (x) =
−f (
−x) for all x
• symmetric about the line x = a if
f (a + x) = f (a− x) for all x
• symmetric about the point (a, 0) if
f (a− x) = −f (a + x) for all x
• periodic (with period k) if there exists anumber k > 0 such that
f (x + k) = f (x) for all x
Properties of functions.
2.26
• If y = f (x) is replaced by y = f (x) + c, thegraph is moved upwards by c units if c > 0(downwards if c is negative).
• If y = f (x) is replaced by y = f (x + c), thegraph is moved c units to the left if c > 0 (tothe right if c is negative).
•If y = f (x) is replaced by y = cf (x), the
graph is stretched vertically if c > 0 (stretch-ed vertically and reflected about the x-axisif c is negative).
• If y = f (x) is replaced by y = f (−x), thegraph is reflected about the y-axis.
Shifting the graph of y = f (x).
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2.27
y
x
y
x
Graphs of increasingand strictly increasingfunctions.
2.28
y
x
y
x
Graphs of decreasingand strictly decreasingfunctions.
2.29
y
x
y
x
y
xx = a
Graphs of even and oddfunctions, and of a func-tion symmetric aboutx = a.
2.30
y
x(a, 0)
y
x
kGraphs of a functionsymmetric about thepoint (a, 0) and of afunction periodic withperiod k.
2.31
y = ax + b is a nonvertical asymptote for thecurve y = f (x) if
limx→∞f (x)
−(ax + b) = 0
or
limx→−∞
f (x)− (ax + b)
= 0
Definition of a nonverti-
cal asymptote.
2.32
y
x
f (x) − (ax + b)
y = ax + b
y = f (x)
x
y = ax + b is anasymptote for the curvey = f (x).
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2.33
How to find a nonvertical asymptote for thecurve y = f (x) as x →∞:
•Examine lim
x→∞f (x)/x. If the limit does not
exist, there is no asymptote as x →∞.
• If limx→∞
f (x)/x
= a, examine the limit
limx→∞
f (x)−ax
. If this limit does not exist,
the curve has no asymptote as x →∞.
• If limx→∞
f (x)−ax
= b, then y = ax + b is an
asymptote for the curve y = f (x) as x →∞.
Method for finding non-vertical asymptotes fora curve y = f (x) asx → ∞. Replacingx → ∞ by x → −∞gives a method for find-ing nonvertical asymp-totes as x → −∞.
2.34
To find an approximate root of f (x) = 0, definexn for n = 1, 2, . . . , by
xn+1 = xn − f (xn)
f (xn)
If x0 is close to an actual root x∗, the sequence{xn} will usually converge rapidly to that root.
Newton’s approxima-
tion method . (A rule of thumb says that, to ob-tain an approximationthat is correct to n deci-mal places, use Newton’smethod until it gives thesame n decimal placestwice in a row.)
2.35
y
xxn xn+1
x∗
y = f (x)
Illustration of Newton’sapproximation method.The tangent to thegraph of f at (xn, f (xn))intersects the x-axis atx = xn+1.
2.36
Suppose in (2.34) that f (x∗) = 0, f (x∗)
= 0,
and that f (x∗) exists and is continuous in aneighbourhood of x∗. Then there exists a δ > 0such that the sequence {xn} in (2.34) convergesto x∗ when x0 ∈ (x∗ − δ, x∗ + δ).
Sufficient conditions forconvergence of Newton’smethod.
2.37
Suppose in (2.34) that f is twice differentiablewith f (x∗) = 0 and f (x∗) = 0. Suppose fur-ther that there exist a K > 0 and a δ > 0 suchthat for all x in (x∗ − δ, x∗ + δ),
|f (x)f
(x)|f (x)2
≤ K |x− x∗| < 1
Then if x0 ∈ (x∗−δ, x∗+ δ), the sequence {xn}in (2.34) converges to x∗ and
|xn − x∗| ≤ (δK )2n
/K
A precise estimation of
the accuracy of Newton’smethod.
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2.38 y − f (x1) = f (x1)(x− x1)The equation for thetangent to y = f (x) at(x1, f (x1)).
2.39 y − f (x1) = − 1
f (x1)(x− x1)
The equation for thenormal to y = f (x) at(x1, f (x1)).
2.40
y
xx1
y = f (x)
tangentnormal
The tangent and thenormal to y = f (x) at(x1, f (x1)).
2.41
(i) ar · as = ar+s (ii) (ar)s = ars
(iii) (ab)r = arbr (iv) ar/as = ar−s
(v)a
b
r=
ar
br(vi) a−r =
1
ar
Rules for powers. (r ands are arbitrary real num-bers, a and b are positivereal numbers.)
2.42
• e = limn→∞
1 + 1
nn
= 2.718281828459 . . .
• ex = limn→∞
1 +
x
n
n• lim
n→∞an = a ⇒ lim
n→∞
1 +
ann
n= ea
Important definitionsand results. See (8.23)for another formula forex.
2.43 elnx = xDefinition of the naturallogarithm.
2.44
y
x
ln x
ex
1
1
The graphs of y = ex
and y = ln x are sym-metric about the liney = x.
2.45
ln(xy) = ln x + ln y; lnx
y
= ln x
−ln y
ln xp = p ln x; ln1
x= − ln x
Rules for the natural
logarithm function.(x and y are positive.)
2.46 aloga x = x (a > 0, a = 1)Definition of the loga-
rithm to the base a.
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2.47loga x =
ln x
ln a; loga b · logb a = 1
loge x = ln x; log10 x = log10 e
·ln x
Logarithms with differ-ent bases.
2.48
loga(xy) = loga x + loga y
logax
y= loga x− loga y
loga xp = p loga x, loga1
x= − loga x
Rules for logarithms.(x and y are positive.)
2.49 1◦ =π
180
rad, 1 rad = 180
π◦
Relationship between de-grees and radians (rad).
2.50 0
π/6π/4
π/3π/2
3π/4
π
3π/2
0◦
90◦
180◦
270◦
30◦45◦
60◦
135◦
Relations between de-grees and radians.
2.51
x1
cosx
sin xtanx
cotx
Definitions of the basictrigonometric functions.x is the length of the
arc, and also the radianmeasure of the angle.
2.52
y
x
−3π
2 −π
−π
2
π
2π 3π
2
y = sinxy = cos x
The graphs of y = sin x(—) and y = cos x (---).The functions sin andcos are periodic withperiod 2π:
sin(x + 2π) = sin x,cos(x + 2π) = cos x.
2.53 tan x =sin x
cos x, cot x =
cos x
sin x=
1
tan xDefinition of the tangent
and cotangent functions.
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2.54
y
x
− 3π
2−π −π
2
π
2π 3π
2
y = tan xy = cot x
The graphs of y = tan x
(—) and y = cot x (---).The functions tan andcot are periodic withperiod π:tan(x + π) = tan x,cot(x + π) = cot x.
2.55
x 0 π
6
= 30◦ π
4
= 45◦ π
3
= 60◦ π
2
= 90◦
sin x 0 1
2
1
2
√ 2 1
2
√ 3 1
cosx 1 1
2
√ 3 1
2
√ 2 1
20
tanx 0 1
3
√ 3 1
√ 3 ∗
cotx ∗ √ 3 1 1
3
√ 3 0
* not defined
Special values of thetrigonometric functions.
2.56
x 3π
4 = 135◦
π = 180◦
3π
2 = 270◦
2π = 360◦
sin x 1
2
√ 2 0 −1 0
cosx −1
2
√ 2 −1 0 1
tanx −1 0 ∗ 0
cot x −1 ∗ 0 ∗
* not defined
2.57 limx→0
sin axx
= a An important limit.
2.58 sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
Trigonometric formulas.(For series expansions of trigonometric functions,see Chapter 8.)
2.59 tan2 x =1
cos2 x− 1, cot2 x =
1
sin2 x− 1
2.60
cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y
cos(x− y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
sin(x− y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y
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2.61
tan(x + y) =tan x + tan y
1− tan x tan y
tan(x−
y) =tan x− tan y
1 + tan x tan y
Trigonometric formulas.
2.62cos2x = 2 cos2 x− 1 = 1− 2sin2 x
sin2x = 2 sin x cos x
2.63 sin2x
2=
1− cos x
2, cos2
x
2=
1 + cos x
2
2.64
cos x + cos y = 2 cosx + y
2
cosx− y
2cos x− cos y = −2sin
x + y
2sin
x− y
2
2.65sin x + sin y = 2 sin
x + y
2cos
x− y
2
sin x− sin y = 2 cosx + y
2sin
x− y
2
2.66
y = arcsin x
⇔x = sin y, x
∈[
−1, 1], y
∈[
−π
2
,π
2
]
y = arccos x ⇔ x = cos y, x ∈ [−1, 1], y ∈ [0, π]
y = arctan x ⇔ x = tan y, x ∈ R, y ∈ (−π
2,
π
2)
y = arccot x ⇔ x = cot y, x ∈ R, y ∈ (0, π)
Definitions of the inversetrigonometric functions.
2.67
y
x
y = arcsin x
−π
2
π
2
1−1
y
x
y = arccos x
1−1
π
π
2Graphs of the inverse
trigonometric functionsy = arcsin x and y =arccos x.
2.68
y
x
y = arccot x
y = arctan x
π
π
2
−π
2
1
Graphs of the inverse
trigonometric functionsy = arctan x and y =arccot x.
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2.69arcsin x = sin−1 x, arccos x = cos−1 x
arctan x = tan−1 x, arccot x = cot−1 x
Alternative notation forthe inverse trigonometricfunctions.
2.70
arcsin(−x) = − arcsin x
arccos(−x) = π − arccos x
arctan(−x) = arctan x
arccot(−x) = π − arccot x
arcsin x + arccos x =π
2
arctan x + arccot x =π
2arctan
1
x=
π
2− arctan x, x > 0
arctan1
x= −π
2− arctan x, x < 0
Properties of the inversetrigonometric functions.
2.71 sinh x =ex − e−x
2, cosh x =
ex + e−x
2Hyperbolic sine andcosine.
2.72
y
x
y = sinh x
y = cosh x
1
1
Graphs of the hyperbolicfunctions y = sinh x andy = cosh x.
2.73
cosh2 x− sinh2 x = 1
cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y
cosh2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y
sinh2x = 2sinh x cosh x
Properties of hyperbolicfunctions.
2.74
y = arsinh x ⇐⇒ x = sinh yy = arcosh x, x ≥ 1 ⇐⇒ x = cosh y, y ≥ 0
arsinh x = ln
x +
x2 + 1
arcosh x = ln
x +
x2 − 1
, x ≥ 1
Definition of the inversehyperbolic functions.
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Complex numbers
2.75 z = a + ib, z = a− ib
A complex number and
its conjugate . a, b ∈ R,and i2 = −1. i is calledthe imaginary unit .
2.76 |z| =√
a2 + b2, Re(z) = a, Im(z) = b
|z| is the modulus of z = a + ib. Re(z) andIm(z) are the real andimaginary parts of z.
2.77
|z|
z = a + ib
z = a− ib
Real axis
Imaginary axis
a
b
Geometric representationof a complex numberand its conjugate.
2.78
• (a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d)
• (a + ib)− (c + id) = (a− c) + i(b− d)
• (a + ib)(c + id) = (ac− bd) + i(ad + bc)
• a + ib
c + id=
1
c2 + d2
(ac + bd) + i(bc− ad)
Addition, subtraction,
multiplication , anddivision of complexnumbers.
2.79 |z1
|=
|z1
|, z1z1 =
|z1
|2, z1 + z2 = z1 + z2,
|z1z2| = |z1||z2|, |z1 + z2| ≤ |z1|+ |z2|Basic rules. z1 and z2
are complex numbers.
2.80z = a + ib = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = reiθ, where
r = |z| =√
a2 + b2, cos θ =a
r, sin θ =
b
r
The trigonometric orpolar form of a complexnumber. The angle θ iscalled the argument of z.See (2.84) for eiθ.
2.81θ
r
a + ib = r(cos θ + i sin θ)
b
Imaginary axis
a Real axis
Geometric representa-tion of the trigonomet-ric form of a complexnumber.
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2.82
If zk = rk(cos θk + i sin θk), k = 1, 2, then
z1z2 = r1r2
cos(θ1 + θ2) + i sin(θ1 + θ2)
z1
z2=
r1
r2
cos(θ1 − θ2) + i sin(θ1 − θ2)
Multiplication and di-vision on trigonometric
form.
2.83 (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθDe Moivre’s formula ,n = 0, 1, . . . .
2.84
If z = x + iy, then
ez = ex+iy = ex · eiy = ex(cos y + i sin y)
In particular,
eiy = cos y + i sin y
The complex exponential
function .
2.85 eπi = −1 A striking relationship.
2.86ez = ez, ez+2πi = ez, ez1+z2 = ez1ez2 ,
ez1−z2 = ez1/ez2Rules for the complexexponential function.
2.87 cos z =eiz + e−iz
2, sin z =
eiz − e−iz
2iEuler’s formulas.
2.88
If a = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = 0, then the equation
zn = a
has exactly n roots, namely
zk = n
√r
cosθ + 2kπ
n+ i sin
θ + 2kπ
n
for k = 0, 1, . . . , n− 1.
nth roots of a complexnumber, n = 1, 2, . . . .
References
Most of these formulas can be found in any calculus text, e.g. Edwards and Penney(1998) or Sydsæter and Hammond (2005). For (2.3)–(2.12), see e.g. Turnbull (1952).
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