FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDECHAPTER 28, 29 & 30 Vocabulary To Know

Absorption Uptake of small nutrient molecules; Third stage of food processing/nutritionAlimentary canal Digestive tube that extends from the mouth to the anus

Alveolus One of millions of tiny sacs within the lungs where gas exchange occursAorta Artery that carries blood directly from the heart to the rest of the body

Atrium Heart chamber that receives blood returning to the heart from other parts of the body

Autonomic Nervous System

Subdivisions of the motor division of the PNS that regulates the internal environment; Involuntary

AV NodeAtrioventricular node; Region of the heart between the right atrium & right ventricle from which electrical impulses spread to the ventricles during a heartbeat

Axon Neuron fiber that carries electric impulses away from the cell body and toward other cells

Bolus Chewed clump of food that leaves the mouth and travels through the alimentary canal

Brainstem Lower section of the brain, including the medulla oblongata, pons, & midbrain that filters information going to & from the brain

Bronchiole Thin tube that branches from a bronchus within a lungBronchus One of two tubes connecting the trachea to each lung

Central Nervous System Body’s primary information processing systemCerebellum Part of the brain located below the cerebrum and above the spinal cord;

Planning center that coordinates body movementCerebrum Largest & most complex part of the brain, made up of the left & right

hemispheresChyme Liquid mixture of food & stomach fluids released from the stomach into the

small intestineCorpus Callosum Band of nerve fibers that support communication between the two cerebral

hemispheresDendrite Neuron fiber that receives signals & carries them toward the cell body

Diaphragm Sheet of muscle that forms the bottom wall of the chest cavity; Contracts during inhaling & relaxes during exhaling

Digestion Mechanical & chemical breakdown of food into molecules small enough for absorption; Second stage of food processing/nutrition

Elimination Passage of undigested material from the digestive tract; Fourth stage of food processing/nutrition

Epiglottis Flap of tissue that covers the trachea during swallowing, preventing food from entering the lungs

Esophagus Muscle-encased tube of the alimentary canal between the pharynx & stomachGall bladder Organ that stores bile from the liver & releases it into the small intestine

HypothalamusRegion of the brain that is the “master control center” of endocrine system; Functions in maintaining homeostasis by regulating temperature, blood pressure & other conditions

Ingestion Act of eating food or drinking; First stage of food processing/nutritionInterneuron Nerve cell located entirely in CNS that integrates sensory information & sends

motor commandsLarge intestine Portion of alimentary canal from which water is reabsorbed into the body

Larynx Voicebox; Contains vocal cordsLimbic system System of regions of the brain that interact with the cerebral cortex in

emotion & memoryLiver Largest organ in the body; Performs many functions such as producing bile &

storing glucose as glycogenLong-term memory Memories than can be retrieved after more than a few minutes; Associating

new memories with old memories = Enhanced long-term memoryLung Organ consisting of sponge-like tissue that exchanges oxygen & carbon

dioxide with the bloodMotor neuron Nerve cell that carries signals from the CNS to muscle or gland cellsMyelin sheath Thick coat of material that surrounds and insulates the axon of some neurons

Nerve Bundle or bundles of neuron fibers surrounded by connective tissueNode Uninsulated spaces between the “beads” of a myelin sheath where an action

potential can be transmittedNutrition Process of obtaining raw materials from food

Pacemaker Specific region of the heart that sets the rate at which the heart contractsPancreas Gland that makes digestive enzymes & secretes them into the small intestine;

Makes hormones insulin & glucagon & secretes them into bloodParasympathetic

divisionDivision of autonomic nervous system that conserves energy; “Rest & digest”

Peripheral Nervous System

Network of nerves carrying signals into & out of CNS

Peristalsis Series of smooth muscle contractions that push food through the alimentary canal

Pharynx Junction in the throat of the alimentary canal & the tracheaPulmonary circuit Circuit of blood flow that carries blood between heart & lungs

Reflex Rapid, automatic response to a stimulusSaliva Liquid secreted into the mouth that contains mucus & digestive enzymes that

start chemical digestionSensory neuron Nerve cell that carries information from the environment to the central

nervous systemSensory receptor Specialized cell that transmits signals to sensory neurons

Short-term memory Memories that last for just a few short minutesSmall intestine Long, narrow tube where digestion is completed & most absorption occurs

Somatic Nervous System

Subdivision of the motor division of the PNS that controls the voluntary movements of skeletal muscles

Stimulus Environmental change that triggers a responseStomach Elastic, muscular sac where some chemical & some mechanical digestion

takes placeSympathetic division Division of the autonomic nervous system that generally prepares the body

for energy-consumptive activities; “Fight or flight”

Systemic circuit Circuit of blood flow that carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body

Thalamus Brain region that sorts & exerts some control over information going to & from cerebral cortex

Trachae Tube between larynx & bronchi through which air travels to lungsValve Flap of tissue in the heart that prevents blood from flowing in the wrong

directionVentricle Heart chamber that pumps blood out of the heart

Villus Fingerlike projections of the inner surface of the small intestine that functions in absorbing nutrients

Cumulative Concepts to Know

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Compare & Contrast Elements & CompoundsElements are substances that cannot be broken down into any other substances by chemical means

Compounds are substances made fro, the chemical combination of two or more elements in a fixed ratio

Described as “basic ingredients” of matter be3cause the more complex forms of matter are made from elements

Properties may differ greatly from those of its component elements

Describe the significance of the number of electrons in an atom’s highest energy level – especially relating to reactivity.

Number of electrons in an atom’s highest energy level determines how the atom reacts. Atoms will react when the highest energy level is partly filled. Electrons fill lowest energy level first; this level can hold only two electrons. The second and subsequent levels can hold eight electrons.

Bonding Examples

Ionic BondNa+ + Cl-

Sodium, Na : Atomic number, 11 + Chlorine, Cl : Atomic number, 17

Covalent BondH2O

[(Hydrogen, H : Atomic number, 1) x 2] + Oxygen, O : Atomic number, 8

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Identify & draw carbon skeletons

Identify & draw functional groups in organic molecules

BranchedSee

________Straight_______Chapter 5,

_______Ring________page 92

_Hydroxyl_ H H | |H—C—C—OH | | H H

_Carbonyl_ H O H | || |H—C—C—C—H | | H H

_Carboxyl_ O H \\ | C—C—H / |HO H

_Amino_ H H \ | N—C—H / | H H

Describe the process of building & breaking polymers

Dehydration reaction

Each time a monomer is added to polymer chair, a water molecules is released.HO—/\—/\—/\—/\—H + HO—/\—H

H2OHO—/\—/\—/\—/\—/\—H

Hydrolysis reaction

Your cells can either further break down monomers to obtain energy or use them to build new polymers. Cells break bonds between monomers by adding water.HO—/\—/\—/\—/\—/\—H + H2O HO—/\—/\—/\—H HO—/\—/\—H

Compare organic molecules based on affinity for water

Carbohydrates are hydrophilic. Due to many hydroxyl groups in sugar units.

Lipids are hydrophobic, helping them to act as boundaries.

Proteins’ side groups determine hydrophilic/phobic.

Nucleic acids

Describe basic structure & function of sugars

Elements & Ratio

1 carbon : 2 hydrogen : 1 oxygen

Shape(s) Monosaccharide examples: Glucose (in both straight-chain and ring-shaped forms), fructose, galactose

Purposes Main fuel supply for cellular work; Use carbon skeletons of monosaccharides as raw material for manufacturing other kinds of organic molecules (larger carbs or fats); Storage

Name 3 polysaccharides, describe their functions, and give examples

StarchStarch chains serve as sugar stockpiles; Broken down for stored glucose to become availablePotatoes, rice, corn

GlycogenMore highly branched than starch; Stored as granules in liver/muscle cells; Body breaks down glycogen granules to release glucose for energy

CelluloseServe as building materials –protect cells, stiffen plant; Multiple cellulose chains linked together with hydrogen bonds, forming cable-like fibers

Describe structure & function of fats

Glycerol (3-C backbone) attached to 3 fatty acids (which contain long hydrocarbon chains)Store energy for later use; Fatty tissues cushion organs; Provide body with insulation

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Describe structure & function of steroids

Steroids form ring structures and some steroids circulate in your body as chemical signals.Circulate as chemical signals to cells, as in Testosterone, Estrogen, Cholesterol; Cholesterol is an essential molecule found in the membranes that surround your cells. It is also the starting point from which your body produces other steroids.

List functions of proteins

Responsible for almost all day-to-day functioning of an organism. Form structures like hair/fur, make up muscles & provide long-term nutrient storage. Circulate in blood & defend body from harmful microorganisms. Act as cell-to-cell signals. Controls chemical rxns in cell.

Describe the structure of amino acids

Central C atom bound to 4 partners – 3 of which are the same in all a.a. One partner (same in all) = hydrogen atom. Second partner (same in all) = Carboxyl group. Third partner (same in all) = Amino group. Fourth group = Side group, unique to each amino acid. Side group determines chemical properties of each a.a.

Describe the structure of proteins

Proteins are composed of one or more polypeptide chains. Most polypeptide chains are at least 100 a.a. in length.

Explain how enzymes affect activation energy

Enzymes provide a way for reaction to occur at the cell’s normal temperature. An enzyme doesn’t supply activation energy to the reacting molecules, but instead lowers the energy requirement barrier so that the reaction can proceed at normal cell temperatures

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Explain the main ideas of cell theory

All living things are composed of cells. Cells are the basic unity of structure & function in living thingsAll cells come from pre-existing cells

Name three types of microscopes and the views possible with each

Light microscope (LM)

Can magnify objects up to 1000 times their actual size; View items about the size of a bacterium

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

Can study surface structure of cells

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

Can study internal structure of cells; View internal organelles

Describe the structure & function of cell membranes

Cell membranes isolate teams of enzymes, regulate transport of substances & maintain specific chemical environments. Composed of proteins & phospholipid. Tail is composed of 2 fatty acid chains that are hydrophobic; head is composed of phosphate group (PO4

-3) which is hydrophilic. At boundaries, forms phospholipid bilayer to surround organelle or cell. Head faces watery inside/outside; tails are tucked inside membrane.

Relate diffusion to equilibrium

Dye molecules are concentrated on one side of permeable membrane Dye molecules diffuse across membrane At equilibrium, movement continues but at the same rate in both directions. Concentration of dye is the same throughout the container.

Explain how active transport differs from passive transport

During active transport, specific transport proteins pump a solute across a membrane, usually in opposite direction to way it travels in diffusion (passive transport). This requires chemical energy and helps maintain concentrations of substances that are higher or lower than if the cell depended only on diffusion, controlling chemical environment. Passive transport requires no energy from the cell, only the random motion of molecules is required to move them across the membrane.

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Relate osmosis to solute concentration

Consider a sealed bag of concentrated sugar water placed in a container of less-concentrated sugar water. Only water can pass thru the bag. As a result of osmosis, water from a container (hypotonic solution) will diffuse across the membrane to the inside of the bag (hypertonic solution). In time, volume of water increases inside the bag. If bag is large enough, concentration of sugar will become same in water on either side of bag (isotonic solution).

What role does active transport play in cell function?

Active transport maintains concentrations of substances that are higher or lower than if the cell depended only on diffusion.

Describe how large molecules move across membranes

Exocytosis Vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane & empty their contents outside the cell

Endocytosis Materials outside the cell contact the plasma membrane, making an indentation; Vesicles bud inward from the indent

Cell Structure & Function: Group General Function + Organelle Specific Functions +Where found

Manufacture Ribosomes Manufacture proteins; Found suspended in cytoplasm OR attached to rough ER in plant & animal cells

Clean-up & Recycling

Lysosome Contain digestive enzymes to that can break down large molecules for nourishment, recycling & protection from dangerous bacteria; Found in plant & animal cells

Storage Vacuole Store undigested nutrients, pigments, poisons; Found in plant cells, almost exclusively

Energy Production

Chloroplasts Convert light energy into chemical energy; Found in plant cells ONLY

Mitochondria Releases energy from sugars (chemical energy) to form ATP; Found in both plant & animal cells

Processing & Transportation

Smooth ER Build lipid molecules; Found in both plant & animal cells

Rough ER Produce proteins – Some refined into enzymes; Found in both plant & animal cells

Golgi body Modifies, stores, & routes proteins to next destinations; Found in both plant & animal cells

Control Nucleus Contains DNA that directs the activities of the cell; Found in both plant & animal cells

Other

Microtubules/Microfilaments

Make up cytoskeleton; Microtub – Provide tracks for organelles to move along; Microfil – Enables cell to move & change shape; Found in both plant & animal cells

Flagella/CiliaFlagella – 1-2 long, thin whiplike structures, S-shaped motion; Cilia – Short structures, oar motion; Found on animal cells

CHAPTER

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Draw the ATP Cycle

ATP

Energy from food Energy from working cells

ADP + PO4-3

Compare & contrast breathing & cellular respiration

BreathingYou inhale to take in oxygenDiffuses from lining of lungs & into bloodstreamCarbon dioxide diffuses from blood across lining of lungsExhale

Cellular Respiration

Cell takes in oxygen & releases carbon dioxide Bloodstream delivers oxygen to cells & carries away carbon dioxide

Describe how “falling” electrons are a source of energy

Positively charged oxygen nucleus exerts an electrical pull on negatively charged electrons from other atoms. As electrons “fall” toward the oxygen nucleus, potential energy is released.

Explain the role of the electron transport chain in gradual energy release from energy stored in glucose

As high energy electrons from glucose are transferred from one electron carrier to another, a small amount of energy is released at each step.

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Interphase

Metabolic Processes

Cell increases: supply of proteins & number of organelles, Cell grows in size

G1 Cellular contents, excluding the chromosomes, are duplicated

S Each of the chromosomes (46, if a human) is duplicated by the cell

G2 The cell cycle double checks the duplicated chromosomes for errors, making repairs as needed; Cell prepares to divide

Mitosis

PurposeVery accurate way of distributing identical copies of large amount of genetic material to 2 daughter cells; REPAIR & GROWTH

G2 of Interphase Cell has duplicated its DNA, loosely packed as chromatin fibers; Nucleolus present

Prophase Chromatin fibers condense to individual chromosomes (pair of sister chromatids); Mitotic spindle forms from aster in cytoplasm

Prometaphase Nuclear envelope breaks down; Chromatids attach to microtubules @ kinetochore

Metaphase Chromosomes gather along metaphase plate; Mitotic spindle is fully formed – chromosomes attached to kinetochore microtubules

Anaphase Sister chromatids separate from partner=dtr chromosomes Move toward polesNonkinetochore microtubules push poles apart

Telophase/Cytokinesis

Chromosomes reach poles of spindle & prophase reversed / Cytoplasm divided into 2 dtr cells, each w/own nucleus

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Distinguish between Homologous Chromosomes & Sister Chromatids

HomologousChromosomes

MATCHING PAIR of chromosomes, one from Mother + one from Father—EACH Carries same sequence of genes controlling same inherited characteristics, but slight different versions of same genes

Sister Chromatids

DUPLICATED COPIES of single chromosome, attached to each other – BOTH contain exactly same forms of each gene

Define Karyotype Display of 46 chromosomes of an individualUnderstand Sex Chromosomes

Male 23rd pair ofchromosomes

XYFemale XX

Haploid CellsDefine Cells that contain SINGLE set of chromosomesNumber n, n=23 in humansFound where? Only egg & sperm or gametes

Diploid CellsDefine Cells that contain TWO homologous sets of chromosomesNumber 2n, 2n=46 in humansFound where? Produced following fertilization, sustained through mitosis

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Meiosis I

Interphase Cell duplicates DNA; Each chromosome = 2 identical sister chromatids

Prophase I Homologous chromosomes stick together to form tetrads; Tetrads attach to spindle; Crossover can occur here

Metaphase I Tetrads move to middle of cell & line up across the spindleAnaphase I Homologous chromosomes separate as migrate to opposite poles of

spindle; Sister chromatids migrate togetherTelophase I Chromosomes arrive at poles; Each pole has haploid dtr nucleus; Each

chromosome consists of 2 sister chromatidsCytokinesis I Forms 2 haploid dtr cells; Chromosomes in each still duplicated

Meiosis II

Prophase II In haploid dtr cells, spindle forms & begins to move individual chromosomes to middle of cell

Metaphase II Chromosomes line up in middle of cell w/kinetochore microtubules attached to each sister chromatid

Anaphase II Sister chromatids separate & move to opposite ends of cellTelophase II Chromatids considered individual chromosomes; Chromatids arrive at

polesCytokinesis II Splits cells (cytoplasm & nucleus); Meiosis is complete; Forms 4

haploid dtr cellsProphase II In haploid dtr cells, spindle forms & begins to move individual

chromosomes to middle of cell

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Describe the steps of the Knee-Jerk Reflex

When the knee is tapped, sensory receptors detect a stretch in the quadriceps muscle. Sensory neurons in the PNS convey this information to the CNS.In the CNS – in this case the spinal cord – sensory neurons transmit signals to both motor neurons & interneuronsMotor neurons signal the quadriceps to contract.Interneurons block motor neurons from signaling the opposite muscle to contract.The lower leg jerks forward

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Divisions of Nervous SystemCentral

Nervous SystemPeripheral

Nervous SystemOrgans/Structures:

BrainSpinal cord

SensoryDivision

MotorDivision

ExternalEnvironment

InternalEnvironment

AutonomicNervous system

SomaticNervous system

Responsibilities of Somatic Nervous System

Carries signals from CNS to skeletal muscles; Actions controlled by SomNS = mostly voluntary

Responsibilities of Autonomic Nervous System

Carries signals to organs; Actions controlled by AutoNS = mostly involuntarySympathetic Division

Makes more energy available for intense activity & slows digestion; “Fight or flight”

Parasympathetic Division

Calms the body & returns to regular maintenance functions; “Rest & digest”

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Four Stages of Food Processing

IngestionSee Term DefinitionsDigestion

AbsorptionElimination

Passage of Food

Mouth Ingestion: Mechanical digestion (teeth & tongue) & chemical digestion (saliva); Food Bolus

Pharynx Ingestion / Digestion: Food pushed from mouth here; Cartilage flap (epiglottis) covers trachea to prevent food from entering lung

Esophagus Digestion: Peristalsis pushes food thru; Voluntary at top (striated muscles) & involuntary remainder (smooth muscles)

StomachDigestion: Gastric juice (mucus + hydrochloric acid + enzymes) converts boluschyme; Churn chime (peristalsis) & forces into small intestine

Small Intestine

Digestion / Absorption: 1st section (duodenum) Chyme + bile prevents fat from clumping & (Chyme + bile) + Pancreatic juice neutralizes acid, breaks down carbs/proteins/lipids to complete chemical digestion; Final section w/villi increase surface area & facilitate absorption of nutrients into circulation & lymphatic systems; Peristalsis moves

Liver Digestion: Largest organ; Gall bladder attached hereGall

bladderDigestion: Bile production

Pancreas Digestion: Pancreatic juice & insulin productionLarge

intestineAbsorption / Elimination: Reabsorb water; Peristalsis moves undigested material thru large intestine

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Know path of blood thru heart, including where blood carries oxygen or not

MUST BE ABLE TO START FROM ANY POINT.Pulmonary circuit: Oxygen-depleted blood travels from right side of heart thru

pulmonary arteriesLungsIn lungs, blood picks up O2 & releases CO2CO2 is exhaledOxygen-rich blood is carried by pulmonary veins to left side of heart

Systemic Circuit: Oxygen-rich blood travels from left side of heart thru aortaBranching arteriesCapillariesO2 diffuses out of blood to cells & CO2

diffuses into bloodOxygen-depleted blood returns to right side of heart thru superior vena cava (upper body) & inferior vena cava (lower body)

Describe the pathway of air beginning with the intake of air and ending at the alveoli

Air enters the nose or mouth, travels into the pharynx, passes the epiglottis and the larynx, travels down the trachea until it forks into bronchi, enters the lungs and move through finer & finer bronchioles until it reaches alveoli at the end of the bronchioles

Describe the process of inhalation & exhalation

When the diaphragm & muscles of the rig cage expand the chest cavity, air pressure in the lungs becomes lower than the outside air pressure. Air rushes in & fills the alveoli. Diaphragm & rib muscles relax, decreasing lung volume and causing higher pressure in the alveoli and air rushes out.

How is breathing controlled?

Involuntarily by the medulla oblongata reacting to dissolved CO2 in the blood, which stimulates the diaphragm and rib muscles to contract. Can be temporarily controlled voluntarily.

Cumulative Diagrams to Know5 How Enzymes Work

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Distinguish Osmosis in Plants & Animal Cells

HYPER: > concentration of particles in solution than in cell; Plasma membrane pulls away from cell wall

ISO: = concentration of particles in solution & cell; Plant wilts

HYPO: < concentration of particles in solution than in cell; Best for plant! Firm when cell is bathed in rainwater

ISO: = concentration of particles in solution & cell; Best for animal!

HYPER: > concentration of particles in solution than in cell; Cells die

HYPO: < concentration of particles in solution than in cell; Cells burst

7 Label Steps of Glycolysis + Location

7 Label Steps of Krebs’ Cycle + Location in Mitochondria

7 Label Steps of Electron Transport Chain / ATP Synthase + Location in Mitochondria

7 Label Steps of Alcoholic Fermentation

7 Labels Steps of Lactic Acid Fermentation

Know Six Types of Inheritance + Types of Problems

Basic Mendelian Genetics

Any of the inheritance covered by monohybrid crosses, dihybrid crosses, or test crossesUses Capital letters to denote dominance, lowercase letters to denote recessive

Intermediate Inheritance

Heterozygote shows a BLEND of the two homozygotes (THINK: Red + Yellow = Orange)Uses base letters and superscripts

CodominanceHeterozygote shows BOTH homozygous traits in one organism (THINK: White + Blue = White with Blue streaks)Uses base letters and superscripts

Multiple Alleles

In a gene, several alleles exist in a population; Two may be dominant to the third, but those two may be codominant to one another; For our purposes, this will usually result in 3-4 phenotypes (with 1-2 genotypes possible per phenotype)Uses base letters and superscripts

Polygenic Inheritance

Two or more genes (with their own alleles) affect a single characteristic; Usually yields a great variety of phenotypes; For our purposes, this will usually result in >4 phenotypesTypically uses Basic Mendelian Genetics format; Heterozygote of one characteristic can denote degree of the other characteristic

Sex-linked Traits

Traits are carried only on X chromosomes; Female must carry two recessive alleles to express recessive phenotype while Male must carry only one

Uses X + allele superscript and X + alleles superscript for female, and X + alleles superscript and Y + allele superscript for male

Contrast Blending Hypothesis & Intermediate Inheritance