Florin Leon - Advanced Methods in Artificial Intelligence: Agents, Optimization and Machine Learning

7/26/2019 Florin Leon - Advanced Methods in Artificial Intelligence: Agents, Optimization and Machine Learning

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Gdarno Deao

Jhvjo`eh Ketbahs no Jrtngn`njd

Noteddnieo`e= Jieots, Aptnknzjtnao

joh Kj`bnoe Dejronoi

Bjlndntjtnao Xbesns

Kjr`b


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Xjlde ag @aoteots

Pukkjry ............................................................................................................. 5

\ezukjt .............................................................................................................. >

Vjrt N. P`neotngn` J`bnevekeots

@bjpter :. Kudtnjieot Pysteks wntb Ekerieot Lebjvnaur:.:. Kudtnjieot \ade Jdda`jtnao ................................................................... :5

:.


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@bjpter 8. Jppdn`jtnaos ag Kj`bnoe Dejronoi Ketbahs

8.:. Vrehn`tnao ag Dnqunh-@rystjddnoe Vrapertnes ............................... :::

8.


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Jhvjoèh Ketbahs no Jrtngn`njd Noteddnieoè= Jieots, Aptnknzjtnao joh Kj`bnoe Dejronoi

7

hnggereot types ag jieots. Xbey use oeurjd oetwarcs ta sadve exterojdpraldeks inveo ly tbe user, lut tbey `jo jdsa lundh tbenr awo noterojdpraldeks aut ag tbenr experneoè no arher ta no`rejse tbenr pergarkjoè.

Hue ta tbe reèot resejr`b jhvjoès no qujotuk àkputnoi, nhejs

grak tbns gnedh bjve leeo no`rejsnoidy useh js j saurè ag nospnrjtnao garoew evadutnaojry jdiarntbks. Xwa vjrnjots ag qujotuk-nospnrehevadutnaojry jdiarntbks jre prapaseh, `bjrj`ternzeh ly j stejhy stjte kahed(papudjtnao-ljseh edntnsk), j repjnrnoi praèhure ta ceep jdd tbe nohnvnhujdsgejsnlde joh jo evadutnaojry bndd-`dnklnoi pbjse kejot ta gurtber nkpravetbe qujdnty ag tbe sadutnao. Xbe gnrst aoe uses lnojry eoàhnoi joh tbeseàoh aoe uses rejd-vjdueh eoàhnoi. Xbese jdiarntbks jre jppdneh garsadvnoi kudtn-jttrnlute àklnojtarnjd ju`tnao praldeks joh gar gnohnoi oejr-aptnkjd autàkes ag kudtn-nssue kudtn-djterjd oeiatnjtnao no kudtnjieot

systeks.Joatber àotrnlutnao ns tbe jppdn`jtnao ag `djssngn`jtnao ketbahs ta

`bekn`jd eoinoeernoi praldeks. Aoe exjkpde ns tbe prehn`tnao ag tbe dnqunh`rystjddnoe praperty ag àkpauohs, usnoi ketbahs su`b js oeurjd oetwarcs,he`nsnao trees, nostjoè-ljseh te`bonques et`. Xbe lest resudts jre altjnoehwntb jo arninojd jdiarntbk, Oao-Oesteh Ieoerjdnzeh Exekpdjrs wntbVratatypes, OOIEV.

Xbe `djssngn`jtnao jdiarntbks jre jdsa jppdneh gar


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Pukkjry

9

Oeurjd oetwarcs `jo bjohde kudtnpde autputs àrrespaohnoi takudtnalme`tnve aptnknzjtnao praldeks. Xbe Oao-haknojteh Partnoi Ieoetn`Jdiarntbk, OPIJ-NN, ns jhjpteh wntb jdterojtnve ketrn`s su`b js tbe setàverjie ketrn` joh tbe spj`noi ketrn` no arher ta no`rejse tbe sadutnao

hnversnty.J stj`ceh oeurjd oetwarc ns hesnioeh usnoi jo evadutnaojry byper-beurnstn`, `jddeh OPIJ-NN-ZOPOO, ljseh ao tbe OPIJ-NN jdiarntbk js jidaljd aptnknzjtnao ketbah joh noàrparjtnoi j Zujsn-Oewtao jdiarntbk jsj da`jd aptnknzjtnao ketbah gar trjnonoi tbe oeurjd oetwarcs ag tbe stj`c.Xbe resudts prave ta le very iaah oat aody no terks ag j`ùrj`y, lut jdsa noterks ag stru`turjd àkpdexnty ag tbe stj`cs.


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>

\ezukjt

Xezj he jlndntjre n prapuoe s preznote a sede`ne j rezudtjtedar heèrètjre alnoute o hakeonud notednieoen jrtngn`njde, deijte o prno`npjd hejieon notednieon, snsteke kudtn-jieot, ketahe he aptnknzjre n he ovjrejutakjt.

o èej è prnvete jda`jrej radurndar o snsteke kudtn-jieot, se

prapuoe a ketah prno `jre jieonn se pat juta-arijonzj pe ljzjkahngn`rndar o utndntnde dar nohnvnhujde. Jieonn ju pregernoe hngernteregerntajre dj `jrj`ternstn`nde sjr`nondar pe `jre de prnkes`, njràkpartjkeotud dar jhjptnv se ljzejz pe tearnj hnsaojoen àiontnve hnopsnbadaine, o `jre uo jieot `jre du`rejz dj a sjr`no peotru `jre kjongesta pregerno s`zut n kluotete treptjt jtntuhnoej gj he jèjstj. Pejrjt ` a praprnetjte ekerieot j snstekudun este `reterej prahu`tnvntnntatjde.

A jdt sntujne o `jre uo snstek kudtn-jieot kjongest uoàkpartjkeot ekerieot este hekaostrjt prno prane`tjrej uoun prataàd henoterj`nuon peotru jda`jrej sjr`nondar he du`ru, `jre àohuè dj garkjrej hereede sa`njde. Jieonn n pat kluotn `jpj`ntjtej he rezadvjre prnoovjre n pat àdjlarj ù jdn jieon jtuo`n òh suot àogruotjn ù sjr`nonkjn hngn`nde. Oukrud kehnu he àoexnuon n resurse jde jieondar urkejz ahnstrnlune he tnp deie he putere.

He jsekeoej, se prapuo a serne he reiudn snkpde he noterj`nuoe `jrepat ieoerj àkpartjkeote idaljde ù hngernte onvedurn he àkpdexntjte, he dj

jsnkptatn` stjlnd dj bjatn`. Pe jrjt ` perturljnn gajrte kn`n pat jvej uonkpj`t kjre jsuprj evadunen snstekudun n suot novestnijte uoede ketahe heàotrad jd jèstar perturljnn o sàpud he j jvej a stjre gnojd harnt.

A jdt àotrnlune o sulhakeonnde pdjongn`rnn n ovrnn este aketah `jre no`duhe a gjz he ovjre o pdjoud praprnu-zns, jstged o`tjieotud pajte reùoajte hnojkn` preàohnnnde uoen j`nuon jtuo`n òhstrnde ou suot heterknojte o tatjdntjte n n pajte jdeie hnre`t j`nuonde peljzj rezudtjtedar he ovjre.

Este notrahus oanuoej he jtrj`tar he strn, `jre perknte jieondar s

n `jdùdeze j`nuonde o guo`ne he praxnkntjtej strnn ùreote gj he èd kjn


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jprapnjt jtrj`tar he strn. Jèjst tebon` este àosnherjt j gn a jlarhjrejdterojtnv peotru praldeke hngn`nde he ovjre ù otrnre kudtn-jieot.

Jvoh o vehere ovjrej jutaoak, se prapuoe uo snstek peotrurezadvjrej praldekedar he `djsngn`jre n reiresne, `jre no`duhe àoùreoj

otre hngernte tnpurn he jieon. Jètnj gadases` reede oeuraojde peotru jrezadvj praldeke exteroe, jtrnlunte he `tre utndnzjtar, hjr n pat àostrunpraprnnde dar praldeke noteroe, pe ljzj experneoen, o sàpud he j-n `retepergarkjoede.

Hjtarnt prairesedar reèote jde èrètrndar prnvnoh `jdùdud ùjotn`,nhen hno jèst hakeonu pat servn hrept surs he nospnrjne peotru oanjdiarntkn evadutnvn. Puot prapuse hau vjrnjote he jdiarntkn evadutnvn henospnrjne ùjotn`, `jrj`ternzjte prnotr-uo kahed he stjre he e`bndnlru(edntnsk dj onved he papudjne), a praèhur he repjrjre peotru j jsniurj

gezjlndntjtej tuturar nohnvnzndar n a gjz he ùtjre evadutnv he tnp irjhneotjsèoheot keont s kluotejs` supdnkeotjr `jdntjtej sadunen. Vrnkudgadasete àhjrej lnojr, njr jd handej gadasete àhjrej ù vjdarn rejde.Jètn jdiarntkn suot jpdn`jn peotru rezadvjrej uoar praldeke he dn`ntjneàklnojtarn` kudtn-jtrnlut n peotru j isn rezudtjte `vjsn-aptnke peotruoeia`nern kudtn-djterjde n kudtn-prahus o snsteke kudtn-jieot.

A jdt àotrnlune este jpdn`jrej ketahedar he `djsngn`jre peotrupraldeke he noinoerne `bnkn`. Uo exekpdu este prehn`nj praprnetnn he`rnstjd dn`bnh jd uoar àkpun gadasnoh ketahe preùk reede oeuraojde,jrlarn he he`nzne, tebon`n ljzjte pe nostjoe et`. @ede kjn luoe rezudtjte suotalnoute ù uo jdiarntk arninojd `jre àostrunete exekpdjre ieoerjdnzjteoesuprjpuse ù pratatnpurn, OOIEV.

Jdiarntknn he `djsngn`jre suot he jsekeoej jpdn`jn peotru`djsngn`jrej pdnernn pratenoedar o praldeke ù


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\ezukjt

::

Hngernte tnpurn he jdiarntkn evadutnvn preùk jdiarntknn ieoetn`n`djsn`n, evadunj hngereonjd stjohjrh n evadunj hngereonjd juta-jhjptnvsuot utndnzjte peotru j heterknoj jtt jrbnte`turj `t n pjrjketrnn noteron jnuoen reede oeuraojde `jre kahedejz jdte praèse `bnknè.

\eedede oeuraojde pat jvej kjn kudte nenrn `jre àrespuoh uoarpraldeke he aptnknzjre kudtn-alne`tnv. Jdiarntkud ieoetn` ù sartjreoehaknojt, OPIJ-NN, este jhjptjt ù ketrn`n jdterojtnve, preùk ketrn`jhe jàpernre j uoen kudnkn n ketrn`j he spjnere, o sàpud he j krnhnversntjtej sadunndar.

A reej oeuraojd stnv este prane`tjt gadasnoh a bnper-eurnstnèvadutnv, ouknt OPIJ-NN-ZOPOO, ljzjt pe jdiarntkud OPIJ-NN `jketah he aptnknzjre idaljd n no`duzoh uo jdiarntk `vjsn-Oewtao `j aketah he aptnknzjre da`jd peotru jotreojrej reededar oeuraojde è

àkpuo stnvj. \ezudtjtede se havehes` j gn gajrte luoe, ou oukjn hno puo`the vehere jd jùrjteen, `n n jd àkpdexntnn stru`turjde j stnvedar.


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P`neotngn` J`bnevekeots


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:5

@bjpter :

Kudtnjieot Pysteks wntbEkerieot Lebjvnaur

:.:. Kudtnjieot \ade Jdda`jtnao

@aarhnojtnao joh jutakjtn` jhaptnao ag rades jre nkpartjot nssues gar

kudtnjieot systeks. Agteo, àarhnojtnao ke`bjonsks jssuke hnre`t arnohnre`t àkkuon`jtnao ag tbe jieots pateotnjd no pergarknoi hnggereot tjscs.No tbns stuhy, tbns praldek ns jhhresseh grak j hnggereot perspe`tnve, lyusnoi oeiatnjtnao autàkes gar tbe jdda`jtnao ag tjscs hegnoeh ly jttrnlutes,wbere tbe praèss gaùses ao jieot utndnty guo`tnaos reijrhnoi tbesejttrnlutes, wntbaut jo expdn`nt trjosknssnao ag jieot pateotnjds.

\edjteh Yarc

Xbe jlndnty ag j kudtn-jieot systek ta hyojkn`jddy rearijonze nts stru`turejoh aperjtnao jt ruo-tnke ns bnibdy vjdujlde gar kjoy jppdn`jtnao hakjnos.Xberegare, jdda`jtnoi tjscs ta jieots no kudtn-jieot systeks ns j sniongn`jotresejr`b nssue.

\eèotdy, kjoy jppraj`bes bjve leeo prapaseh gar tjsc jdda`jtnao.Pake ag tbek use èotrjdnzeh ketbahs wbn`b jssuke tbjt tbere ns j èotrjdàotradder ta jssnio tjscs ta jieots (]beoi & Caeoni,


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:7

vjrnjtnaos ag tbns ketbah bjve leeo kare reèotdy prapaseh gar tbe àotradag uokjooeh spjè ar jernjd vebn`des (Dekjnre, Jdjkn & Dj`ranx,


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@bjpter :. Kudtnjieot Pysteks wntb Ekerieot Lebjvnaur

:9

wntb :)(6 6 ptpp .Ybeo àeggn`neot Jhe`rejses, tbe ejrdy pergarkjoè rjtes no`rejse,

lut tbe djte pergarkjoè rjtes he`rejse. Ybeo aody su`èssgud trnjds jreàosnhereh (J ; :), tbe dejronoi ùrve bjs j snikanh sbjpe, js sbawo no

gniure :.: (Denlawntz et jd., >, ; 6.6:

joh hnggereot vjdues ag J

Xbns kahed wjs jhapteh bere, tjcnoi nota j`àuot tbjt jt tbe

leinoonoi ag tbe dejronoi pernah, wbnde hnsàvernoi tbe ljsn` àoèpts, tbeeggart `jo le irejt, lut prairess ns sdaw. Ybeo eoauib coawdehie bjs leeoj`ùkudjteh, jt tbe knhhde ag tbe dejronoi ùrve, prairess leinos ta rjpnhdytjce pdjè. Jt tbe eoh ag tbe dejronoi ùrve, wbere expert coawdehieresnhes, prairess ns jijno sdaw, le`juse àkpdex kjtters kust le jhhresseh.

Hes`rnptnao ag tbe Vrapaseh Kahed

Xbe gaddawnoi sulse`tnaos (Deao,


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:2

deveds, ej`b wntbno j èrtjno hakjno. Det X le tbe set ag tjscs }{ ntX ,

Xk joh G tbe set ag jttrnlutes ar gejtures. Ej`b tjsc ns hegnoeh ly tbe

àkpdexnty deveds ag jdd tbe jttrnlutes=

}...,,{ : pn ``t , (:.8)

wntb pmH` mm ,...,:, joh G .

Jieots bjve àkpeteoè deveds mjd jssa`njteh wntb ej`b jttrnlute m,

wbn`b hes`rnle baw ku`b coawdehie jo jieot bjs reijrhnoi j pjrtnùdjrgejture ag j tjsc.

Gar exjkpde, no j sagtwjre nohustry eovnraokeot, jttrnlutes `jo

redjte ta tbe use ag hjtjljses, hevedapnoi irjpbn`jd user notergjès, arwarcnoi wntb spe`ngn` jdiarntbks. J prairjkknoi tjsc `jo àotjno su`bgejtures no vjrynoi heirees, wntb hnggereot àkpdexnty deveds. Jo jieotspe`njdnzeh ao hjtjljses bjs j bnib àkpeteoè deved gar tbe gnrst jttrnlute,joh tbus nt wndd bjve j irejter utndnty gar hjtjljse-redjteh tjscs (jdtbauibtbese tjscs kjy jdsa àotjno nssues redjteh ta tbe atber jttrnlutes, passnldywntb dawer àkpdexnty deveds). Bawever, ng tbe àkker`njd noterests ag tbeàkpjoy heterknoe tbjt atber types ag tjscs sbaudh le jhhresseh, tbe jieotwndd irjhujddy spe`njdnze no atber hevedapkeot jrejs.

Xbe àkpdexnty deveds reger ta aody j èrtjno kakeot no tbeevadutnao ag te`boadaiy. Js te`boadaiy evadves, aoe `jo àosnher tbjt tbeàkpeteoè deved ojturjddy he`rejses, uodess j persao ceeps up wntb nt lydejronoi.

Xbe kahed `jo jdsa jhhress tbe passnlde guo`tnaojd dnkntjtnaos ag tbejieots, n.e. oa kjtter baw ku`b jo jieot trnes ta leàke àkpeteot gar jèrtjno jttrnlute, nt `jooat su`èeh=

m

j

m

j

m

j d = . (:.5)

Nt ns jssukeh tbjt jo jieot bjs tbe irejtest utndnty wbeo tbeàkpdexnty deved ag jo jttrnlute m jppraxnkjtedy kjt`bes tbe àkpeteoèdeved ag tbe jieot ao tbjt jttrnlute. Xbe utndntnes ag tjscs jre ljseh ao tbevjdujtnao ag nohnvnhujd jttrnlutes tbe tjsc ns àkpaseh ag. Gar jo jieot

Jj joh j tjsc Xt =

p

m

mmjj ùtu

:

)()( , (:.7)


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:>

atberwnse,6

,:

,:

)( mjm

jm

m

jm

j

m

jm

m

jm

m

j

m

jm

j

m

m

j

m

m

j d`dd`

d`d`d

ù

. (:.9)

Xbe equjtnao gar tbe utndnty ag jo nohnvnhujd jttrnlute ns jhjpteh jgtertbe sbjpe ag j guzzy trnjoiudjr oukler wntb èotre mjd , degt wnhtb

mj joh

rnibt wnhtb mj . Xbus, jieots bjve oao-kaoataon` utndnty guo`tnaos.Xbe rejsao gar `baasnoi tbns cnoh ag utndnty guo`tnao ns tbe gaddawnoi.

Ng tbe tjsc ns taa ejsy, tbe jieot `jo sadve nt wntb oa praldeks, lut nt bjs oa`bjddeoie jssa`njteh wntb nt. Ng tbe tjsc ns taa àkpdex, tbe jieot wndd bjvehnggnùdty j`bnevnoi nt, jdtbauib nt bjs tbe `bjoè ta nkprave nts awoàkpeteoè deved.

Xbns jhjptnoi lebjvnaur ag tbe jieots ns raateh no tbe psy`badain`jdtbeary ag àiontnve hnssaojoè (Gestnoier, \ne`ceo & P`bj`bter, :>57),kejonoi tbjt jo jieot warcnoi no j daw-pregereoè (ar uopdejsjot) sntujtnaoirjhujddy nkpraves nts jttntuhe tawjrh nt, no arher ta rehuè tbe hns`repjo`y

(ar hnssaojoè) letweeo tbe rejdnty joh nts awo pjnogud perspe`tnve jlaut nt.Xbe utndnty ag jo jieot `jo jdsa hepeoh ao èrtjno àklnojtnaos agtjscs, e.i. jo jieot `jooat bjohde sake tjscs snkudtjoeausdy, ar tbenoterhepeoheo`nes ag severjd tjscs jgge`t nts utndnty=

),...,()( : sj ttgu , (:.2)

wbere }{)( X joh s .

Evadutnaojry Jppraj`b ta Heterknoe Oeiatnjtnao Autàkes

Jo evadutnaojry jppraj`b ns àosnhereh gar gnohnoi tbe oeiatnjtnaoautàkes tbjt jre usujddy ledneveh ta le gjnr ar hesnrjlde= tbe Ojsb sadutnaojoh tbe utndntjrnjo sadutnao.

DetRle j gnonte set ag pateotnjd jireekeots. No aur `jse Ràotjnosàklnojtnaos ag hnsmanot sets ag tjscs su`b tbjt jdd tbe tjscs jre jdda`jteh johej`b tjsc ns jdda`jteh ta exj`tdy aoe jieot=


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)

wbere )(XP joh ||Jo .Jo evadutnaojry jdiarntbk ns useh ta gnoh tbe hesnreh sadutnaos. Xbe

eoàhnoi tjces nota j`àuot tbe spe`ngn`nty ag tbe praldek, n.e. ej`b tjsckust jppejr aody aoè no j passnlde jdda`jtnao. Xberegare, j perkutjtnao-ljseh eoàhnoi ns useh. Xbe pjrtntnao ag tbe perkutjtnao letweeo hnggereotjieots ns hegnoeh ly :o noteier ieoes, wntb vjdues grak : ta :o .Xberegare, j bylrnh represeotjtnao ns useh= tbe gnrst ieoes ag tbe`brakasake jre tbe spdnt panots, joh tbe rest àotjnos tbe j`tujd perkutjtnaoag tjscs, js sbawo no gniure :.


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). Ao tbe atber bjoh, ng tbe jieot `aostjotdy


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26 passnlde jssniokeots no j tjscjdda`jtnao epa`b. Xbe tatjd oukler ag passnlde jssniokeots ns= ),(! okPo ,

wbere ons tbe oukler ag jieots, kns tbe oukler ag tjscs joh ),( okP ns tbe


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,6SmH .

Xbe utndnty guo`tnaos jre inveo js su`b js tbe gnrst twa jieots nontnjddyàkpete aver tbe sjke type ag tjscs, joh tbe tbnrh jieot bjs hnggereot

pregereoès.

Gniure :.8. Xbe dejronoi ùrve useh ly tbe jieots

Xbe dejronoi ùrve useh ly tbe jieots ns j pjrtnùdjrnzjtnao agequjtnao :.:6, wbere : joh 5.8 , sa tbjt tbe ùrve sbaudh lepasntnaoeh sykketrn`jddy nota tbe hegnontnao hakjno ag tbe tjsc jttrnlutes, jssbawo no gniure :.8.

Xjlde :.:.Xbe jttrnlute vjdues ag tjscs (`jse :)

Xjsc oa. Jttrnlute vjdues

: 9 8 : > :

< 0 2 8 < 6

0 9 6 6 5 0

8 < 9 < 9 6

5 6 0 0 9 2

7 2 7 > 6 7

9 > > : 6 0

2 2 7 9 7 6

> 6 < < 8 >

:6 5 6 8 0 8

Atber pjrjketers useh jre tbe gaddawnoi= :.6 , 66:.6 ,:6 tbe papudjtnao snze ag tbe evadutnaojry jdiarntbk ns 56, joh tbe

oukler ag ieoerjtnaos gar ej`b tjsc jdda`jtnao epa`b ns


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. Xbe hnggereoè letweeo tbe twa gniures ns tbe garkudj garàkputnoi tbe tatjd hurjtnao ag j tjsc, usnoi entber equjtnao :.:0 ar :.:8.

Aoe nkpartjot tbnoi ta uoherdnoe ns tbjt tbe systek prahu`tnvnty

àoveries ta snkndjr vjdues latb wbeo usnoi tbe Ojsb sadutnao joh tbeutndntjrnjo sadutnao. Xbe gdu`tujtnaos no jieot utndntnes aver tbe dejronoi trnjdsjre regde`teh no tbe systek prahu`tnvnty. Pnoè ly usnoi tbe kjx guo`tnaonostejh agsuk ta àkpase tbe jttrnlute hurjtnaos nota tbe tjsc hurjtnao tbeàostrjnots no`rejse, tbere jre kare evnheot gdu`tujtnaos no gniure :.> tbjo nogniure :.2.

Gniure :.2.Xbe evadutnao ag systek prahu`tnvntywbeo tjsc hurjtnao gaddaws equjtnao :.:0

Gniure :.>.Xbe evadutnao ag systek prahu`tnvnty

wbeo tjsc hurjtnao gaddaws equjtnao :.:8

Xbe gaddawnoi sèojrna ns useh ta sbaw tbe lebjvnaur ag tbe systek

wbeo guo`tnaojd dnkntjtnaos jre no pdjè= we nkpase j dnkntjtnao 8:: , n.e.


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sejr`b spjè ns buie, lut tbe evadutnaojry jdiarntbk `jo le jppdneh no jstrjnibtgarwjrh kjooer, wbnde jddawnoi kare nohnvnhujds (:66) johieoerjtnaos (:666), jt tbe expeose ag j irejter àkputnoi tnke. Xberegare,tbe kahed `jo ejsndy s`jde ta joy (rejsaojlde) oukler ag jieots joh tjscs.

Ybeo hejdnoi wntb kare jieots, nt `jo le seeo tbjt tbe gdu`tujtnaosjre rehuèh, js tbere jre gjr kare passnlndntnes ta j`bneve j iaah jdda`jtnaohejd. Ybeo tbe oukler ag jieots ns skjdd, tbe nontnjd vjrnjtnao ns karejppjreot, js jieots qun`cdy sbngt grak aoe rade ta joatber. Js stjteh legare,tbe hnggereoè letweeo tbe Ojsb joh tbe utndntjrnjo sadutnao jdsa regde`t notbe averjdd systek prahu`tnvnty àoverinoi ta sdnibtdy hnggereot vjdues.

Gniure :.::.Xbe evadutnao ag systek prahu`tnvntygar :66 jieots joh :666 tjscs

Xbe no`rejse joh stjlndnzjtnao ag tatjd prahu`tnvnty ns jo ekerieotpraperty ag tbe systek, le`juse tbe expdn`nt jnk ag tbe jieots ns ta jhjpt johkjxnknze tbenr awo nohnvnhujd utndntnes, oat ta sadve tjscs kare qun`cdy. Xbesbjpe ag tbe prahu`tnvnty evadutnao guo`tnao ns very snkndjr ta tbjt agprahu`tnvnty evadutnao kejsureh no j`tujd bukjo warcnoi eovnraokeots, jssbawo gar exjkpde ly (Mavjoavn` & Oyjrca, :>>5).

:.


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retjnonoi tbe sbart jverjie pjtb deoitbs `bjrj`ternstn` ag (Erhs & \oyn,:>5>) kahed.

J wedd-coawo exjkpde ns tbe sa-`jddeh snx heirees ag sepjrjtnaono sa`njd oetwarcs (Kndirjk, :>79). Joatber ns tbe s`jde-gree praperty ag

kjoy su`b oetwarcs, n.e. tbe praljlndnty hnstrnlutnao ag tbe oukler ag dnocsper oaheV(c) sjtnsgnes j pawer djw ccV ~)( wntb tbe heiree expaoeot no tbe rjoie 0< (Jdlert, Meaoi & Ljrjlsn, :>>>). Xbe Yardh-Ynhe-Yel oetwarc bjs leeo sbawo ta le j s`jde-gree irjpb (Jdlert & Ljrjlsn,


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Ng tbe àkpdexnty deved ag j tjsc jttrnlute ns irejter ly : tbjo tbeàrrespaohnoi àkpeteoè deved, tbeo tbe jieot `jo dejro no arher ta rej`btbe praper deved. Xbere jre twa prerequnsntes. Gnrst, ej`b jieot bjs jonohnvnhujd wnddnoioess ta dejro . Xbe praljlndnty ta

pjss grak j àkpeteoè deved ta joatber ns inveo ly tbe gaddawnoipraljlndnty=

mjdd

j

d

j YV . (:.5.6djY , tbe praljlndnty ta ia grak deved : ta deved < ns 6.>5,wbnde tbe praljlndnty ta ia grak deved > ta deved :6 ns 6.70.

Peàohdy, j pjykeot ns requnreh ag tbe jieot gar tbe dejronoi step=

.Ng tbe jieot ns uojlde ta sadve j tjsc ly ntsedg, nt seecs atber jieots tasadve tbe pjrts ag tbe tjsc nt `jooat bjohde ly ntsedg.

Noterj`tnao Vrataàd joh Pa`njd Oetwarc Garkjtnao

Xbe eovnraokeot rjohakdy hnstrnlutes j oukler ag tjscs gewer tbjo tbeoukler ag jieots no tbe systek= JX . Pnoè sake jieots wndd le jlde ta

sadve tbenr tjscs, entber nohnvnhujddy ar àaperjtnvedy, wbnde atbers wndd oat,no tbe sulsequeot epa`bs, tjscs wndd le inveo pregereotnjddy ta jieots tbjtprevnausdy su`èeheh kare. Xbus, ej`b jieot bjs j praljlndnty ta sadvetjscs, hegnoeh js=

r

j

s

js

jX

XV , (:.


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sejr`b queue jgter tbe nkkehnjte grneohs. Pejr`b ns pergarkeh wntbautjddawnoi jieots ta le vnsnteh twnè no arher ta jvanh nognonte daaps.

Every tnke jo jieot ns oat jlde ta sadve tbe arninojtars tjsc entberhnre`tdy ar ly dejronoi, nts awo grneohs jre jhheh ta tbe sejr`b queue. No tbns

wjy, tbe eotnre irjpb ns udtnkjtedy expdareh, joh tbe `dasest jieots jrejdwjys sede`teh ta sadve tbe tjscs, snoè lrejhtb-gnrst sejr`b ns àkpdete johaptnkjd. Ye nioare tbe expaoeotnjd kekary requnrekeots ag tbe jdiarntbk,le`juse we àosnher tbjt tbns jspe`t ns nrredevjot ta aur stuhy3 tbe irjpbntsedg bjs qunte j skjdd heptb, snkndjr ta tbe oetwarcs tbjt exbnlnt tbe skjddwardh pbeoakeoao.

Aoè jo jieot ns gauoh wbn`b `jo sadve aoe ar kare jttrnlutes ag jtjsc, joh aody wbeo tbe wbade arninojtars tjsc `jo le sadveh, tbe jieots aotbe pjtb grak tbe arninojtar ta tbe sadver jre sequeotnjddy àooe`teh. Gnojddy,

tbe arninojtar joh tbe sadver jre hnre`tdy àooe`teh.Peverjd jspe`ts kust le uoherdnoeh= tbere ns oa dnkntjtnao ta tbe

oukler ag tjscs jo jieot `jo sadve no aoe rauoh. Nt kjy bjve aody aoenohnvnhujddy jssnioeh tjsc, lut severjd tjsc jttrnlutes reènveh jssulàotrj`tnoi. Xbe arninojtar jieot ureènves j àkknssnao rjte gar tbesulàotrj`teh tjsc jttrnlutes, joh tbe sadver jieot vreènves tbe rest=

m

muu `K


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@jse Ptuhnes= Vjrjketer Nogdueoè ao Pystek Lebjvnaur

No tbns se`tnao, tbe resudts ag sake snkudjtnaos jre preseoteh, wbn`bnddustrjte tbe lebjvnaur ag tbe kudtnjieot systek. Ye gaùs ao tbe àkkao

pjtteros tbjt ekerie grak tbe sa`njd oetwarc `rejteh ly tbe systek noexeùtnao, wbnde vjrynoi sake ag tbe pjrjketers ag tbe snkudjtnao.Gar jdd tbe `jse stuhnes, tbe gaddawnoi pjrjketers rekjno uo`bjoieh.

Xbe nontnjd jkauot ag kaoey jvjndjlde ta tbe jieots :666 . Xbe dnkntsag tbe wnddnoioess ta dejro jre= >.6knoY joh :kjxY . Xbe oukler ag

epa`bs wbnde j àooe`tnao ns j`tnve jgter lenoi `rejteh ns 5X . Xbekjxnkuk oukler ag epa`bs wbnde jo jieot `jo ceep j tjsc wntbaut lenoijlde ta sadve nt ns 0@ . Xbe tatjd oukler ag tjscs hnstrnluteh hurnoi every

epa`b ns


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kjxnkuk `akpdexnty deved rekjnos `aostjot tbrauibaut tbe

snkudjtnao. Js nt `jo le seeo, tbe oukler ag jieots ns 866, jrrjoieh ao jirnh ag snze


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Gniure :.:0 sbaws tbe stjtus ag tbe kudtnjieot systek jgter :66epa`bs, wntb tbe sjke pjrjketers, wbeo tbe oukler ag jieots vjrnes (:66,


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jgter 566 epa`bs, lut no j hnggereot, kastdy oeniblaur-ljseh àogniurjtnao,le`juse nt leàkes no`rejsnoidy dncedy tbjt j àkpeteot jieot wndd le gauohno tbe pbysn`jd oeniblaurbaah ag jo jieot.

Gniure :.:5.Xbe evadutnao ag tbe sa`njd oetwarc jgter :66, 056 joh 566 epa`bs

wbeo tbe eovnraokeot ns stjtn` joh tbe perturljtnao rjte \ ; 6.5

No tbe gaddawnoi, we wndd jojdyze sake ag tbe stjtnstn`jd prapertnes agtbe kudtnjieot systek, tjcnoi nota j`àuot tbe wjy no wbn`b tbe jverjieoukler ag àooe`tnaos, tbe jverjie wejdtb, joh tbe jverjie àkpeteoèdeveds ag tbe jieots vjry hurnoi 566 epa`bs ag tbe snkudjtnao.

No gniure :.:7, tbe evadutnao ag tbe jverjie oukler ag àooe`tnaos nshnspdjyeh, wbeo tbe type ag eovnraokeot joh tbe type ag tjsc jttrnluteieoerjtnao hnggers= evadvnoi (hyojkn`) ar oao-evadvnoi (stjtn`) gar tbegarker, joh pawer djw ar uongark hnstrnlutnao gar tbe djtter. Xbe sbjpe agtbe guo`tnao ns snkndjr no jdd gaur `jses, wntb j sbjrp no`rejse tawjrh tbeleinoonoi ag tbe snkudjtnao. Js nt wjs sbawo jlave, tbe uongarkhnstrnlutnao hedjys tbe garkjtnao ag tbe kjxnkuk snzeh oetwarc, bawever,wbeo tbe oetwarc ns garkeh, nt bjs j irejter oukler ag àooe`tnaos. Js tbesystek àoveries, tbe jverjie oukler ag àooe`tnaos no tbe evadvnoisettnoi ns irejter tbjo gar tbe pawer djw hnstrnlutnao. Jdsa, gar tbe oao-


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evadvnoi `jse, tbe jverjie oukler ag àooe`tnaos he`rejses kare qun`cdy

tbjo no tbe pawer djw hnstrnlutnao sèojrna.

Gniure :.:7. Xbe evadutnao ag tbe jverjie oukler ag àooe`tnaos

Xbese jverjie vjdues sbaw tbjt aody j gew jieots bjve j irejt

oukler ag àooe`tnaos, wbnde kast ag tbe jieots bjve aoe ar oa j`tnve

àooe`tnaos jt jdd. No gj`t, tbe bnstairjk ag tbe oukler ag jieots bjvnoi j

èrtjno oukler ag àooe`tnaos revejd j pawer djw hnstrnlutnao, js sbawo no

gniure :.:9. Xbe arhnojte jxns (tbe oukler ag jieots) bjs j daijrntbkn`

s`jde. Xbe jls`nse jxns sbaws tbe gnve equjd snze notervjds rjoinoi grak 6 ta

tbe kjxnkuk oukler ag àooe`tnaos.

Gniure :.:9. Vawer djw hnstrnlutnao ag tbe oukler ag àooe`tnaos

\eijrhnoi tbe evadutnao ag tbe jverjie àkpeteoè deveds, gniure

:.:2 hnspdjys j typn`jd sntujtnao. Nt ns nkpartjot ta oate tbjt tbe sbjpe ag tbnsguo`tnao ns jppraxnkjtedy tbe sjke no jdd sèojrnas.

:

:6

:66

:666

: < 0 8 5


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Gniure :.:2. Xbe evadutnao ag jverjie àkpeteoè deveds

Jo noterestnoi gj`t wjs alserveh, tbjt tbe wnddnoioess ta dejro djY

ns oat `ru`njd ta leàke j tap jieot. Xbere jre lest jieots wntb tbe

irejtest àkpeteoè deveds joh tbe kast kaoey, wbn`b ha oat bjve :djY ,

lut eveo j vjdue `dase ta knoY . Nt seeks tbjt tbe kast nkpartjot gj`t ns tbe

oukler ag appartuontnes ta dejro (ly reènvnoi tjscs hnre`tdy ar nohnre`tdy,

grak atber jieots no nts sa`njd oetwarc), wbn`b garès tbe jieot ta eveotujddy

dejro joh leàke tbe kast àkpeteot.\eijrhnoi tbe jverjie wejdtb ag tbe jieots, wbn`b resudts grak tbe

kaoetjry pjykeots gar sadvnoi tjscs, j snkndjr hnstrnlutnao ns eoàuotereh=

tbere ns aoe (ar very gew jieots) ao tap, wntb j djrie jkauot ag kaoey, joh

kast jieots jre ao tbe lattak ag tbe s`jde. Pnoè jdd tbe jieots stjrt wntb jo

equjd wejdtb, jt sake panot no tbe snkudjtnao tbe rjtna reverses, j

pbeoakeoao hnspdjyeh no gniures :.:> joh :.), tbjowbeo tbe àkknssnao >5.6 (gniure :.


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Gniure :.:>. Xbe `bjoie bnstairjk ag tbe jverjie wejdtb

wntb j àkknssnao rjte ; 6.:

Gniure :.5

Nt ns nkpartjot ta oate tbjt tbese gniures sbaw aody redjtnve vjdues.Xbe jlsadute vjdue ag tbe kaoey j`tujddy no`rejses gar jdd tbe jieots

novadveh.

Gnojddy, we jojdyze tbe eggn`neo`y ag tbe averjdd tjsc jdda`jtnao

systek, hegnoeh js tbe jverjie praljlndnty ta sadve tjscs sjV ag jdd tbe jieots

no tbe systek.

No gniure :. :6 :: :< :0 :8 :5 :7 :9

N:

N5)=

Oaodnoejrnty= Inveo tbe oaodnoejrnty `juseh ly tbe knonkuk

tbresbadh gar resaurè ex`bjoie, tbe systek `jo le vneweh js jbylrnh aoe, wntb trjosntnaos letweeo hnggereot wjys ag aperjtnao.

Jdsa, tbe kjxnkuk ag tbe sa`njd autàke `jo `bjoie, tbus jo jieot

`jo noterj`t wntb hnggereot oeniblaurs, wbn`b resudts no hnggereot

pragnts joh gurtber `bjoies ta tbe sa`njd autàkes3

Heterknonsk= Jpjrt grak tbe rjohak nontnjdnzjtnao ag tbe jieot

pjrjketers (wbn`b oevertbedess `jo le àotraddeh ly usnoi tbe sjke

seeh gar tbe rjohak oukler ieoerjtar), jdd tbe noterj`tnao rudes jre

heterknonstn`3

Peosntnvnty ta nontnjd àohntnaos= Js we wndd djter sbaw no tbe

expernkeotjd stuhy, very skjdd `bjoies no tbe nontnjd stjte ag tbe

systek `jo dejh ta j rjhn`jddy hnggereot gnojd stjte3

Pustjnoeh nrreiudjrnty joh kastdy nkpassnlde daoi-terk prehn`tnaos=Xbese jre jdsa `bjrj`ternstn` ag alserveh lebjvnaurs.

\eijrhnoi tbe egge`t ag skjdd perturljtnaos, wbn`b no ieoerjd `jo le

useh ta àotrad j `bjatn` systek, aut ag kjoy ruos uoher hnggereot

àogniurjtnaos, we oatnèh tbjt j perturljtnao `jo jgge`t tbe averjdd systeklebjvnaur no kare wjys=

Oa egge`twntbno j prehegnoeh tnke barnzao= hepeohnoi ao tbe jieotpasntnaos, tbe systek stjte joh tbe pdjè wbere tbe perturljtnao

a`ùrs, sake `bjoies `jo bjve oa egge`t jt jdd3

J tekparjry egge`t wbn`b ns djter `joèddeh aut wntbno tbe tnkebarnzao3

J perkjoeot egge`t wbn`b regde`ts no tbe gnojd stjte ag tbe systek,

wntbno tbe prehegnoeh tnke barnzao.


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Gniure :.


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Ye `jo kjce j pjrjdded letweeo tbese cnohs ag egge`ts joh tbe

`banès we kjce no everyhjy dnge. Aut ag tbe kjoy jdterojtnves tbjt we

bjve, j hnggereot `banè `jo bjve oa egge`t ar saketnkes we kjy oat coaw

tbjt saketbnoi ns hnggereot uotnd j djter tnke wbeo tbe hnggereot `banè

leàkes redevjot. Atber tnkes, j hnggereot `banè nkpj`ts aur eovnraokeotnkkehnjtedy. Eveo ng saketbnoi `bjoies, tbe averjdd eovnraokeot `jo

eveotujddy rehuè tbe perturljtnao, ar tbe systek `jo taiide ta j wbade

hnggereot stjte nohegnontedy. Jdd tbese cnohs ag lebjvnaurs bjve leeo

alserveh no tbe hesnioeh kudtnjieot systek.

Ye `jo kejsure tbe heiree ag `bjas notrahuèh ly j perturljtnao ly

àosnhernoi tbe hnggereoè letweeo tbe `bjoieh systek joh tbe arninojd

systek js j tnke sernes, joh àkputnoi tbe djriest Dyjpuoav expaoeot

(DDE) ag tbe vjrnjtnao no jo jieot utndnty. Ljsn`jddy, DDE hes`rnles tbe

prehn`tjlndnty ag j hyojkn`jd systek. J pasntnve vjdue usujddy nohn`jtes tbjttbe systek ns `bjatn` (\atbkjo, 25), wbn`b àkpute tbe DDE grak tbe autput ag tbe systek reijrheh js j

tnke sernes.

Gniure :.


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Expernkeotjd Ptuhnes

J kjtbekjtn`jd jojdysns ag j oaodnoejr bylrnh systek ns usujddy veryhnggnùdt. Xberegare, no tbe gaddawnoi, we wndd preseot jo ekpnrn`jd

expernkeotjd stuhy, wbere we wndd ekpbjsnse hnggereot `jses ar settnoiswbn`b revejd èrtjno types ag lebjvnaur.

Pnoè aoe ag tbe `bjrj`ternstn`s ag j `bjatn` systek ns tbjt skjdd

`bjoies no nts nontnjd stjte `jo irejtdy jgge`t tbe gnojd stjte tbrauib j `js`jhe

egge`t, we alserve tbe nogdueoè ag perturljtnaos ao tbe systek lebjvnaur.

Ye jdsa regde`t ao tbe questnao ag wbeo nt ns passnlde ta àrre`t sake

hnstartnaos wntb tbe skjddest jkauot ag exterojd eoeriy, su`b tbjt, jgter j

perturljtnao, tbe systek sbaudh rej`b jijno j hesnreh stjte wntbno j

àrrespaohnoi tnke barnzao, tbrauib skjdd `bjoies.

No jdd tbe `jse stuhnes preseoteh no tbns se`tnao, tbe gaddawnoipjrjketers were useh= tbe oukler ag jieots o ; :6, tbe oukler ag oeehs

joh resaurès k; :6, tbenr hakjnosHo;Hr ; S6, :6), tbe resaurè trjosger

qujotuk ; :, tbe resaurè ex`bjoie tbresbadh ; 5, tbe noterj`tnao

kekary nkek;


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Gniure :.


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5>7)joh\JR(Mabosao et jd., >:j3 Lraacs, :>>:l), wba àosnhers tbjt trjhntnaojd JN pdjooersjre hnseklahneh eotntnes, joh oat pbysn`jddy sntujteh no tbenr exeùtnaoeovnraokeot, js nt ns tbe `jse wntb jieots. Be àosnhers tbjt tbe jlstrj`tnaoag represeotjtnao `jo le knsdejhnoi, joh averdy snkpdngnes tbe rejd-wardh

praldeks. Lraacs prapaseh tbe rej`tnve sulsukptnao jr`bnte`ture, stjtnoitbe gj`t tbjt tbe noteddnieoè ag jo jieot resudts grak tbe àotnouausnoterj`tnao letweeo tbe jieot joh nts eovnraokeot. Be àosnhereh j set aglebjvnaur deveds, grak tbe daw-deved, `rntn`jd rej`tnaos ta kare jlstrj`t aoes,joh `djnks tbjt noteddnieot lebjvnaur ns jo ekerieot praperty ag tbenoterj`tnao ag tbese snkpder lebjvnaurs.

Bawever, jdtbauib rej`tnve jr`bnte`tures jre wedd-sunteh gar èrtjnopraldeks, tbey jre dess sunteh ta atbers (Meoonois, Py`jrj & Yaadrnhie,:>>2). Xberegare, tbere ns j oeeh ta novestnijte bylrnh jr`bnte`tures tbjt

àklnoe tbe lest ag tbe twa extrekes.


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Vdjoonoi wntb Zujsn-Heterknoeh Ptjtes

Xbe `djssn`jd pdjoonoi ketbahs use j prehn`jtnve dain` represeotjtnao gar tbestjtes. Gar exjkpde, ng j ralatn` jieot bjs j pdjo ag tjcnoi jo jppde agg tbe

tjlde joh puttnoi nt nota j ljscet, j typn`jd pdjo waudh use j prehn`jte su`bjs Jppde(j)ta hes`rnle tbns alme`t.Bawever, no j rejd-dnge sntujtnao, ng kare alme`ts were pdjèh ao tbe

tjlde, nt àudh le hnggnùdt gar tbe jieot ta reàionze tbe jppde aut ag tbek.Joatber hnggnùdty ag tbe jieot waudh jrnse ng tbe jppde ao tbe tjlde waudhbjve j oao-stjohjrh jppejrjoè, no terks ag snze, sbjpe ar àdaur. No tbns`jse, tbe preàohntnaos ag j`tnaos, tbjt hes`rnle tbe stjtes no wbn`b tbe jieotbjs ta kjce j he`nsnao, jre oat guddy heterknoeh. Ye `jdd su`b stjtes qujsn-heterknoeh stjtes(Deao,


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@bjpter 6) joh djter Puttao joh Ljrtano`duheh nt js jo exer`nse no tbenr wedd-coawo notrahu`tary laac tarenogarèkeot dejronoi (Puttao & Ljrta, :>>2).

Xbe tjsc requnres jo jieot ta hrnve jo uoherpawereh `jr up j steepkauotjno rajh. Pnoè irjvnty ns straoier tbjo tbe eoinoe ag tbe `jr, eveo jtgudd pawer tbe `jr `jooat j`èderjte up tbe steep sdape (\D-@akkuonty,


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::

: 66:.6)0`as(66


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@bjpter

Gniure


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Gniure


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@bjpter ar irejter wndd le eoauib ta rej`b tbe iajd hnre`tdy,usnoi garwjrh j`èderjtnao.

Pnkpde Beurnstn`

Xjcnoi nota j`àuot tbe `bjrj`ternstn`s ag tbe praldek, we `jo hevnse jsnkpde beurnstn` tbjt eosures tbe gj`t tbjt tbe iajd ns rej`beh every tnke. Xbebeurnstn` trnes ta kjce kjxnkuk use ag tbe irjvntjtnaojd garè= tbej`èderjtnao ag tbe `jr ns tbe snio ag nts speeh. Gniure 2>3 Yjtcnos & Hjyjo, :>>>8)oeeh ta hns`retnze tbe àotnouaus noput stjtes ag tbe praldek. Xbe Zguo`tnao, useh ta heterknoe tbe lest j`tnao ta le tjceo no j pjrtnùdjr stjte, nshegnoeh js JPZ = joh ns usujddy nkpdekeoteh js j kjtrnx àotjnonoitbe rejd-vjdueh rewjrhs r inveo ly tbe eovnraokeot no j pjrtnùdjr stjte

Ps wbeo pergarknoi j pjrtnùdjr j`tnao Jj . Xbe kauotjno `jr praldekns jdsa hnggnùdt gar j renogarèkeot dejronoi jdiarntbk le`juse jdd tberewjrhs jre :, wntb tbe exèptnao ag tbe iajd stjte wbere tbe rewjrh ns 6.

Xberegare, tbe jieot leàkes jwjre ag j bniber rewjrh aody wbeo nt gnojddyrej`bes tbe iajd.Gar tbe gaddawnoi tests, j Kjtdjl nkpdekeotjtnao ag PJ\PJ

jdiarntbk (Kjrtno,


62/190


76%.

Gniure


65/190

@bjpter


66/190


77

j`tnvedy pursues tbe iajd, wntb oa pjssnve j`tnaos), tbe oukler ag trjnonoinostjo`es wjs rehu`eh ta :


67/190

@bjpter >8), Ojsb-Z (Bu & Yeddkjo, :>>2), Xejk-Z

(Dnttkjo,


68/190


72

Gniure


69/190


70/190


96

Pyo`braonzjtnao

J wejc gark ag syo`braonzjtnao jppejrs le`juse twa ar tbree jieots kustàke ta tbe da`jtnao ag j lda`c no arher ta kave nt. J straoier, kare

noterestnoi gark ag syo`braonzjtnao ns oeeheh no arher ta gnoh tbe sadutnao jsqun`cdy js passnlde. Xbus, tbe kavnoi lda`cs kust jrrnve ta tbe Iajdstjte

aoe jgter joatber, ng passnlde. Xbns trjosdjtes nota j syo`braonzjtnao pbjse

letweeo tbe kavnoi lda`cs, su`b tbjt j lda`c sbaudh stjrt wbeo joatber

lda`c pjsses tbrauib j pjrtnùdjr, jppraprnjte da`jtnao.

Noterojd Ptjtes

Xbere jre kudtnpde, àoseùtnve suliajds ta le j`bneveh ly tbe jieots (kave

ta j lda`c, `jrry nt ta tbe Iajdstjte, passnldy returo gar joatber lda`c, joh`jrry tbe djtter ta tbe Iajd). Xbe oeeh ta `jrry kare tbjo aoe lda`c jppejrs

le`juse jdd tbree lda`cs oeeh j typeLjieot, lut tbere jre aody twa type L

jieots preseot. Xberegare, aoeLjieot kust eveotujddy `jrry twa lda`cs.

Espe`njddy no tbns `jse, nt ns hnggnùdt ta gnoh j uonque aptnkjd padn`y

tbjt kjces tbe jieot kave vnrtujddy ao tbe sjke trjme`tary no appasnte

hnre`tnaos wntb hnggereot iajds. Nt ns kare àoveoneot ta jssuke tbjt jieots

`jo bjve noterojd stjtes tbjt jre trniiereh ly èrtjno eveots, su`b js pn`cnoi

up jo alme`t ar hrappnoi nt ta tbe Iajd. Xbus tbe lebjvnaur ag tbe jieots ns

oa daoier ljseh ao j gnrst arher Kjrcav praèss, wbere tbe ùrreot stjte Pt

hepeohs aody ao tbe prevnaus stjte Pt-:= V(Pt| Pt-:, ... , P6) ; V(Pt| Pt-:).

Ijke Xbearetn` Jojdysns ag @akpetntars Lebjvnaur

No arher ta rehuè tbe snze ag tbe stjte spjè wbeo sejr`bnoi gar jieot

padn`nes, we use j ijke tbearetn` jppraj`b js j beurnstn` ar pre-praèssnoi

pbjse. Ye tbus jojdyze wbjt ns tbe rjtnaojd ketj-j`tnao (ar he`nsnao

reijrhnoi jo nohnvnhujd suliajd) gar tbe jieots ledaoinoi ta tbe tbree typestbjt novadve àkpetntnao. Xbere ns oa àkpetntnao no tbe `jse ag type J,

le`juse tbere ns aody aoe su`b jieot.

Xype L

L:johL


71/190

@bjpter 7 >7, >2 >7,:2

Xbe `edds ag tjlde


72/190


95) C0 (:8, 29) (22,7, >5)

H8, 6,:0) (>8, 6, >5)

C0 (22, 6, 29) (:5)

Evadvnoi Vadn`nes Ljseh ao Ptjte Jttrj`tars

Eveo wntb tbe snkpdngn`jtnaos pravnheh ly tbe jojdysns reijrhnoi tbe rjtnaojd

suliajds ag tbe jieots, tbe spjè ag passnlde manot j`tnaos rekjnos djrie. J

`djssn`jd jppraj`b no tbe renogarèkeot dejronoi gnedh ns ta gnoh j wjy ta

rehuè tbe snze ag tbe stjte-j`tnao kjppnois (su`b js tbe Zkjtrnx), e.i. ly

usnoi j oeurjd oetwarc ta jppraxnkjte tbe dejroeh padn`y (Xesjura, :>>5).

Jo jdterojtnve wjy ta àkpress tbe stjte-j`tnao kjppnoi ns ta use joejrest oeniblaur `djssngner ta heterknoe tbe ùrreot j`tnao ljseh oat


74/190


98

oeèssjrndy ao tbe ùrreot stjte, lut ao tbe oejrest stjte wntb j hegnoeh

j`tnao. No aur `jse, no arher ta hevedap nohnvnhujd padn`nes tbjt waudh

pergark wedd wbeo àklnoeh no tbe kudtnjieot systek, we resart ta tbe useagstjte jttrj`tars, n.e. stjtes wbeo jo j`tnao ns hegnoeh, su`b tbjt jo j`tnao

no joatber stjte ns àkputeh js tbe j`tnao ag tbe `dasest stjte jttrj`tar. Xbestjte jttrj`tars `jo le vneweh js tbe èotre panots ag j Waraoan hnjirjk.

Ybeo jo jieot eoters tbe àrrespaohnoi reinao, nt wndd gaddaw aody tbe

j`tnao spe`ngneh ly nts èotre.

J ieoetn` jdiarntbk wjs useh ta hnsàver tbe stjte jttrj`tars.

Pepjrjte sejr`bes were pergarkeh gar every jieot wbeo kavnoi

nohnvnhujddy. Ybeo severjd jieots jre manotdy novadveh no kavnoi j lda`c ta

tbe Iajdstjte, j snoide manot padn`y wjs sejr`beh gar.

Gniure ) joh j`tnao (grak 6 ta 7). Xbe stru`ture ag j

`brakasake ns hnspdjyeh no gniure


75/190

@bjpter


76/190


97

Gniure > > Vut Hawo

Xbe egge`t ns tbjt C0stjrts wbeo C


77/190

@bjpter tnke steps. Pno`e j IJ ns useh ta gnoh tbe padn`nes, tbe resudts jre oat

jdwjys aptnkjd. Gar exjkpde, wbeo L


78/190


92

No tbe gaddawnoi, we hes`rnle tbe wjy no wbn`b nohnvnhujd jieots

aperjte wbeo preseoteh wntb dejronoi tjscs. Xbenr iajd ns ta lundh kaheds

ljseh ao oeurjd oetwarcs gar hjtj pravnheh ly jo exterojd user.

Dejronoi Vraldeks

No arher ta stuhy tbe lebjvnaur ag tbe kudtnjieot systek wbere tbe jieots

use oeurjd oetwarcs ta sadve `djssngn`jtnao joh reiressnao tjscs, we

`aosnhereh


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@bjpter

pres`rnle aoe ag tbe twa `djsses ag hruis, j`àrhnoi ta tbe pjtneots jie,ldaah pressure, joh ieoher. kaocs{:-0} jre tbe tbree `djssn`jd KAOCsleo`bkjrc praldeks (Xbruo et jd., :>>:). Xbe sbepjrh{:,7:). wejtber joh wejtber-syk jre vjrnjots ag tbe iadg-pdjynoi praldek (Zunodjo, :>27) wbere hjtjvjdues jre sykladn` ar oukern`jd, joh aody sykladn`, respe`tnvedy.

Gnojddy, no arher ta gurtber stuhy tbe reiressnao `jpjlndntnes, tbreeguo`tnaos were hevnseh, wntb rjohakdy ieoerjteh sjkpdes. Xbe praldeks jrehegnoeh js gaddaws=

zyxzyx )às()sno(),,(: , (>0).Xbe jieots jre inveo j oukler ag tjscs, àosnstnoi no repejtehversnaos ag tbe


80/190


26

Pqujre Errar (KPE) hesnreh ly tbe user, joh jdsa ao tbe oukler ag trjnonoi

epa`bs. No tbns sèojrna, tbe jieots oeeh ta gnoh j KPE ag 6.66: ar dawer,

joh ruo tbe jdiarntbks gar 566 epa`bs. Xbe KPE `jo le bniber gar`djssngn`jtnao praldeks, ng tbe perèot ag àrre`tdy `djssngneh nostjoès ns

:66% gar latb trjnonoi joh testnoi.Xbey gnrst use j oetwarc tapadaiy ag : bnhheo djyer wntb :6 oeuraos.

Ng tbns àogniurjtnao praves ta le taa snkpde ta dejro tbe kahed, joh tbe

pergarkjoè `rnternj jre oat ket, tbey use j oetwarc tapadaiy ag : bnhheo

djyer wntb


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@bjpter


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26

:/ hag tbe `arre`t aptnkjd aoe gar jdd noputs (@rjktao, Pbabjk & Ptenoleri,2), jppdn`jtnaos ta autsaur`noi (Knsbrj &Weerjokjot, 0). J revnew ag kudtn-jttrnlute`aklnojtarnjd ju`tnaos `jo le gauoh no (Rne, Dn & Puo,


91/190

@bjpter 0. Zujotuk-Nospnreh Evadutnaojry Jdiarntbks

>:

L

n

ncn Lvx:

kjx , (0.9)

wbere :,6n ns j he`nsnao vjrnjlde wbn`b heterknoes wbetber j lnh n nsj`èpteh ar oat, joh=

n

n IL , (0.2)

wbere ns tbe set ag lnhs gar wbn`b :n .

Jo jhhntnaojd àostrjnot ns tbjt j iaah kust le no`duheh aody aoè notbe sadutnao=

mn

nx :, (0.>)

wbere m ns tbe set ag lnhs àotjnonoi iaahm, wntb I..: .

Evadutnaojry Kudtn-Alme`tnve Aptnknzjtnao

No àotrjst ta snoide aptnknzjtnao, no kudtn-alme`tnve aptnknzjtnao latbgntoess joh sede`tnao kust suppart severjd alme`tnves. Kudtn-alme`tnvejdiarntbks jre espe`njddy gnt gar tbe kudtn-jttrnlute àklnojtarnjd ju`tnaosèojrna. Peverjd hnggereot vjrnjots ag kudtn-alme`tnve jdiarntbks bjve leeonotrahuèh wntb hnggereot gntoess jssniokeot joh sede`tnao strjteines. Ljsehao gntoess jssniokeot joh sede`tnao strjteines, kudtn-alme`tnve jdiarntbks`jo le `djssngneh js jiireijtnao-ljseh, papudjtnao-ljseh joh Vjreta-ljsehjppraj`bes (Xrjo,


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93/190


>0

heterknoeh wbn`b ieoe wndd bjve tbe dawest ar bnibest nkpj`t ao tbe gntoessag j `brakasake. Xberegare, j rjohakdy sede`teh ieoe wntb tbe vjdue ag :no tbe kejsureh nohnvnhujd ns set ta 6, tbus he`rejsnoi tbe oukler agvnadjteh àostrjnots, uotnd tbe `brakasake àkes ta sjtnsgy jdd tbe

àostrjnots ag tbe praldek.

@jse Ptuhnes

@aklnojtarnjd Ju`tnao Pèojrnas

No arher ta `rejte àklnojtarnjd ju`tnao praldeks, tbe @JXP sagtwjre(Deytao-Lrawo et jd.,


94/190


>8

Vergarkjoè Ketrn`s

Uodnce no tbe snoide-alme`tnve `jse, tbe pergarkjoè ag kudtn-alme`tnvejdiarntbks ns bjrher ta àkpjre. Pnoè tbe sadutnao ns j`tujddy j set ag oao-

haknojteh ve`tars, usujddy ag hnggereot `jrhnojdntnes, nt ns oat strjnibtgarwjrhta jssess tbe qujdnty ag j sadutnao no terks ag j snoide rejd oukler.Xbere jre twa kjno jppraj`bes tbjt try ta averàke tbns hnggnùdty

(Irajo, 2) ns useh, wbn`b tjces nota j`àuot

tbe expe`teh vjdue ag j sadutnao inveo jdd passnlde utndnty guo`tnaos.Xbns prapaseh ketrn` ns j wenibteh suk ag pjrtnjd gntoess guo`tnao

vjdues, jverjieh aver jdd passnlde vjdues ag tbe wenibts=

P

wwpsu

su

PU Ps Jj Yw

kjx

j

j h)()(

)(

)(

, (0.:0)

wbere P ns tbe sadutnao ag tbe jdiarntbk (tbe set ag jdd oao-haknojtehsadutnao ve`tars), J ns tbe set ag jttrnlutes, Y ns tbe set ag jdd utndntyguo`tnaos, represeoteh bere js tbe set ag jdd passnlde àklnojtnaos ag wenibts(pravnheh tbjt tbe suk ag jdd wenibts ns :), )(suj ns tbe utndnty ag j sadutnao

ve`tar gar jo jttrnlute, n.e. tbe vjdue ag j pjrtnjd gntoess guo`tnao, joh )(su kjxj

ns tbe kjxnkuk utndnty altjnojlde gar tbjt jttrnlute, n.e. tbe aptnkjd resudt agjo aptnknzjtnao gar tbjt jttrnlute jdaoe. p ns jo noteosnty guo`tnao wbn`binves tbe praljlndnty heosnty ag ej`b utndnty guo`tnao w .

Grak tbe nkpdekeotjtnao panot ag vnew, tbe noteirjd ns jppraxnkjtehjs j Kaote @jrda sjkpdnoi wntb : knddnao sjkpdes, wbere ej`b trnjdieoerjtes j àklnojtnao ag oarkjdnzeh wenibts. Pnoè joy twa snkudjtnaosinve tbe sjke resudt gar U, nt ns àosnhereh tbjt tbns oukler ag sjkpdes nssuggn`neot gar tbree jttrnlutes. Xbe oukler ag sjkpdes ns nohepeoheot graktbe oukler ag jttrnlutes, joh tbus tbns jppraj`b `jo jdsa le jppdneh gar jdjrier oukler ag jttrnlutes, jdtbauib tbe jppraxnkjtnao wndd dncedy bjve desspre`nsnao.

Gniure 0.: sbaws twa sadutnaos ag j ln-jttrnlute praldek (tbekehnuk-snzeh praldek àosnhereh gar jojdysns, aody wntb jttrnlutes J:joh


95/190


>5

J


96/190


>7

Xjldes 0.: joh 0.< sbaw tbe resudts altjnoeh ly OPIJ-NN johZNEJ-PPEB@, respe`tnvedy, gar tbe gnrst praldek.

Xjlde 0.:.Xbe resudts ag OIPJ-NN gar tbe skjdd praldek

wntb 5 iaahs joh 06 lnhsVap.

snze

Oukler ag

ieoerjtnaos

Jverjie

utndnty

Lest

utndnty

Jverjie oukler

ag sadutnaos

:66 :66 6.9768 6.9>65 ::.5

6.9> :6.5

:66 :666 6.9>:6 6.9> : 6.9> :9

Xjlde 0.8. Xbe resudts ag ZNEJ-PPEB@ gar tbe kehnuk-snzeh praldek

wntb :6 iaahs joh : 6.5282


98/190


>2

0.0. \ejd-Wjdueh Eoàheh Padutnao gar Kudtn-Nssue Kudtn-

Djterjd Oeiatnjtnaos

J oeiatnjtnao praldek `jo le hegnoeh js j sntujtnao wbere kudtnpde jieots

try ta àke ta jo jireekeot (ar hejd), inveo tbjt ej`b jieot bjs j pregereoèaver jdd passnlde hejds. J sadutnao ta tbns praldek ns j hejd j`èpteh ly jddtbe jieots novadveh. Jieots wjot ta kjxnknze tbenr awo utndnty, lut tbey kjyjdsa gjè tbe rnsc ag j lrejchawo no oeiatnjtnao, ar expnrjtnao ag j hejhdnoegar jo jireekeot (Wnhjd,


99/190


>>

)(kjxjri* xxx

g

wbere oxxx ,...,,


100/190


:66

)sno(...)sno()sno(

)às(...)às()às(


101/190


:6:

wbere Unns tbe tatjd utndnty tbjt jieot nreènves.Xbe oeiatnjtnao praldek rehuès ta gnohnoi jo aptnkjd hnvnsnao

H; (hnm) ag ej`b nssue jkaoi tbe jieots. Jdsa, ej`b nssue bjs j vjdue vmag

tbe jkauot tbjt ns hnvnheh. Ly notrahu`noi tbese vjdues, tbe hnvnsnaos hnm`jole oarkjdnzeh.Xbe utndnty ag jo jieot ngar jo nssuemns àkputeh js gaddaws=

mnmnmnm vhwu

Xbe tatjd utndnty ag jo jieot ns tbe suk ag tbe nssue utndntnes=

k

m

nmn uU:

Xbe wenibts ag tbe jieots gar tbe nssues wnm, jre inveo (coawo), joh sajre tbe nssue vjdues vm. Ye oeeh ta gnoh tbe hnvnsnaos hnm, wbn`b kjxnknze tbeprahu`t ag tatjd utndntnes.

Gar exjkpde, det us àosnher tbe sntujtnao wntb < jieots joh < nssuespreseoteh no tjlde 0.9. Xbe wenibts no j raw kust suk up ta :.

Xjlde 0.9.Jieot wenibts gar tbe < x < praldek

Nssues

Jieots N: N


102/190


:6.Aptnkjd nssue hnvnsnaos gar tbe < x < praldekNssues

Jieots N: N


103/190


:60

Xbe se`aoh vjrnjot, ZNEJ


104/190


:68

@jse Ptuhnes

Xbe Vraldeks

No tbe `jse stuhnes, we wndd use 0 oeiatnjtnao praldeks, wntb no`rejsnoideveds ag hnggn`udty. Xbe gnrst aoe ns tbe < x < praldek preseoteh jlave. Ntsexj`t Ojsb sadutnao `arrespaohs ta j utndnty prahu`t ag 6.7:


105/190


:65

Xbe \esudts

Xjlde 0.:5 preseots tbe lest resudts ag Kaote @jrda sjkpdnoi, wntb hnggereotouklers ag sjkpdes gar ej`b praldek. No arher ta le kare notuntnve, tbe

resudts jre preseoteh js perèots ag tbe aptnkjd resudt. Aoe `jo see tbjt tbnsketbah aody warcs gar skjdd praldek snzes. Gar tbe tbnrh praldek, nt snkpdy`jooat inve j usegud resudt jt jdd, eveo wntb :6 knddnao sjkpdes. No tbns `jse,tbe lest sadutnao pravnheh ns aody >.>2.>>26 6.7:> >>.>>>>0 x 0 27.2:>590 >6.8::.958< >:.825..>>00

:66 :66 >>.>670 >>.>>88

:66 56 >>.>68: >>.>952

:666 :66 >>.>>:9 >>.>>>0

Aoe `jo oatnè tbjt gar snkpde praldeks tbe jdiarntbk pergarkjoè nsqunte iaah. Bawever, gar tbe :6 x :6 praldek, eveo wntb j bnib oukler agieoerjtnaos (:666) joh j djrie papudjtnao snze (:66), tbe resudts ha oat àke`dase ta tbe aptnkjd vjdue. Xbe lest gntoess ns aody jrauoh 76% ag tbe coawoaptnkuk.


106/190


:67

Xjlde 0.:9.Xbe resudts ag tbe EJ gar tbe 0 x 0 praldek

Oukler ag

ieoerjtnaos

Vapudjtnao

snze

Jverjie

gntoess (%)

Lest

gntoess (%)

:666 >.777< >>.>08>

:66 :66 >>.:080 >>.8772.:982 >>.7095

:666 :66 >>.>00> >>.>98>

Xjlde 0.:2.Xbe resudts ag tbe EJ gar tbe :6 x :6 praldek

Oukler ag

ieoerjtnaos

Vapudjtnao

snze

Jverjie

gntoess (%)

Lest

gntoess (%)

:666 0 :5

:666 :66 57.757 5>.768

ZNEJ:

No arher ta evjdujte tbe pergarkjoè ag tbe qujotuk-nospnreh jdiarntbks,severjd expernkeots were kjhe wbnde vjrynoi tbe pjrjketers= tbe oukler agieoerjtnaos, tbe papudjtnao snze joh tbe kutjtnao rjte. Xjlde 0.:> hnspdjys

tbe resudts no terks ag jverjie gntoess joh lest gntoess.Aoe `jo see tbjt tbe resudts nkprave js tbe oukler ag ieoerjtnaos

no`rejses. Yntb :666 ieoerjtnaos, tbe lest gntoess àkes very `dase ta tbeaptnkuk vjdue. Jdsa, tbe j`ùrj`y ag tbe resudts no`rejses wntb tbepapudjtnao snze, wbn`b eosures j irejter hnversnty. Xbe kutjtnao rjte kust ledjrier àkpjreh ta tbe aoe usujddy useh no j `djssn`jd EJ, lut ng nt ns ku`birejter (e.i.


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:69

Xjlde 0.:>.Xbe resudts ag tbe ZNEJ: gar tbe < x < praldek

Oukler ag

ieoerjtnaos

Vapudjtnao

snze

Kutjtnao

rjte

Jverjie

gntoess (%)

Lest

gntoess (%)

56 0.>9 >7.0609

:66 5.8> >7.82>>

:666 7.>.0>>0

:66 5.8> >7.82>>

:66 56 6.65 >7.7.>28>

:66 :66 6.65 >9.98 >>.:952

:66 56 6.65 >7.7.>28>

:66 56 6.:6 >9.76 >2.>.67 >>.55:5

Xjlde 0.


108/190


:62

lut espe`njddy gar àkpdex praldeks, tbey jre stndd oat sjtnsgj`tary (tbe lestgntoess ns aody jrauoh 8% ag tbe aptnkjd aoe).

Xjlde 0.9

:66 :66 6.65 >>.>960 >>.>>99

:66 56 6.:6 >>.>9>.>>>:

:666 :66 6.:6 >>.>>>0 >>.>>>9

Gar tbe :6 x :6 praldek, tbe pjrjketers kust àoger irejter hnversntyjoh j irejter àoverieoè tnke, lut tbe sadutnao no tbe lest `jse ns oaw tbe

lest altjnoeh aut ag jdd tbe ketbahs uoher àosnherjtnao (jrauoh >0% ag tbeaptnkuk). Xbe kast nkpartjot `rnternao tbjt nogdueoès tbe qujdnty ag tbe


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:6>

resudts seeks ta le tbe oukler ag ieoerjtnaos, espe`njddy sno`e nt jdsankpj`ts tbe gnoe-tuonoi, evadutnaojry bndd `dnklnoi pra`ehure jgter tbe kjnosejr`b.

Xjlde 0.


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111/190

:::

@bjpter 8

Jppdn`jtnaos ag Kj`bnoe Dejronoi Ketbahs

8.:. Vrehn`tnao ag Dnqunh-@rystjddnoe Vrapertnes

No tbe padykers gnedh, tbe eggn`neot hesnio ag oew kjternjds requnres tbeprehn`tnao ag tbe prapertnes ag tbe `johnhjte padykers joh tbe sede`tnao ag

tbe lest stru`ture grak jdd tbe pateotnjd passnlndntnes. Xa sadve tbns praldek,j qujotntjtnve stru`ture-praperty redjtnaosbnp ns oeèssjry. Aoe ag tbe kastnoterestnoi prapertnes ag padykers ns tbe dnqunh `rystjddnoe lebjvnaur,le`juse no tbns stjte, tbe kjternjds àklnoe twa esseotnjd prapertnes ag tbekjtter= tbe arher joh tbe kalndnty. Lut, le`juse ag tbe àkpdexnty ag tbednqunh `rystjddnoe pbjse, nt ns oat jt jdd ejsy ta prehn`t tbe a`ùrreoè ag jkesapbjse, n.e. jo noterkehnjte stjte ag kjtter letweeo dnqunh joh sadnh.

Jdsa, tbe rehu`tnao ag tbe oukler ag expernkeotjd trnjds represeots jrequnrekeot tbjt ns kare joh kare gedt no tbe gnedh ag tbe stuhy joh jojdysns

ag pbysn`jd, `bekn`jd joh lnadain`jd pbeoakeoj. No pjrtnùdjr, tbns teoheo`yns eoàurjieh ly tbe eàoakn`jd jhvjotjies tbjt expernkeotjd resejr`b `joiet grak nt no terks ag tnke joh kaoey sjvnois. Xbe heterknojtnao ag tbednqunh `rystjd prapertnes ag sake arijon` àkpauohs ljseh ao tbenr stru`turejoh qujotntjtnve stru`ture-praperty redjtnaosbnp ns j kjmar resejr`b sulme`tno àkputjtnaojd `beknstry.

Xbe gnrst stuhy sede`teh gar exekpdngn`jtnao (Deao et jd., >0), rjohak tree (Yntteo &Grjoc,


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::>5) wbn`b jttekpts ta jvanh averieoerjdnzjtnao lyoever jddawnoi exekpdjrs ta oest ar averdjp. OOIE jdwjys trnes taieoerjdnze oew exjkpdes ta tbenr oejrest oeniblaur ag tbe sjke `djss. Ng tbnsns nkpassnlde le`juse ag noterveonoi oeijtnve exjkpdes, oa ieoerjdnzjtnao nspergarkeh. Ng j ieoerjdnzjtnao djter àogdn`ts wntb j oeijtnve exjkpde, nt nskahngneh ta kjnotjno àosnsteo`y.

Xjlde 8.: sbaws tbe pergarkjoè ag tbe oeurjd oetwarcs joh`djssngn`jtnao jdiarntbks tbe twa praldeks. Vraldek : regers ta tbe noput

pjrjketers= kadjr rjtna, type ag lnspbeoad, kadeùdjr wenibt joh spjèrdeoitb. Vraldek < ns garkudjteh gar tbe kadjr rjtna, type ag lnspbeoad,spjèr deoitb joh jsykketry pjrjketer js noput pjrjketers.

Xjlde 8.:. Errar rjtes ag tbe àosnhereh `djssngn`jtnao jdiarntbks

JdiarntbkVraldek : Vraldek >>). Djzy dejroers, ao tbe atber bjoh, lundh j very snkpde kahed joh kastag tbe praèssnoi ns kjhe no tbe seàoh step, gar prehn`tnao3 gar tbns `jteiary,we `base j set ag `djssngners ljseh ao tbe oejrest oeniblaur pjrjhnik=snkpde Oejrest Oeniblaur, c-Oejrest Oeniblaur joh Oao OestehIeoerjdnzeh Exekpdjrs wntb Vratatypes.

Js stjteh legare, nostjoè-ljseh dejronoi rehuès tbe dejronoi eggartly snkpdy starnoi tbe exjkpdes preseoteh ta tbe dejronoi jieot joh

`djssngynoi tbe oew nostjoès ao tbe ljsns ag tbenr `daseoess ta tbenroeniblaurs, n.e. prevnausdy eoàuotereh nostjoès wntb snkndjr jttrnlutevjdue. Expernkeotjd resudts sbaweh tbjt oat jdd tbe edekeots ag j `jteiaryjre praèsseh no tbe sjke wjy3 sake edekeots jre àosnhereh kare typn`jdag aoe `jteiary tbjo atbers jre. Xbns ns coawo js tbe pratatypn`jd egge`t(\as`b, :>95). Gar j Eurapejo, jo jppde ns kare represeotjtnve gar tbe grunt`jteiary tbjo j ààout. @aiontnve psy`badaiy inves tbe pratatype twapassnlde noterpretjtnaos (Kehno, \ass & Kjrckjo, >5)wjs exteoheh no arher ta no`duhepratatype nogarkjtnao jlaut ej`b rude ar byper-re`tjoide. Pnoè jieoerjdnzeh exekpdjr àotjnos severjd nostjoès, nt ns oat oeèssjry gar tbestjtnstn`jd jverjie ag tbase nostjoès ta kjt`b tbe èotre ag tbeàrrespaohnoi byper-re`tjoide. Xbe pratatype kjy hngger grak tbe byper-

re`tjoide ieaketrn` èotre. Xbe prapaseh Oao-Oesteh IeoerjdnzehExekpdjrs wntb Vratatypes, OOIEV (Deao,


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Xbe nostjoè-ljseh jdiarntbks su`b js Oejrest Oeniblaur johOOIEV bjve zera errar gar tbe trjnonoi set, wbn`b ns jdwjys true uodesstbere jre `djss jssniokeot errars (oanse) no tbe trjnonoi set ntsedg, n.e. tbesjke nostjoè jssnioeh kare tbjo aoè wntb hnggereot `djsses. Xbe c-Oejrest

Oeniblaur (wntb c; 8 no aur `jse) bjs j irejter errar ao tbe trjnonoi set johoa sniongn`jotdy letter prehn`tnao j`ùrj`y. OOIEV bjs j iaah prehn`tnaorjte joh nt jdsa bjs tbe jhvjotjie ag jo expdn`nt kahed àkpjreh ta tbeoejrest oeniblaur vjrnjots, wbere jdd tbe nostjoès jre kekarnzeh.

Grak tbe he`nsnao tree jdiarntbks, \johak garest joh \johak treejdsa bjve zera errar gar tbe trjnonoi set. Xbe prehn`tnao errar ns sdnibtdydjrier gar tbe \johak tree3 bawever, nts kjno jhvjotjie ns tbjt tbe resudt`jo le ejsndy noterpretjlde, uodnce tbe \johak garest. @8.5 lundhs j kareàkpj`t he`nsnao tree, bawever tbe errars jre oat letter tbjo tbase ag tbe

\johak tree joh \johak garest. \EVXree bjs irejter errars gar latbtrjnonoi set joh prehn`tnao.

Xbe resudts no gniure 8.: sbaw tbjt tbe skjddest errars no tbevjdnhjtnao pbjse, :8.9%, àrrespaoh ta c-Oejrest Oeniblaur joh ta aurarninojd jdiarntbk OOIEV, jssa`njteh wntb 7.96:% joh 6% no tbe trjnonoipbjse, respe`tnvedy. Xbese vjdues kejo j prehn`tnao j`ùrj`y ag 25.8 >5.677>9

\johak Garest 28.8>7 >6.76078 >5.06:25 29.5.50779

Aur noterest ns ta estnkjte tbe j`ùrj`y ag tbe resudts gar j djrievjdnhjtnao set. No tbns respe`t, tbe prapaseh jdiarntbk, OOIEV, pravnhesaoe ag tbe lest resudts.

Xbe oeurjd oetwarc wntb tbe lest pergarkjoè wjs KDV(5=8


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::2

aur pjrtnùdjr praldek. No tbns `jse, tbe lest prehn`tnaos were inveo ly aurarninojd jdiarntbk OOIEV, jdaoi wntb perge`t j`ùrj`y ao tbe trjnonoi set.Nt tbus àklnoes tbe iaah pergarkjoè ag tbe `djssn` nostjoè-ljsehketbahs wntb tbe dawer kekary requnrekeots hue ta nts byper-re`tjoides

joh tbe ejse ag tbe noterpretjtnao ag nts expdn`nt kahed no tbe gark ag rudes.

8.20),Kudtnvjrnjte Expaoeotnjd Pkaatbnoi, KEP (Vgeggerkjoo & Jddao, :>2>)joh Guo`tnaojd @aeggn`neot Juta-\eiressnve kahed,G@J\ (Bjrvndd & \jy,:). XbeJuta-\eiressnveGrj`tnaojddy Noteirjteh Kavnoi Jverjie, J\GNKJ (\jvnsbjocer & \jy,


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@bjpter 8.Jppdn`jtnaos ag Kj`bnoe Dejronoi Ketbahs

::>

Gniure 8.


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:98 x :6-0

Expaoeotnjd autput OO 020,>70.88 x :6-0

Ptj`c 86:,6:5.>66 2.9 x :6-0

Xestnoi

Pnikanh autput OO :58,>5:.0:: 0.55.920 ,>6


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::< (Mjoj`ec, .Xbe kahed pergarkjo`e ao tbe

UC nohustrnjd prahu`tnao trjnonoi hjtj

Gniure 8.:6.Xbe kahed prehn`tnaos gar tbe

UC nohustrnjd prahu`tnao hjtj

Xbe evadutnao ag tbe kejo squjre errar ag tbe stj`c ao tbe testnoihjtj ns hnspdjyeh no gniure 8.::, js j guo`tnao ag tbe snikanh OO wenibt, w:.Xbe aptnkjd wenibts jre w:; 6 joh w


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:22 6.:::x :6-0

Xestnoi

Pnikanh autput OO 7.2>5 00..2:6 :.6>>x :6-0Ptj`c >.2:6 :.6>>x :6-0

Uodnce tbe prevnaus praldeks, tbe expaoeotnjd ojture ag tbns tnkesernes kjces nt hnggnùdt gar j oarkjd oeurjd oetwarc, wntb j snikanhj`tnvjtnao guo`tnao no tbe autput djyer. Xberegare, tbe expaoeotnjd oetwarchaknojtes tbe stj`c. Aoe `jo oatnè tbjt jdtbauib tbe snikanh oetwarc `jojppraxnkjte tbe trjnonoi set gjnrdy wedd, wntb errars àkpjrjlde ta tbase agtbe expaoeotnjd oetwarc, tbere ns j `dejr hnggereoè no pergarkjoè gar tbeprehn`tnao pbjse, wbere aody tbe expaoeotnjd oetwarc `jo gnoh j iaah treohgar tbe tnke sernes.

8.0. Ptj`ceh Oeurjd Oetwarcs gar Kaheddnoi @bekn`jd

Eoinoeernoi Vbeoakeoj

Xbe nhej ag àklnonoi oeurjd oetwarc kaheds ns ljseh ao tbe preknse tbjthnggereot oeurjd oetwarcs `jo `jpture hnggereot jspe`ts ag praèss lebjvnaurjoh jiireijtnoi tbns nogarkjtnao sbaudh rehuè uoèrtjnoty joh pravnhekare j`ùrjte prehn`tnaos. Nt ns jdwjys passnlde tbjt j stj`ceh oetwarc àudh


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::569 :6.0


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Xjlde 8.2 àotjnos severjd exjkpdes. Xbe gnrst àduko ns jo nheotngnerag tbe stj`c (P) wntb tbe wenibts inveo no tbe àdukos 8750

< 25>6 :6.95798 6.>7220 :>.8

8 06 286.580 6.>595< >.:0677 6.>6 > 6.>586< >.656 6.>85>

:: 96 :6< 6.>:55 :6.9:

:< :6 :6 26 2.66: :6.>>>

Xbe lest vjdnhjtnao errar àrrespaohs ta stj`c 7 wntb 2.2:0%. Notbns `jse, tbe trjnonoi errar ns 7.70226%. Bawever, ng we àosnher tbe lestvjdnhjtnao àrredjtnao, we gnoh tbjt tbe lest stj`c ns stj`c :. Nts vjdnhjtnaoerrar ns 2.>>665%, very `dase ta tbjt ag stj`c 7, lut tbe trjnonoi errar ns5.


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:06

autput. Aody twa noputs jre oe`essjry le`juse w0 ; :66 w: w


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:0:

Xjlde 8.>.Xbe pergarkjo`e ag sake stj`cs

`aostru`teh wntb tbe noterpadjteh wenibt vjdues

Oa.

stj`cYenibts,% Xrjnonoi Wjdnhjtnao

P w: w2>60 8.>578 6.>207

< : 8: 52 6 6.>2:98 8.>89>< 6.>>>2:

0 < 2258 5.62:69 6.>9:79

8 < 86 52 6.60>72 6.>2>>>0

5 < 80 55 6 6.>9>>< 5.:59 6.>>>2>

7 0 87 6.>228: 5.:800> 6.>799>7< 5.:>5:9 6.>>>>

2 8 8< 58 6 6.>26:8 5.:559> 6.>>>>

> 7 :9 6.>2202 5.60:75 6.>9:0 8.>7>58 6.>925

:0 :2 26:9:8 :> 2822 8.>>95 6.>99>2

:5 2:8< 5.6027< 6.>99>8

:2 9208

:> 9990 8.>827: 6.>9>9>

5.62960 6.>9250

989: 8.>>98 6.>9>>7

887< 6.>905< 8.>:86> 6.>2:58

22

60 6.>7920 8.>:6>< 6.>256>

779> 5.:79:2 6.>2:67

>78 6.>7:>:5


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:0>0 jgter tbe aptnknzjtnao ag tbe wenibts.

Aoe `jo hrjw tbe ào`dusnao tbjt tbe pergarkjoè ag oeurjdkaheddnoi gar tbe vjdnhjtnao pbjse `jo le sniongn`jotdy nkpraveh ly

jiireijtnoi stj`cs joh aptnknznoi tbe wenibts ag tbe stj`c àkpaoeots. Xbekaheddnoi ketbahadaiy hevedapeh bere `jo le ejsndy jhjpteh joh jppdnehgar atber àkpdex praldeks.

Ptj`ceh Oeurjd Oetwarc Kaheddnoi ag Beteraieoeaus Vbata`jtjdytn`

Heàkpasntnao ag Xrn`dapyr

Xbe pbeoakeoadain`jd trejtkeot ag su`b pbata`bekn`jd systeks ns veryàkpdex. No ieoerjd, tbe rjte ag rej`tnao no beteraieoeaus pbata`jtjdytn`systeks ns j àkpdex oaodnoejr guo`tnao ag `jtjdyst dajhnoi, dnibt noteosnty,nontnjd sadutnao pB, rej`tjot joh axnhjots àoèotrjtnao, et`. Xberegare, tbejlndnty ag systeks su`b js jrtngn`njd oeurjd oetwarcs ta reàionze johreprahuè `juse-egge`t redjtnaosbnps tbrauib trjnonoi, gar kudtnpde noput-autput kjppnois, bjs ijnoeh papudjrnty no vjrnaus jrejs ag `bekn`jdeoinoeernoi joh jdsa no tbe gnedh ag pbata`jtjdytn` trejtkeot ag wjstewjter.

Gar tbns `jse stuhy, tbe pbata`jtjdytn` heirjhjtnao ag trn`dapyr, wekahed tbe gnojd àoèotrjtnao ag tbns àkpauoh js j guo`tnao ag praèss

àohntnaos. Xbe oeurjd kaheds àosnher tbe nrrjhnjtnao tnke (t), tbe nontnjdàoèotrjtnao ag trn`dapyr (@6), tbe àoèotrjtnao ag XnA


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:00

Xbe oukler ag bnhheo djyers joh uonts wjs estjldnsbeh ly trjnonoi jhnggereot rjoie ag oetwarcs joh sede`tnoi tbe aoe tbjt lest ljdjoèhieoerjdnzjtnao pergarkjoè jijnost oetwarc snze. Xbe lest oetwarc tapadaiywjs heterknoeh ljseh ao tbe kejo ag squjreh errars (KPE) ag tbe trjnonoi

hjtj. Bnhheo oeuraos, js wedd js tbe autput djyer oeurao, use byperladn`tjoieot js tbe oaodnoejr j`tnvjtnao guo`tnao. Xbe oetwarc wjs trjnoeh usnoitbe wedd-coawo lj`c-prapjijtnao jdiarntbk. Ye àosnher tbjt trjnonoi eohswbeo tbe oetwarc errar (KPE) ao tbe testnoi set leàkes suggn`neotdy skjddjoh haes oat no`rejse.

Xjlde 8.:6. Hnggereot oeurjd oetwarcs hevedapeh wntb expernkeotjd hjtj

joh tbenr pergarkjoè no tbe trjnonoi pbjse

Oetwarc type KPE r Ep%

KDV(8=5=:) 6.66:< 6.>22.>28>9 :0.:2>277> >.>9

KDV(8=>25> :0.5>9:57 :9.>5692:7 ::.7205

KDV(8=>>96< 0.29>5>> 5.5709

KDV(8=8>2


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:08

prevnaus stuhy, no arher ta gnoh tbe aptnkjd stj`ceh oeurjd oetwarc, sepjrjteoeurjd oetwarcs were hevedapeh gar noterpadjtnao. Aoe oetwarc wjsprepjreh gar tbe noterpadjtnao ag tbe trjnonoi resudts joh joatber aoe gar tbevjdnhjtnao resudts. Xbey bjh twa noputs, tbe wenibts gar O:joh O7629 gar tbe gaddawnoi wenibts= ::%, 50% joh 07% (stj`c


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:05

Gniure 8.:0. Xbe vjrnjtnao ag tbe stj`c pergarkjoè no tbe vjdnhjtnao stjie

wntb tbe wenibts ag tbe àkpaoeot oeurjd oetwarcs gar stj`c :

Gniure 8.:8. Xbe vjrnjtnao ag tbe stj`c pergarkjoè no tbe vjdnhjtnao pbjsewntb tbe wenibts ag tbe àkpaoeot oeurjd oetwarcs gar stj`c


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8.8. Vrateno Ptru`ture @djssngn`jtnao

No tbe reèot yejrs, resejr`b no kadeùdjr lnadaiy joh kadeùdjr kehn`noebjs deh ta tbe j`ùkudjtnao ag djrie jkauots ag hjtj. Xberegare, tbere ns j

àotnouaus oeeh ta extrj`t bniber-deved redevjot nogarkjtnao pjtteros graktbe hjtj, wbn`b no turo `jo le kare ejsndy uoherstaah joh useh. Xbejutakjtnao ag tbns praèss `jo le haoe wntb tbe bedp ag kj`bnoe dejronoite`bonques, espe`njddy wntb `djssngn`jtnao joh `dusternoi. Xbns `juseh j straoinoterest no ekpdaynoi su`b ketbahs ag coawdehie hnsàvery ta ieoerjtekaheds ag lnadain`jd systeks.

Js severjd ieoake prame`ts su`b js tbeBukjo Ieoake Vrame tbjveleeo àkpdeteh, tbere ns j pjrjhnik sbngt grak stjtn` stru`turjd ieoakn`s tahyojkn` guo`tnaojd ieoakn`s (Baude et jd.,


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:09

ag ùrreot kadeùdjr lnadaiy. Aody j skjdd perèotjie ag pratenos gar wbn`btbe sequeoè ns coawo àudh le expdareh gar tbenr tbree-hnkeosnaojdstru`ture ly pbysn`jd ketbahs joh tbere ns j djrie ijp letweeo tbe oukler agcoawo prateno sequeoès joh tbe oukler ag nheotngneh stru`tures

(Kjrcawetz, Ehder & Wnoirao, >9).

Kjoy kj`bnoe dejronoi te`bonques bjve leeo prapaseh ta hejd wntbtbe nheotngn`jtnao ag spe`ngn` HOJ sequeoès. Uogartuojtedy, trjhntnaojdte`bonques `jooat le hnre`tdy jppdneh ta tbns type ag sequeo`noi praldeks.Gar kjoy lnanogarkjtn`s jppdn`jtnaos, tbe hjtj (e.i. sequeoès) bjve ta letrjosgarkeh nota jo jttrnlute-ljseh represeotjtnao gnrst.

Vrateno Hjtjsets

Xbe ketbah useh no tbns stuhy (Deao, Jniotajnen & ]jbjrnj, )ns ta gnohwjys ta heterknoe stru`ture snkndjrnty ly kejos ag `djssngn`jtnao te`bonques,oat ly usnoi sequeoè snkndjrnty. Xbns jppraj`b bjs j`bneveh sake su`èsskastdy tbrauib tbe reàiontnao ag tbe prateno gadhs, wbn`b jre j àkkao0-hnkeosnaojd pjttero wntb tbe sjke kjmar seàohjry stru`ture edekeots notbe sjke jrrjoiekeot joh wntb tbe sjke tapadain`jd àooe`tnaos (@rjveo et

jd., :>>5).@akprebeosnve prateno `djssngn`jtnaos su`b js P@AV joh @JXBnheotngneh kare tbjo 766 0H prateno gadhnoi pjtteros. Vrateno gadh prehn`tnaono tbe àotext ag tbns djrie oukler ag `djsses preseots j rjtber `bjddeoinoi`djssngn`jtnao praldek. Xbe kare `djsses jre novadveh, tbe kare hnggnùdt nt nsta j`ùrjtedy prehn`t tbe gadh gar j èrtjno sequeoè.

Ye useh tbe hjtjset jojdyzeh ly (Hnoi & Hul`bjc, 53 Hul`bjc et jd., :>>>).

Xbe pjrjketers extrj`teh grak tbe prateno sequeoè jre tbegaddawnoi= @=jknoa j`nhs àkpasntnao, P=prehn`teh seàohjry stru`ture,B=byhrapbaln`nty, W= oarkjdnzeh vjo her Yjjds vaduke, V= padjrnty joh ]=padjrnzjlndnty.

Gar j `djssngn`jtnao kahed, tbe prehn`tnao ar ieoerjdnzjtnao `jpjlndntyns usujddy kare nkpartjot tbjo tbe jlndnty ta gnt tbe trjnonoi hjtj. No tbns `jse,

jo nohepeoheot hjtjset ns useh gar testnoi, ojkedy tbe VHL-86H sethevedapeh ly tbe jutbars ag tbe P@AV hjtjljse. Xbns set àotjnos tbe P@AV


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:02

sequeo`es bjvnoi dess tbjo 86% nheotnty wntb ej`b atber. Grak tbns set, 027represeotjtnves ag tbe sjke 6% ag tbe test pratenos bjve

dess tbjo >2). Xberegare, we `jo expe`t tbjt j prehn`tnao j``urj`y aotbe testnoi hjtjset jlave 05% ns oat hue ta tbe averdjppnoi pjtteros ag tbetest joh trjnonoi hjtjset, lut ta tbe ieoerjdnzjtnao `jpjlndnty ag tbe`djssngn`jtnao kahed.

@jse Ptuhnes

Xbe jdiarntbks we jppdneh jre wedd estjldnsbeh no kj`bnoe dejronoi. Grak

tbe nkpdekeotjtnao panot ag vnew, tbe vjrnjots hes`rnleh ly (Yntteo & Grjoc,


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ta kahed tbe uoherdynoi hjtj wedd. Xbe sjke nostjoè-ljseh ketbahs,espe`njddy c-OO joh OOIE, jdsa bjve tbe lest j`ùrj`y ao tbe testnoi sets.Xbe lest test vjdues jre preseoteh no tjlde 8.::, jdaoi wntb tbe lest jdiarntbkuseh ta altjno tbek.

Ly àosnhernoi tbe jverjie errar rjtes, we `jo ào`duhe tbjt tbe @kahed ns tbe ejsnest ta kahed, wberejs B joh ] kaheds jre pjrtnùdjrdyhnggnùdt ta ieoerjdnze.

Xjlde 8.::.Lest j`ùrj`y vjdues gar tbe test hjtjsets

Hjtjset J`ùrj`y Xbe lest jdiarntbk

@test 85.9:% c-OO

Btest 05.0.


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:86

Xjlde 8.:.6>% OL

B\

test 5>.98% OO

V\

test 59.86% OLP

\test 98.60% c-OO

W\

test 5>.98% OO

]\

test 55.0


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:8:

@bjpter 5

Bylrnh Oeurjd joh Oeura-Ieoetn` Ketbahs

5.:. @aklnonoi Oeurjd Kaheds wntb Vbeoakeoadain`jd

Kaheds

Xbe bylrnh kaheddnoi ns re`akkeoheh wbeo tbe pbeoakeoadain`jd kahed

ag j pra`ess ns

Documents

Florin Leon - Advanced Methods in Artificial Intelligence: Agents, Optimization and Machine Learning