1054 CHAPTER 33

Terms & NamesTerms & NamesMAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

Foreign PolicyAfter the Cold War

WHY IT MATTERS NOWWHY IT MATTERS NOW

Colin Powell did not start out in life with any special privi-leges. He was born in Harlem and raised in the Bronx, wherehe enjoyed street games and tolerated school. Then, whileattending the City College of New York, he joined theReserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC). He got straight A’s inROTC, and so he decided to make the army his career.

Powell served first in Vietnam and then in Korea andWest Germany. He rose in rank to become a general; thenPresident Reagan made him national security adviser. In thispost, Powell noted that the Soviet Union was a factor in allthe administration’s foreign policy decisions.

A PERSONAL VOICE COLIN POWELL

“ Our choosing sides in conflicts around the world wasalmost always decided on the basis of East-West competi-tion. The new Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, however, wasturning the old Cold War formulas on their head. . . . RonaldReagan . . . had the vision and flexibility, lacking in many knee-jerk Cold Warriors[participants in the Cold War between the U.S. and the USSR], to recognize thatGorbachev was a new man in a new age offering new opportunities for peace.”

—My American Journey

Though U.S. foreign policy in the early 1980s was marked by intense hostilitytoward the Soviet Union, drastic economic problems in the Soviet Uniondestroyed its ability to continue the Cold War standoff.

The Cold War EndsIn March of 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the general secretary of theCommunist Party in the Soviet Union. His rise to power marked the beginning ofa new era in the Soviet Union.

•MikhailGorbachev

•glasnost•perestroika•INF Treaty

•TiananmenSquare

•Sandinistas•Contras•Operation DesertStorm

The end of the Cold War,marked by the breakup ofthe Soviet Union in 1991,led to a redirection of manyU.S. goals and policies.

After the Cold War, the UnitedStates provided and continues toprovide substantial economicsupport to the new capitalisticand democratic nations.

GeneralColin Powell

One American's Story

GORBACHEV INITIATES REFORM Gorbachev had inher-ited a host of problems in the Soviet Union. Many of themrevolved around the stagnant Soviet economy. But in factthe entire Soviet system suffered from gross inefficiency andrecession.

An imaginative, skilled diplomat and political leader,Gorbachev advocated a policy known as glasnost (Russianfor “openness”). He allowed open criticism of the Sovietgovernment and took some steps toward freedom of thepress. In 1985, he outlined his plans for perestroika, arestructuring of Soviet society. He called for less govern-ment control of the economy, the introduction of some pri-vate enterprise, and steps toward establishing a democraticgovernment in the Soviet Union. His plan of action reflectedthe failure of the Communist system.

Gorbachev recognized that better relations with theUnited States would allow the Soviets to reduce their mili-tary spending and reform their economy. As a result, he ini-tiated a series of arms-control meetings that led to the INFTreaty (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty)signed on December 8, 1987. The United States Senate rati-fied the treaty five months later in May 1988. The treatyeliminated two classes of weapons systems in Europe andallowed each nation to make on-site inspections of theother’s military installations.

THE SOVIET UNION DECLINES Gorbachev’s introductionof democratic ideals led to a dramatic increase in national-ism on the part of the Soviet Union’s non-Russian republics.The pressure for complete change was overwhelming. InDecember 1991, 14 non-Russian republics declared theirindependence from the Soviet Union. Muscled aside byRussian reformers who thought he was working too slowlytoward democracy, Gorbachev himself lost power andresigned as Soviet president. After 74 years, the SovietUnion dissolved.

A loose federation known as the Commonwealth ofIndependent States (CIS) took the place of the SovietUnion. In February 1992, President George Bush andRussian president Boris Yeltsin issued a formal statementdeclaring an end to the Cold War that had plagued the two nations and dividedthe world since 1945. The statement marked the beginning of a new era of“friendship and partnership” between the two nations. In January 1993, Yeltsinand Bush signed the START II pact, designed to cut both nations’ nuclear arsenalsby two-thirds.

THE COLLAPSE OF COMMUNIST REGIMES Before his resignation, Gorbachevhad encouraged the people of East Germany and Eastern Europe to go their ownways. In 1988, when the Soviet Union was still intact, he reduced the number ofSoviet troops in Eastern Europe and allowed non-Communist parties to organizein satellite nations, such as East Germany and Poland. He encouraged the satel-lite nations to move toward democracy. The impoverished Soviet Union wouldno longer support unpopular Communist regimes.

In October 1989, East Germans startled the world by repudiating theirCommunist government. On November 9, 1989, East Germany opened the BerlinWall, allowing free passage between the two parts of the city for the first time in

WORLD STAGEWORLD STAGE

DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN RUSSIA

After the Soviet Union dissolvedin 1991, Boris Yeltsin continuedas president of Russia. Yeltsinended price controls andincreased private business own-ership. The Russian parliamentopposed Yeltsin’s policies, evenafter a 1993 referendum showedthat the majority of voters supported them.

In December 1993, Russianvoters installed a new parliamentand approved a new constitution,parts of which resembled theU.S. Constitution. The electionresults heralded an era of increas-ing democracy in Russia. In 1996,Yeltsin won reelection as presi-dent of Russia. He was succeed-ed in 2000 by Vladimir Putin.

The Conservative Tide 1055

A

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

A

EvaluatingLeadership

Whichevidence in thetext supports theviewpoint thatGorbachev was askilled politicianand diplomat?

A. AnswerGorbachev rec-ognized that theSoviet economyand politicalsystem were indisarray. Ratherthan trying toheal these sys-tems, he offerednew plans forgovernment andthe economythrough glas-nost and perestroika.

A Chineseprotester defiesthe tanks inTiananmenSquare in 1989.

28 years. East German border guards stood byand watched as Berliners pounded away withhammers and other tools at the despised wall.In early 1990, East Germany held its first freeelections, and on October 3 of that year, thetwo German nations were united.

Other European nations also adopteddemocratic reforms. Czechoslovakia withdrewfrom the Soviet bloc. The Baltic states of Latvia,Estonia, and Lithuania declared their inde-pendence from the Soviet Union. Hungary,Bulgaria, and Romania made successful transi-tions from communism.

Yugoslavia, however, collapsed. Four of itssix republics seceded. Ethnic rivalries deterio-rated into a brutal war among Muslims,Orthodox Serbs, and Roman Catholic Croats,who were dividing Yugoslavia, each claimingparts of it. Serbia backed Serb minorities thatwere stirring up civil unrest in Croatia andBosnia.

COMMUNISM CONTINUES IN CHINA Even before perestroika unfolded in theSoviet Union, economic reform had begun in China. Early in the 1980s, theChinese Communist government loosened its grip on business and eliminatedsome price controls. Students in China began to demand freedom of speech anda greater voice in government.

In April 1989, university students in China held marches that quickly grewinto large demonstrations in Beijing’s Tiananmen (tyänPänPmDnP) Square andon the streets of other cities. In Tiananmen Square, Chinese students constructeda version of the Statue of Liberty to symbolize their struggle for democracy.

China’s premier, Li Peng, eventually ordered the military to crush the pro-testers. China’s armed forces stormed into Tiananmen Square, slaughteringunarmed students. The world’s democratic countries watched these events inhorror on television. The collapse of the pro-democracy movement left thefuture in China uncertain. As one student leader said, “The government has wonthe battle here today. But they have lost the people’s hearts.”

1056 CHAPTER 33

B

▼

A demonstratorpounds away onthe Berlin Wall as East Germanborder guardslook on fromabove at theBrandenbergGate, onNovember 11,1989.

▼

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

B

AnalyzingEvents

What signssignaled that theCold War hadcome to an end?

B. Answer TheSoviet Uniondissolved. EastGermany andWest Germanywere unified.Several EasternEuropean coun-tries adopteddemocraticgovernments.

Central American and Caribbean PolicyCold War considerations during the Reagan and Bush administrations continuedto influence affairs in Central America and the Caribbean. In these places, theUnited States still opposed left-leaning and socialist governments in favor of gov-ernments friendly to the United States.

NICARAGUA The United States had had a presence in Nicaragua ever since 1912,when President Taft sent U.S. Marines to protect American investments there. Themarines left in 1933, but only after helping the dictator Anastasio Somoza cometo power.

The Somoza family ruled Nicaragua for 42 years. To keep control of its busi-ness empire, the family rigged elections and assassinated political rivals. Manypeople believed that only a revolution would end the Somoza dictatorship.

Between 1977 and 1979, Nicaragua was engulfed in a civil war betweenSomoza’s national guard and the Sandinistas, rebels who took their name froma rebel leader named Sandino who had been killed in 1934. When Sandinistarebels toppled the dictatorship of Somoza’s son in 1979, President Carter recog-nized the new regime and sent it $83 million in economic aid. The Soviet Unionand Cuba sent aid as well.

In 1981, however, President Reagan charged that Nicaragua was a Soviet out-post that was “exporting revolution” to other Central American countries. Reagancut all aid to the Sandinista government and threw his support to guerrilla forcesknown as the Contras because they were “against” the Sandinistas. By 1983, theContra army had grown to nearly 10,000 men, and American officials from theCIA had stationed themselves to direct operations—without congressionalapproval. In response, Congress passed the Boland Amendment, banning military

The Conservative Tide 1057

SanJuan

Havana

San SalvadorTegucigalpa

Managua

BelmopanKingston

Port-au-PrinceSantoDomingo

Nassau

San José

GuatemalaCity

Panama City

Gulf of Mexico

Caribbean Sea

ATLANTICOCEAN

DOMINICANREPUBLIC

PUERTO RICO(U.S.)

BAHAMAS

UNITEDSTATES

HAITI

JAMAICA

CUBA

MEXICO

COLOMBIA

BELIZE

VENEZUELA

COSTA RICA

Tropic of Cancer

75°W90°W 60°W

15°N

N

S

EW

0 200 400 kilometers

0 200 400 milesGEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Location Which Central American and Caribbean countries experienced an

actual U.S. invasion of their territory during the 1980s?2. Region Besides direct attack, what other techniques did the United States

employ to influence countries in the Caribbean and Central American regions?

Central America and the Caribbean, 1981–1992

Guatemala Dec. 1990 U.S. suspends military aidbecause of regime’s civilrights abuses.

Honduras 1982–1990 Military aid includes100 military advisers. Country is a base forNicaraguan Contras.

Grenada Oct. 25, 1983 In first large-scale in-vasion in region since1965, 1,200 marinesand 700 Army Rangersrestore law and orderafter overthrow ofBishop government.

Panama Dec. 20, 1989 In Operation Just Cause,22,000 U.S. troops overthrowGeneral Manuel Noriega.

Nicaragua 1982–1990 Opposed to militarybuildup of Sandinista government and itsaid to leftist rebels in El Salvador, U.S.trains and aids Nicaraguan Contra rebels.

El Salvador 1981–1992U.S. expands economic andmilitary aid; sends advisers,including Green Berets, tohelp government combat leftist guerrillas.

SkillbuilderAnswers1. Grenada andPanama.2. Providingeconomic andmilitary aid, aswell as dis-patching militaryadvisors.

C

aid to the Contras for two years. However, Reagan’s administration still foundways to negotiate aid to the Contras.

On February 25, 1990, Nicaraguan president Daniel Ortega held free elec-tions, and Violeta de Chamorro, a Contra supporter, was elected the nation’snew president. Chamorro’s coalition was united only in opposition to theSandinistas; it was too weak and divided to solve Nicaragua’s ongoing problems.

GRENADA On the tiny Caribbean island of Grenada, the United States useddirect military force to accomplish its aims. After noting that the island wasdeveloping ties to Communist Cuba, President Reagan sent approximately 2,000troops to the island in 1983. There they overthrew the pro-Cuban government,which was replaced by one friendlier to the United States. Eighteen American sol-diers died in the attack, but Reagan declared that the invasion had been necessaryto defend U.S. security.

PANAMA Six years later, in 1989, President Bush sent more than 20,000 soldiersand marines into Panama to overthrow and arrest General Manuel AntonioNoriega on charges of drug trafficking. Noriega had been receiving money since1960 from the CIA, but he was also involved in the international drug trade. Afterhe was indicted by a Miami grand jury, Noriega was taken by force by theAmerican military and flown to Miami to stand trial. In April 1992, Noriega wasconvicted and sentenced to 40 years in prison. Many Latin American govern-ments deplored the “Yankee imperialism” of the action. However, manyAmericans—and Panamanians—were pleased by the removal of a military dic-tator who supported drug smuggling.

Middle East Trouble SpotsResults favorable to U.S. interests were more difficult to obtain in the Middle East.Negotiating conflicts between ever-shifting governments drew the United Statesinto scandal and its first major war since Vietnam.

THE IRAN-CONTRA SCANDALIn 1983, terrorist groups loyal to Iran took a number ofAmericans hostage in Lebanon.Reagan denounced Iran andurged U.S. allies not to sell armsto Iran for its war against Iraq. In1985, he declared that “Americawill never make concessions toterrorists.” Therefore, Americanswere shocked to learn in 1986that President Reagan hadapproved the sale of arms toIran. In exchange for those sales,Iran promised to win the releaseof seven American hostages heldin Lebanon by pro-Iranian ter-rorists. What’s more, membersof Reagan’s staff sent part of the

1058 CHAPTER 33

▼

President Reagan's message totelevision audiences about sellingarms to Iran differed greatly fromwhat was going on behind the scenes.

C. Answer Thegovernmentused directintervention inCentral Americaand diplomacyin Europe.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

CComparing

Between1980 and 1992,how did U.S.policies regardingCentral Americadiffer from thoseregarding Europe?

“The United States should not intervene militarily in regional conflicts.”

A foreign-policy analyst at the Cato Institute, BarbaraConry, stated that “intervention in regional wars is adistraction and a drain on resources.” What’s more,she argued, “it does not work.” Recalling the presenceof American troops in Lebanon, Conry argued that inter-vention not only jeopardized American soldiers, it oftenobstructed what it sought to achieve.

“The internal freedomof a political communitycan be achieved only by members of that com-munity,” agreed ProfessorStephen R. Shalom. Headded that “using [militaryaction] encourages quick fix solutions that ignore the underlying sources ofconflict.”

“The United States must occasionally intervene militarily in regional conflicts.”

Proponents of U.S. military intervention abroad agreedwith General Norman Schwarzkopf that “as the onlyremaining superpower, we have an awesome responsi-bility . . . to the rest of the world.”

“The United States must take the lead in promo-ting democracy,” urged Morton H. Halperin, formerdirector of the ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union).“To say ‘Let the UN do it’is a cop-out,” stated advis-er Robert G. Neumann.

Political scientist JaneSharp expressed a similarsentiment. She asked,“Can any nation that hastaken no action [in Bosnia]to stop the Serbian prac-tice of ethnic cleansingcontinue to call itself civilized?”

C O U N T E R P O I N TC O U N T E R P O I N TP O I N TP O I N T

profits from those illegal arms sales to the Contras in Nicaragua—in direct viola-tion of the Boland Amendment. President Reagan held a press conference toexplain what had happened.

A PERSONAL VOICE RONALD REAGAN

“ I am deeply troubled that the implementation of a policy aimed at resolving atruly tragic situation in the Middle East has resulted in such controversy. As I’vestated previously, I believe our policy goals toward Iran were well founded.”

—presidential press conference, November 25, 1986

In the summer of 1987, special committees of both houses of Congress con-ducted a dramatic inquiry into the Iran-Contra affair during a month of joint tele-vised hearings. Among those testifying was Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, amember of the National Security Council staff who played a key role in providingaid to the Contras. North appeared in military uniform adorned with medals. Indefending his actions, North talked about patriotism and love of country. Heasserted that he thought he was carrying out the president’s wishes and that theend of helping the Contras justified almost any means.

After a congressional investigation, Special Prosecutor Lawrence E. Walsh,early in 1988, indicted various members of the Reagan administration who wereinvolved in the scandal. Oliver North was found guilty of taking part in thecover-up. He was sentenced to pay a stiff fine and perform community service. OnChristmas Eve of 1992, President Bush pardoned a number of Reagan officials.

THE PERSIAN GULF WAR Regardless of the scandal surrounding the Iran-Contraaffair, conflict with Iraq (Iran’s long-standing enemy) and its leader, SaddamHussein, soon eclipsed U.S. problems with Iran. During the 1980s, Iran and Iraqhad fought a prolonged war, and Hussein found himself with enormous war debtsto pay. Several times, Hussein had claimed that the oil-rich nation of Kuwait waspart of Iraq. On August 2, 1990, Iraqi troops invaded a disputed area claimed byKuwait. The Iraqi invaders looted Kuwait, then headed toward Saudi Arabia and

The Conservative Tide 1059

THINKING CRITICALLYTHINKING CRITICALLY

1. CONNECT TO TODAY Comparing and ContrastingWhat do you think are the strongest arguments for and against military intervention in regional conflicts?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R8.

2. CONNECT TO HISTORY Hypothesizing With at leastone partner, research the events leading up to U.S.involvement in one of these countries: Lebanon, Grenada,Panama, or Kuwait. Then negotiate to resolve the conflict.

50°E

40°N

20°N

30°E

Tropic of Cancer

P e r s i a nG u l f

Red

Sea

Medi terraneanSea

CaspianSea

EuphratesRiver

Nile

River

TigrisRiver

ISRAEL

LEBANONCYPRUS S Y R I A

JORDAN

EGYPT

T U R K E Y

I R A QI R A N

SAUDIARABIA

BAHRAIN

QATAR

KUWAIT

Beirut

Damascus

Jerusalem Amman

Haifa

Tel Aviv

Baghdad

KuwaitCity

Khafji

Basra

Al Jubayl

Dhahran

Hafar al Batin

King KhalidMilitary City

Tabuk

Doha

Al Manamah

Riyadh

Tehran

Major Iraqi missile target

Iraqi forces

UN coalition forces

US/UN major air strike

US/UN naval forces

0 100 200 kilometers

0 100 200 miles

N

S

EW

The Persian Gulf War, 1990–1991

1060 CHAPTER 33

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER 1. Region What did UN coalition forces probably hope

to achieve by moving forces into southern Iraq? 2. Movement How did the movements of coalition

ground forces show that the intention of the coalition inthe Gulf War was ultimately defensive, not offensive?

Aug. 2, 1990 Iraq invades Kuwait.

Women served along withmen in the military during theGulf War (right). Massive oilfires started by the Iraqisburned in Kuwait (below).

Jan. 16, 1991 US/UN air attacksbegin against Iraq.

Feb. 23, 1991 UN coalition launchesground war.

its oil fields. If Iraq conquered Saudi Arabia as well asKuwait, it would control one-half of the world’s known oilreserves, which would severely threaten U.S. oil supplies.

For several months, President Bush and Secretary ofState James Baker organized an international coalitionagainst Iraqi aggression. With the support of Congress andthe UN, President Bush launched Operation DesertStorm to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi control. On January16, 1991, the United States and its allies staged a massive airassault against Iraq. On February 23, they launched a suc-cessful ground offensive from Saudi Arabia. On February 28,1991, President Bush announced a cease-fire. OperationDesert Storm was over. Kuwait was liberated.

Millions of Americans turned out for the victory paradesthat greeted returning soldiers. After the debacle in Vietnam,they were thrilled the war was over, with fewer than 400casualties among UN coalition forces. (However, there weresubsequent reports that Gulf veterans were suffering fromdisabilities caused by chemicals used in the war.) By con-trast, Iraq had suffered an estimated 100,000 military andcivilian deaths. During the embargo that followed, manyIraqi children died from outbreaks of cholera, typhoid,enteritis, and other diseases.

BUSH’S DOMESTIC POLICIES Despite his great achieve-ment in the Persian Gulf War, President Bush was not assuccessful on the domestic front. He was hurt by risingdeficits and a recession that began in 1990 and lastedthrough most of 1992. Bush was forced to raise taxesdespite his campaign pledge. His approval rating haddropped to 49 percent by 1992. The weak economy and the tax hike doomedBush’s reelection campaign, and 12 years of Republican leadership came to an end.

The Conservative Tide 1061

•Mikhail Gorbachev•glasnost

•perestroika•INF Treaty

•Tiananmen Square•Sandinistas

•Contras•Operation Desert Storm

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its meaning.

MAIN IDEA2. TAKING NOTES

Use a chart like the one below toexplain U.S. foreign policy towardworld regions.

Now write a paragraph in which youdescribe a trouble spot in one ofthese regions.

CRITICAL THINKING3. ANALYZING CAUSES

What factors caused the end of theCold War? Think About:

• events in the Soviet Union• events in Germany and Eastern

Europe• how U.S. leaders responded to

those events

4. FORMING GENERALIZATIONS What factors do you thinkdetermined whether or not theUnited States intervened militarily inother nations?

5. HYPOTHESIZINGIs it possible for an authoritariangovernment to make economicreforms without also makingpolitical reforms? Support youranswer with details from the text.

U.S. Foreign Policy

Europe

Central America and Caribbean

Middle East

KEY PLAYERKEY PLAYER

H. NORMAN SCHWARZKOPF1934–

In 1988, Norman Schwarzkopf,shown above, became comman-der in chief of forces in Asia andAfrica. During the Persian GulfWar, more than 540,000 menand women served under thecommand of “Stormin’ Norman.”Schwarzkopf said of SaddamHussein that he was “neither astrategist, nor is he schooled inthe operational art, nor is he atactician, nor is he a general, noris he a soldier. Other than that,he is a great military man.”

D

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

D

DrawingConclusions

What issueled to the conflictin the MiddleEast?

D. AnswerControl over theoil in the region.

SkillbuilderAnswers1. By securingthe area, coali-tion forces wereprobably hopingto cut Iraq offfrom furtherland access toKuwait and alsoto isolate Iraqiforces alreadyin Kuwait. 2. Coalitionforces did notstrike deep intoIraq, only goingfar enough toprotect Kuwait.