Fuel oil

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An oil tanker taking on bunker fuel.

Fuel oil is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation, either as a distillate or a residue. Broadly speaking fuel oil is any liquid petroleum product that is burned in a furnace or boiler for the generation of heat or used in an engine for the generation of power, except oils having a flash point of approximately 40 °C (104 °F) and oils burned in cotton or wool-wick burners. In this sense, diesel is a type of fuel oil. Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics. The term fuel oil is also used in a stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest commercial fuel that can be obtained from crude oil, i.e., heavier than gasoline and naphtha.

In Australia the term 'distillate' refers specifically to diesel fuel.[1]

Contents

1 Classes

2 Bunker fuel

3 Uses

4 Maritime

4.1 Standards and classification

5 Transportation

6 Environmental issues

7 See also

8 References

9 External links

Classes

Although the following trends generally hold true, different organizations mayhave different numerical specifications for the six fuel grades. The boiling point and carbon chain length of the fuel increases with fuel oil number. Viscosity also increases with number, and the heaviest oil has to be heated toget it to flow. Price usually decreases as the fuel number increases.[2]

Number 1 fuel oil is a volatile distillate oil intended for vaporizing pot-type burners.[3] It is the kerosene refinery cut that boils off right after the heavy naphtha cut used for gasoline. Older names include coal oil, stove oil and range oil.[2]

Number 2 fuel oil is a distillate home heating oil.[3] Trucks and some cars usesimilar diesel fuel with a cetane number limit describing the ignition quality ofthe fuel. Both are typically obtained from the light gas oil cut. Gas oil refers tothe original use of this fraction in the late 19th and early 20th centuries - the gas oil cut was used as an enriching agent for carburetted water gas manufacture.[2]

Number 3 fuel oil was a distillate oil for burners requiring low-viscosity fuel. ASTM merged this grade into the number 2 specification, and the term has been rarely used since the mid-20th century.[3]

Number 4 fuel oil is a commercial heating oil for burner installations not equipped with preheaters.[3] It may be obtained from the heavy gas oil cut.[2]

Number 5 fuel oil is a residual-type industrial heating oil requiring preheating to 170 – 220 °F (77 – 104 °C) for proper atomization at the burners.[3] This fuel is sometimes known as Bunker B. It may be obtained from the heavy gas oil cut,[2] or it may be a blend of residual oil with enough number 2 oil to adjust viscosity until it can be pumped without preheating.[3]

Number 6 fuel oil is a high-viscosity residual oil requiring preheating to 220 – 260 °F (104 – 127 °C). Residual means the material remaining after the more valuable cuts of crude oil have boiled off. The residue may contain various undesirable impurities including 2 percent water and one-half percent mineralsoil. This fuel may be known as residual fuel oil (RFO), by the Navy specification of Bunker C, or by the Pacific Specification of PS-400.[3]

Mazut is a residual fuel oil often derived from Russian petroleum sources and is either blended with lighter petroleum fractions or burned directly in specialized boilers and furnaces. It is also used as a petrochemical feedstock.

Bunker fuel

"Bunker oil" redirects here. For the Norwegian company, see Bunker Oil (company).

A sample of residual fuel oil

Small molecules like those in propane, naphtha, gasoline for cars, and jet fuelhave relatively low boiling points, and they are removed at the start of the fractional distillation process. Heavier petroleum products like diesel and lubricating oil are much less volatile and distill out more slowly, while bunker oil is literally the bottom of the barrel; in oil distilling, the only things more dense than bunker fuel are carbon black feedstock and bituminous residue which is used for paving roads (asphalt) and sealing roofs.

Bunker fuel or bunker crude is technically any type of fuel oil used aboard vessels. It gets its name from the tanks on ships and in ports that it is stored in; in the early days of steam they were coal bunkers but now they are bunker fuel tanks. The Australian Customs and the Australian Tax Office define a bunker fuel as the fuel that powers the engine of a ship or aircraft. Bunker A is No. 2 fuel oil, bunker B is No. 4 or No. 5 and bunker C is No. 6. Since No. 6 is the most common, "bunker fuel" is often used as a synonym forNo. 6. No. 5 fuel oil is also called Navy Special Fuel Oil (NSFO) or just navy special; No. 5 or 6 are also commonly called heavy fuel oil (HFO) or furnace fuel oil (FFO); the high viscosity requires heating, usually by a recirculated low pressure steam system, before the oil can be pumped from a bunker tank. Bunkers are rarely labeled this way in modern maritime practice.

Since the 1980s the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has been the accepted standard for marine fuels (bunkers). The standard is listed under number 8217, with recent updates in 2005 and 2010. They have broken it down to Residual and Distillate fuels. The most common residual fuels in the shipping industry are RMG and RMK.[4] The differences between the two are mainly the density and viscosity, with RMG generally being delivered at 380 centistokes or less, and RMK at 700 centistokes or less. Ships with more advanced engines can process heavier, more viscous, and thus cheaper, fuel. Governing bodies (i.e., California, European Union) aroundthe world have established Emission Control Areas (ECA) which limit the maximum sulfur of fuels burned in their ports to limit pollution, reducing the percentage of sulfur and other particulates from 4.5% m/m to as little as .10% as of 2015 inside an ECA. As of 2013 3.5% continued to be permitted outside an ECA.[5] This is where Marine Distillate Fuels and other alternatives[6] to use of heavy bunker fuel come into play. They have similar properties to Diesel #2 which is used as road Diesel around the world. The most common grades used in shipping are DMA and DMB.[7] Greenhouse gasemissions resulting from the use of international bunker fuels are currently included in national inventories [8] [9]

Table of fuel oils

Name Alias Alias Type Chain Length

No. 1 fuel oil No. 1 distillate No. 1 diesel fuel Distillate 9-16

No. 2 fuel oil No. 2 distillate No. 2 diesel fuel Distillate 10-20

No. 3 fuel oil No. 3 distillate No. 3 diesel fuel Distillate

No. 4 fuel oil No. 4 distillate No. 4 residual fuel oil Distillate/Residual 12-70

No. 5 fuel oil No. 5 residual fuel oil Heavy fuel oil Residual 12-70

No. 6 fuel oil No. 6 residual fuel oil Heavy fuel oil Residual 20-70

Uses

A fuel station in Zigui County on the Yangtze River

Oil has many uses; it heats homes and businesses and fuels trucks, ships and

some cars. A small amount of electricity is produced by diesel, but it is more polluting and more expensive than natural gas. It is often used as a backup fuel for peaking power plants in case the supply of natural gas is interrupted or as the main fuel for small electrical generators. In Europe, the use of dieselis generally restricted to cars (about 40%), SUVs (about 90%), and trucks andbuses (virtually all). The market for home heating using fuel oil, called heating oil, has decreased due to the widespread penetration of natural gas as well as heat pumps. However, it is very common in some areas, such as the Northeastern United States.

Fuel oil truck making a delivery in North Carolina, 1945.

Residual fuel oil is less useful because it is so viscous that it has to be heated with a special heating system before use and it may contain relatively high amounts of pollutants, particularly sulfur, which forms sulfur dioxide upon combustion. However, its undesirable properties make it very cheap. In fact, it is the cheapest liquid fuel available. Since it requires heating before use, residual fuel oil cannot be used in road vehicles, boats or small ships, as the heating equipment takes up valuable space and makes the vehicle heavier. Heating the oil is also a delicate procedure, which is inappropriate to do on small, fast moving vehicles. However, power plants and large ships are able to use residual fuel oil.

Use of residual fuel oil was more common in the past. It powered boilers, railroad steam locomotives and steamships. Locomotive has mainly been electrified, and in some occasions uses diesel; steamships are not as commonas they were previously due to their higher operating costs (most LNG carriers use steam plants, as "boil-off" gas emitted from the cargo can be used as a fuel source); and most boilers now use heating oil or natural gas. Some industrial boilers still use it and so do some old buildings, including in New York City. The City estimates that the 1% of its buildings that burn fuel oils No. 4 and No. 6 are responsible for 86% of the soot pollution generated by all buildings in the city. New York has made the phase out of these fuel grades part of its environmental plan, PlaNYC, because of concerns for the health effects caused by fine particulates.[10]

Residual fuel's use in electrical generation has also decreased. In 1973, residual fuel oil produced 16.8% of the electricity in the US. By 1983, it had fallen to 6.2%, and as of 2005, electricity production from all forms of petroleum, including diesel and residual fuel, is only 3% of total production.

The decline is the result of price competition with natural gas and environmental restrictions on emissions. For power plants, the costs of heating the oil, extra pollution control and additional maintenance required after burning it often outweigh the low cost of the fuel. Burning fuel oil, particularly residual fuel oil, produces uniformly higher carbon dioxide emissions than natural gas.[11]

Heavy fuel oils continue to be used in the boiler "lighting up" facility in many coal-fired power plants. This use is approximately analogous to using kindlingto start a fire. Without performing this act it is difficult to begin the large-scale combustion process.

The chief drawback to residual fuel oil is its high initial viscosity, particularly in the case of No. 6 oil, which requires a correctly engineered system for storage, pumping, and burning. Though it is still usually lighter than water (with a specific gravity usually ranging from 0.95 to 1.03) it is much heavier and more viscous than No. 2 oil, kerosene, or gasoline. No. 6 oil must, in fact, be stored at around 100 °F (38 °C) heated to 150–250 °F (66–121 °C) before it can be easily pumped, and in cooler temperatures it can congeal into a tarry semisolid. The flash point of most blends of No. 6 oil is, incidentally, about 150 °F (66 °C). Attempting to pump high-viscosity oil at low temperatures was a frequent cause of damage to fuel lines, furnaces, and related equipment which were often designed for lighter fuels.

For comparison, BS2869 Class G heavy fuel oil behaves in similar fashion, requiring storage at 104 °F (40 °C), pumping at around 122 °F (50 °C) and finalising for burning at around 194–248 °F (90–120 °C).

Most of the facilities which historically burned No. 6 or other residual oils wereindustrial plants and similar facilities constructed in the early or mid 20th century, or which had switched from coal to oil fuel during the same time period. In either case, residual oil was seen as a good prospect because it was cheap and readily available. Most of these facilities have subsequently been closed and demolished, or have replaced their fuel supplies with a simpler one such as gas or No. 2 oil. The high sulfur content of No. 6 oil—up to 3% by weight in some extreme cases—had a corrosive effect on many heating systems (which were usually designed without adequate corrosion protection in mind), shortening their lifespans and increasing the polluting

effects. This was particularly the case in furnaces that were regularly shut down and allowed to go cold, since the internal condensation produced sulfuric acid.

Environmental cleanups at such facilities are frequently complicated by the use of asbestos insulation on the fuel feed lines. No. 6 oil is very persistent, and does not degrade rapidly. Its viscosity and stickiness also make remediation of underground contamination very difficult, since these properties reduce the effectiveness of methods such as air stripping.

When released into water, such as a river or ocean, residual oil tends to breakup into patches or tarballs—mixtures of oil and particulate matter such as silt and floating organic matter- rather than form a single slick. An average of about 5-10% of the material will evaporate within hours of the release, primarily the lighter hydrocarbon fractions. The remainder will then often sinkto the bottom of the water column.

Maritime

In the maritime field another type of classification is used for fuel oils:

MGO (Marine gas oil) - roughly equivalent to No. 2 fuel oil, made from distillate only

MDO (Marine diesel oil) - A blend of heavy gasoil that may contain very small amounts of black refinery feed stocks, but has a low viscosity up to 12 cSt so it need not be heated for use in internal combustion engines

IFO (Intermediate fuel oil) A blend of gasoil and heavy fuel oil, with less gasoil than marine diesel oil

MFO (Marine fuel oil) - same as HDO (just another "naming")

HFO (Heavy fuel oil) - Pure or nearly pure residual oil, roughly equivalent toNo. 6 fuel oil

Marine diesel oil contains some heavy fuel oil, unlike regular diesels. Also, marine fuel oils sometimes contain waste products such as used motor oil.

Standards and classification

CCAI and CII are two indexes which describe the ignition quality of residual fuel oil, and CCAI is especially often calculated for marine fuels. Despite this, marine fuels are still quoted on the international bunker markets with their maximum viscosity (which is set by the ISO 8217 standard - see below) due to the fact that marine engines are designed to use different viscosities of fuel.[12] The unit of viscosity used is the Centistoke and the fuels most frequently quoted are listed below in order of cost, the least expensive first-

IFO 380 - Intermediate fuel oil with a maximum viscosity of 380 Centistokes (<3.5% sulphur)

IFO 180 - Intermediate fuel oil with a maximum viscosity of 180 Centistokes (<3.5% sulphur)

LS 380 - Low-sulphur (<1.0%) intermediate fuel oil with a maximum viscosity of 380 Centistokes

LS 180 - Low-sulphur (<1.0%) intermediate fuel oil with a maximum viscosity of 180 Centistokes

MDO - Marine diesel oil.

MGO - Marine gasoil.

LSMGO - Low-sulphur (<0.1%) Marine Gas Oil - The fuel is to be used in EU community Ports and Anchorages. EU Sulphur directive 2005/33/EC

ULSMGO - Ultra Low Sulphur Marine Gas Oil - referred to as Ultra Low SulfurDiesel (sulphur 0.0015% max) in the US and Auto Gas Oil (sulphur 0.001% max) in the EU. Maximum sulphur allowable in US territories and territorial waters (inland, marine and automotive) and in the EU for inland use.

The density is also an important parameter for fuel oils since marine fuels arepurified before use to remove water and dirt from the oil. Since the purifiers use centrifugal force, the oil must have a density which is sufficiently different from water. Older purifiers had a maximum of 991 kg/m3; with modern purifiers it is also possible to purify oil with a density of 1010 kg/m3.

The first British standard for fuel oil came in 1982. The latest standard is ISO

8217 from 2005. The ISO standard describe four qualities of distillate fuels and 10 qualities of residual fuels. Over the years the standards have become stricter on environmentally important parameters such as sulfur content. The latest standard also banned the adding of used lubricating oil (ULO).

Some parameters of marine fuel oils according to ISO 8217 (3. ed 2005):

Marine Distillate Fuels

Parameter Unit Limit DMX DMA DMB DMC

Density at 15°C kg/m3 Max - 890.0 900.0 920.0

Viscosity at 40°C mm²/s Max 5.5 6.0 11.0 14.0

mm²/s Min 1.4 1.5 - -

Water % V/V Max - - 0.3 0.3

Sulfur1 % (m/m) Max 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.0

Aluminium + Silicon2 mg/kg Max - - - 25

Flash point3 °C Min 43 60 60 60

Pour point, Summer °C Max - 0 6 6

Pour point, Winter °C Max - -6 0 0

Cloud point °C Max -16 - - -

Calculated Cetane Index Min 45 40 35 -

Maximum sulfur content in the open ocean is 3.5% since January 2012. Max sulfur content is 1.00% in designated areas, and will be 0.1% after January 1, 2015.

The aluminium+silicon value is used to check for remains of the catalyst after catalytic cracking. Most catalysts contains aluminium or silicon and remains of catalyst can cause damage to the engine.

The flash point of all fuels used in the engine room should be at least 60°C (DMX is used for things like emergency generators and not normally used in the engine room).

Marine Residual Fuels

Parameter Unit Limit RMA 30 RMB 30 RMD 80 RME 180 RMF 180 RMG 380 RMH 380 RMK 380 RMH 700 RMK

700

Density at 15°C kg/m3 Max 960.0 975.0 980.0 991.0 991.0 991.0 991.0 1010.0 991.0 1010.0

Viscosity at 50°C mm²/s Max 30.0 30.0 80.0 180.0 180.0 380.0 380.0 380.0 700.0 700.0

Water % V/V Max 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Sulfur1 % (m/m) Max 3.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5

Aluminium + Silicon2 mg/kg Max 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Flash point3 °C Min 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60

Pour point, Summer °C Max 6 24 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

Pour point, Winter °C Max 0 24 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

Maximum sulfur content in the open ocean is 3.5% since January 2012. Max sulfur content is 1.00% in designated areas, and will be 0.1% after January 1, 2015.

The aluminium+silicon value is used to check for remains of the catalyst after catalytic cracking. Most catalysts contains aluminium or silicon and remains of catalyst can cause damage to the engine.

The flash point of all fuels used in the engine room should be at least 60°C.(apart from those gaseous fuels such as LPG/LNG which have special class rules applied to the fuel systems)

Transportation

Fuel oil is transported worldwide by fleets of oil tankers making deliveries to suitably sized strategic ports such as Houston, Singapore, Fujairah, Balboa, Cristobal, Algeciras and Rotterdam. Where a convenient seaport does not exist, inland transport may be achieved with the use of barges. The lighter fuel oils can also be transported through pipelines. The major physical supply chains of Europe are along the Rhine.

Environmental issues

Emissions from bunker fuel burning in ships contribute to air pollution levels in many port cities, especially where the emissions from industry and road traffic have been controlled. The switch of auxiliary engines from heavy fuel oil to diesel oil at berth can result in large emission reductions, especially for SO2 and PM. CO2 emissions from bunker fuels sold are not added to national GHG emissions. For small countries with large international ports, there is an important difference between the emissions in territorial waters and the total emissions of the fuel sold.[9]

See also

Coconut oil: an important fuel for ships in regions such as the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu[13]

Diesel fuel

Gasoline

Heating oil

Jet fuel

Kerosene

Lubricant

Naphtha

Gas Oil Separation Plant

Fuel management systems

Fuel price risk management

Marine fuel management

Hot bulb engine

Pyrolysis oil

References

The MacQuarie Dictionary 3rd ed, The MacQuarie Library 1997

Kent, James A. Riegel's Handbook of Industrial Chemistry (1983) Van Nostrand Reinhold Company ISBN 0-442-20164-8 pp.492-493

Perry, Robert H., Chilton, Cecil H. and Kirkpatrick, Sidney D. Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook 4th edition (1963) McGraw Hill p.9-6

RMG and RMK

"Sulphur oxides (SOx) – Regulation 14". International Marine Organization. Retrieved July 11, 2013. "SOx and particulate matter emission controls apply to all fuel oil"

Robert Wall (July 10, 2013). "Rolls-Royce Revives Age of Sail to Beat Fuel-Cost Surge: Freight". Bloomberg. Retrieved July 11, 2013. "a development which will prompt a switch to “a much more diverse fuel pallet"

DMA and DMB

Schrooten, L; De Vlieger, Ina; Int Panis, Luc; Chiffi, Cosimo; Pastori, Enrico (2009). "Emissions of maritime transport: a reference system". Science of theTotal Environment 408: 318–323. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.07.03710.1186/1476-069X-9-64.

Schrooten, L; De Vlieger, Ina; Int Panis, Luc; Styns, R. Torfs, K; Torfs, R (2008). "Inventory and forecasting of maritime emissions in the Belgian sea territory, an activity based emission model". Atmospheric Environment - 42(4)667-676(2008) 42 (4): 667–676.

"Mayor Bloomberg Presents an Update to PlaNYC: a Greener, Greater New York". NYC.gov. Retrieved 22 April 2011.

http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.html

Bunkerworld.com Bunker prices for Rotterdam

National Geographic magazine, April 2012

Bunker Pricing Methodologies

External links

National Park Service - Fuel Oil

Implications of the 2015 ECA sulphur regulation

2014 ජල මස 10 වවනදද බබහසපතනදද

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From 1 January 2015 new legal requirements will come into force in the Emission Control Areas (ECA) in North Europe (Including the Baltic Sea, North Sea and English Channel) and North America (200 nautical miles from American and Canadian shore). This legal requirement will lower the maximum allowed content of sulphur in fuel burned in the ECA’s to 0.1% sulphur from todays 1.0%.

See map below for further detail.

The 2015 requirements will have significant positive effects on the environmental and health in the regions and Maersk Line fully supports such a development, subject to strict regulatory enforcement to safeguard the environmental benefits and ensure a level playing field for ship operators.

Map of Emission Control Areas in Europe and North America.

IMPLICATIONS

This requirement will have the following effects and implications for society, Maersk Line, and our customers:

Environment and Health: Sulphur emissions (SOx) will be reduced by 90% which will have significant positive effects on the environment and on health in general. SOx emissions are toxic and cause respiratory implications as wellas acid rain.

Maersk Line: Fuel with a sulphur content of 0.1% is significantly more expensive than fuel with 1.0% sulphur content required in ECA areas today. By 2015, Maersk Line expects to purchase 650,000 tonnes of fuel with 0.1% sulphur content annually for our fleet, equal to 7% of all fuel purchased. Based on the current price difference of USD 300 per ton (approx. 50%), the additional cost to Maersk Line will be around USD 250 Million per year.

On top of that Maersk Line will face increased costs for buying services from third-party feeder operators, who will also have increasing fuel costs.

Customers: To offset the additional cost incurred, Maersk Line will incorporatethe higher average fuel costs into the existing standard bunker surcharge (SBF). We expect that additional cost to customers in affected trades will be between USD 50 and 150 per 40’ container to and from main ports, depending on transit time inside ECA areas and whether touching ECA areas at both origin and destination. Reefer containers will incur higher cost due to fuel used to generate power on board vessels; also cost will fluctuate depending on the volatility of low sulphur fuel prices.

Maersk Line will communicate more detailed SBF increases per trade when we get closer to implementation date and price difference between the different fuel types can be more precisely estimated.

NEED FOR STRONGER ENFORCEMENT

The North American ECA requirements are strongly enforced, but the current weak enforcement of the North European ECA requirements combined with the significant cost burden increase in 2015 might lead to increased non-compliance. This would not only weaken the positive effect on air quality, it would also be a major competitive disadvantage for the shipping companies that follow the rules.

Maersk Line is strongly encouraging relevant national authorities to put in place strict enforcement regimes that will create an industry level playing field and ensure that the positive environmental impact is not diluted.

Ultra-low-sulfur dieselFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) is diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur content. As of 2006, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in UK, Europe and North America is of a ULSD type. There is not a single standard set of specifications and as the government mandated standard becomes progressively more strict so does the definition.

The move to lower sulfur content is expected to allow the application of newer emissions control technologies that should substantially lower emissions of particulate matter from diesel engines. This change occurred first in the European Union and is now happening in North America. New emissions standards, dependent on the cleaner fuel, have been in effect for automobiles in the United States since model year 2007.

ULSD has a lower energy content due to the heavy processing required to remove large amounts of sulfur from oil, leading to (1 to 2%) lower fuel economy. Using it requires more costly oil.[1]

Contents

1 Africa

1.1 Kenya

1.2 Mauritius

1.3 South Africa

1.4 Morocco

2 Europe

2.1 European Union

2.1.1 Sweden

2.2 Central and Eastern Europe (“Accession Countries”)

3 North America

3.1 Canada

3.2 Mexico

3.3 United States

4 South America

4.1 Chile

4.2 Argentina

4.3 Brazil

4.4 Uruguay

4.5 Colombia

5 Asia

5.1 China

5.2 India

5.3 Hong Kong

5.4 Singapore

5.5 Taiwan

6 Oceania

6.1 Australia

6.2 New Zealand

7 Russia / CIS / Former Soviet Union

8 See also

9 References

10 External links

Africa

Kenya

Some filling stations in Kenya started offering 50 ppm diesel as of December 2010.[2]

Mauritius

As of June 2012, 50 ppm diesel is now standard across all filling stations, in a bid to reduce pollution.[3]

South Africa

50 ppm was first legislated by the South African Department of Minerals and Energy in early 2006, and has been widely available since then.

South Africa's Clean Fuels 2 standard, expected to be begin in 2017, will reduce the allowable sulphur content to 10 ppm. Sasol has already launched

10ppm diesel at selected filling stations as of 2013.[4]

Morocco

Morocco has started to introduce 50 ppm diesel to filling stations as of 2009.[5]

Europe

European Union

In the European Union, the “Euro IV” standard has applied since 2005, which specifies a maximum of 50 ppm of sulfur in diesel fuel for most highway vehicles;[6] ultra-low-sulfur diesel with a maximum of 10 ppm of sulfur must “be available” from 2005 and was widely available as of 2008. A final target (to be confirmed by the European Commission) of 2009 for the final reductionof sulfur to 10 ppm, which will be considered the entry into force of the Euro V fuel standard. In 2009, diesel fuel for most non-highway applications is also expected to conform to the Euro V standard for fuel. Various exceptions exist for certain uses and applications, most of which are being phased out over a period of several years. In particular, the so-called EU accession countries (primarily in Eastern Europe), have been granted certain temporary exemptions to allow for transition.

Certain EU countries may apply higher standards or require faster transition.[7] For example, Germany implemented a tax incentive of per litre of "sulphurfree" fuel (both gasoline and diesel) containing less than 10 ppm beginning inJanuary 2003 and average sulphur content was estimated in 2006 to be 3-5 ppm. Similar measures have been enacted in most of the Nordic countries, Benelux, Ireland and the United Kingdom to encourage early adoption of the 50 ppm and 10 ppm fuel standards.[8]

Sweden

Since 1990, diesel fuel with a sulfur content of 50 ppm (0.005%) has been available on the Swedish market. From the year 1992, production started of adiesel fuel with 2 to 5 ppm of sulfur and a maximum of 5% by volume aromatics. There are certain tax incentives for using this fuel and from about year 2000, this low aromatic, low sulfur fuel has achieved 98-99% penetration of the Swedish diesel fuel market. Now RME (rapeseed methyl

ester, also known as FAME (Fatty Acid Methyl Ester)) is a biofuel additive.

Since 2003, a "zero" sulfur with very low aromatic content (less than 1% by volume) diesel fuel has been made available on the Swedish market under the name EcoPar. It is used wherever the working environment is highly polluted, an example being where diesel trucks are used in confined spaces such as in harbours, inside storage houses, during construction of road and rail tunnels & in vehicles that are predominantly run in city centres.

Central and Eastern Europe (“Accession Countries”)

As of 2008, most accession countries are expected to have made the transition to diesel fuel with 10 ppm sulfur or less. Slightly different times for transition have applied to each of the countries, but most have been requiredto reduce the maximum sulfur content to less than 50 ppm since 2005.[3] Certain exemptions are expected for certain industries and applications, which will also be phased out over time. Compared to other EU countries, ULSD may be less widely available.

North America

Canada

Under Sulphur in Diesel Fuel Regulations (SOR/2002-254), the sulphur contentof diesel fuel produced or imported was reduced to 15 ppm after 31 May 2006. This was followed by the reduction of sulphur in diesel fuel sold for use in on-road vehicles after 31 August 2006. For the designated Northern SupplyArea, the deadline for reducing the sulfur content of diesel fuel for use in on-road vehicles was 31 August 2007.

An amendment titled Regulations Amending the Sulphur in Diesel Fuel Regulations (SOR/2005-305) added following deadlines:

concentration of sulphur in diesel fuel produced or imported for use in off-road engines shall not exceed 500 ppm from 1 June 2007 until 31 May 2010, and 15 ppm after that date.

concentration of sulphur in diesel fuel sold for use in off-road engines shall

not exceed 500 ppm from 1 October 2007 until 30 September 2010, and 15 ppm after that date.

concentration of sulphur in diesel fuel sold in the northern supply area for use in off-road engines shall not exceed 500 ppm from 1 December 2008 until 30 November 2011, and 15 ppm after that date.

concentration of sulfur in diesel fuel produced or imported for use in vesselengines or railway locomotive engines shall not exceed 500 parts per million (ppm) from 1 June 2007 until 31 May 2012, and 15 ppm after that date.

An amendment titled Regulations Amending the Sulphur in Diesel Fuel Regulations (SOR/SOR/2006-163) allowed diesel with sulfur content up to 22 ppm to be sold for onroad vehicles between 1 September 2006 and 15 October 2006, then 15 ppm after that date. This amendment facilitated the introduction of 15 ppm sulfur diesel fuel for on-road use in 2006, by lengthening the period between the dates that the production/import limit and the sales limit come into effect. It provided additional time to fully turn over the higher-sulfur diesel fuel inventory for on-road use in the distribution system. The requirements of the Regulations were aligned, in level and timing, with those of the U.S. EPA.

Mexico

Mexico has begun limited introductions of ULSD along the border with the United States.[9]

United States

As of September 2007, most on-highway diesel fuel sold at retail locations in the United States is ULSD.[10]

Ultra-low-sulfur diesel fuel was proposed by EPA as a new standard for the sulfur content in on-road diesel fuel sold in the United States since October 15, 2006, except for rural Alaska who transferred in 2010. California has required it since September 1, 2006. This new regulation applies to all diesel fuel, diesel fuel additives and distillate fuels blended with diesel for on-road use, such as kerosene, however, it does not yet apply to railroad locomotives,marine, or off road uses. Since December 1, 2010, all highway diesel fuel have been ULSD. Non-road diesel engine fuel was required to move to 500

ppm sulfur in 2007, and further to ULSD in 2010. Railroad locomotive and marine diesel fuel also moved to 500 ppm sulfur in 2007, and will change to ULSD in 2012. There are exemptions for small refiners of non-road, locomotive and marine diesel fuel that allow for 500 ppm diesel to remain in the system until 2014. After December 1, 2014 all highway, non-road, locomotive and marine diesel fuel produced and imported will be ULSD.

The EPA mandated the use of ULSD fuel in model year 2007 and newer highway diesel fuel engines equipped with advanced emission control systems that require the new fuel. These advanced emission control technologies will be required for marine diesel engines in 2014 and for locomotives in 2015.

The allowable sulfur content for ULSD (15 ppm) is much lower than the previous U.S. on-highway standard for low sulfur diesel (LSD, 500 ppm) whichallows advanced emission control systems to be fitted that would otherwise be poisoned by these compounds. These systems can greatly reduce emissions of oxides of nitrogen and particulate matter.

Because this grade of fuel is comparable to European grades, European engines will no longer have to be redesigned to cope with higher sulfur content in the U.S. These engines may use advanced emissions control systems which would otherwise be damaged by sulfur. Thus the ULSD standard is increasing the availability of diesel-fueled passenger cars in the U.S. In Europe, diesel-engined automobiles have been much more popular with buyers than has been the case in the U.S.

Additionally, the EPA is assisting manufacturers with the transition to tougher emissions regulations by loosening them for model year 2007 to 2010 light-duty diesel engines.[11] As a result, Honda, Nissan, Subaru, Toyota, and others are expecting to begin producing diesel vehicles for the U.S. market to join those from Mercedes-Benz, Audi, Volkswagen, and BMW.[12]

According to EPA estimates, with the implementation of the new fuel standards for diesel, nitrogen oxide emissions will be reduced by 2.6 million tons each year and soot or particulate matter will be reduced by 110,000 tons a year.

On June 1, 2006, U.S. refiners were required to produce 80% of their annual output as ULSD (15 ppm), and petroleum marketers and retailers were required to label[13] diesel fuel, diesel fuel additives and kerosone pumps with EPA-authorized language disclosing fuel type and sulfur content. Other requirements effective June 1, 2006, including EPA-authorized language on Product Transfer Documents and sulfur-content testing standards, are designed to prevent misfueling, contamination by higher-sulfur fuels and liability issues. The EPA deadline for industry compliance to a 15 ppm sulfur content was originally set for July 15, 2006 for distribution terminals, and by September 1, 2006 for retail. But on November 8, 2005, the deadline was extended by 1.5 months to September 1, 2006 for terminals and October 15, 2006 for retail. In California, the extension was not granted and followed the original schedule. As of December, 2006, the ULSD standard has been in effect according to the amended schedule, and compliance at retail locations was reported to be in place.

Sulfur is not a lubricant in of itself, but it can combine with the nickel content in many metal alloys to form a low melting point eutectic alloy that can increase lubricity. The process used to reduce the sulfur also reduces the fuel's lubricating properties. Lubricity is a measure of the fuel's ability to lubricate and protect the various parts of the engine's fuel injection system from wear. The processing required to reduce sulfur to 15 ppm also removes naturally-occurring lubricity agents in diesel fuel. To manage this change ASTM International (formerly the American Society for Testing and Materials) adopted the lubricity specification defined in ASTM D975[14] for all diesel fuels and this standard went into effect January 1, 2005.[15] The D975 standard defines two ULSD standards, Grade No. 2-D S15 (regular ULSD) and Grade No. 1-D S15 (a higher volatility fuel with a lower gelling temperature than regular ULSD).

The refining process that removes the sulfur also reduces the aromatic content and density of the fuel, resulting in a minor decrease in the energy content, by about 1%. (Citation needed) This decrease in energy content mayresult in slightly reduced peak power and fuel economy.

The transition to ULSD is not without substantial costs. The US Government has estimated that pump prices for diesel fuel will increase between $.05 and$.25 per gallon as a result of the transition. And, according to the American

Petroleum Institute, the domestic refining industry has invested over $8 Billion to comply with the new regulations.

ULSD will run in any engine designed for the ASTM D975 diesel fuels.

However, it is known to cause some seals to shrink,[16] and may cause fuel pump failures in Volkswagen TDI engines used in 2006 to pre-2009 models. TDI engines from 2009 and on are designed to use ULSD exclusively; biodiesel blends are reported to prevent that failure.[17]

South America

[18]

Chile

Chile requires <15-ppm[19] in Santiago, for diesel since 2011, and the rest ofthe country requires <50-ppm.[20]

Argentina

In Argentina there are 2 classes of diesel fuel, one with 40 PPM sold by YPF, ESSO, PETROBRAS, etc. and another variant of diesel with 500 PPM sold by the same firms. SHELL has a Premium Product called V-POWER DIESEL with 10 PPM of sulphur.-

Brazil

Since January 2012, Brazilian service stations started offering two types of Diesel, 50 ppm and 500 ppm on most areas and 1800 ppm in remote areas. Since January 2013 The 10 ppm or EURO V Diesel replaced the 50 ppm Diesel, which is now widely used and can be found in the majority of service stations, and the 1800 ppm was discontinued. All vehicles produced or sold inBrazil since January 2012 must be able to use only 50 ppm or lower sulfur Diesel. Also, all Diesel available for purchase in Brazil contains 5% of Biodiesel. .[21]

Uruguay

Uruguay is expected to impose a 50-ppm ULSD limit by 2009. 70% of the fuelused in Uruguay is diesel.[citation needed]

Colombia

Since January 1, 2013, Colombia's diesel has <50 PPM for public and private transport.[22]

Asia

China

(Mainland) China has limited sulfur in diesel fuel to 150 ppm, equivalent to the Euro III standard with limits of 10 ppm applied for certain cities such as Beijing.[23]

From 2014 to 2017, China will limit sulfur in diesel fuel to 50ppm. After 2017, the sulfur content in diesel fuel will be limited to 10ppm.[24]

India

Delhi first introduced 50 ppm sulfur diesel on April 1, 2010 as a step aimed atcurbing vehicular pollution in the capital. This was simultaneously done in 12 other cities at the time. The sulphur content in the diesel being used previously was 350 ppm.[25]

There are two types of Diesel available in India from year 2010. Bharat Stage IV (equivalent to Euro IV) specification having Sulfur level below 50 ppm is available in Delhi&NCR,Mumabi,Kolakata,Chennai,Bengaluru,Pune,Kanpur,Agra,Surat,Hyderabad,Ahemadabad,Sholapur and Lucknow. Fuel with less than 350 ppm Sulfur is available in rest of India.

Hong Kong

In July 2000, Hong Kong became the first city in Asia to introduce ULSD, with sulfur content of 50 parts per million (ppm). In addition, new petrol private cars were asked to meet Euro III standards from 2001.

Since the introduction of the law, all fuel station started supplying ULSD sinceAugust 2000.

Sulfur content of regular diesel fuel was lowered from 500 ppm to 350 ppm on 1 January 2001.

As part of the ULSD package, Hong Kong government lowered the tax for ULSD from HK$2.89 to $2.00 per litre in June 1998. The temporary concessionwas subsequently extended to 31 March 2000, then to 31 December 2000.

On 19 June 2000, under Report of the Subcommittee on resolution under section 4(2) of the Dutiable Commodities Ordinance (Cap. 109), ULSD fuel taxwas lowered to HK$1.11 per litre between 7 July 2000 and 31 December 2000, then increased to $2 in 2001, then $2.89 per litre on 1 January 2002. This resolution was passed on 27 June 2000.

Under LC Paper No. LS 37/00-01, which passed in 20 December 2000, the $1.11 per litre tax rate was extended to 30 June 2001.

Under LC Paper No. LS 115/00-01, which passed in 20 June 2001, the $1.11 per litre tax rate was extended to 31 March 2002, then the tax would be raised to $2.89 per litre afterwards.

Under LC Paper No. LS 67/01-02, which passed in 13 March 2002, the $1.11 per litre tax rate was extended to 31 March 2003.

Under LC Paper No. LS 76/02-03, which passed in 19 March 2003, the $1.11

per litre tax rate was extended to 31 March 2004.

Under LC Paper No. LS 59/03-04, which passed in 24 March 2004, the $1.11 per litre tax rate was extended to 31 December 2004.

Singapore

The National Environment Agency (NEA) defines ultra low sulfur diesel (ULSD)as diesel fuel with less than 50ppm, or 0.005 per cent, sulfur content.

On June 16, 2005, NEA announced that the use of ULSD would be mandatory beginning December 1, 2005. The regulation also offered tax incentives for Euro IV diesel taxis, buses and commercial vehicles between June 1, 2004 and September 3, 2006, pending a mandatory conversion to Euro IV-compliant vehicles in 2007.

Taiwan

Beginning in July 1, 2007, Taiwan has limited sulfur in diesel fuel to 10 ppm.[26]

Oceania

Australia

Australia has had a limit of 10 ppm since January 1, 2009.[27] The limit was previously 50 ppm.

New Zealand

New Zealand has had a limit of 10 ppm since January 1, 2009.[28] Prior to that, the limit was 50 ppm.

Russia / CIS / Former Soviet Union

As of 2002, much of the former Soviet Union still applies limits on sulfur in

diesel fuel substantially higher than in Western Europe. Maximum levels of 2,000 and 5,000 ppm are applied for different uses. In Russia, lower maximum levels of 350 ppm and 500 ppm sulfur in automotive fuel are enforced in certain areas, particularly in regions. Euro IV and Euro V fuel with a concentration of 50 ppm or less is available at certain fueling stations, at least in part to comply with emissions control equipment on foreign-manufactured cars and trucks, number of which is increased every year, especially in big cities, such as Moscow and St.Petersburg. Accordingly to the current technical regulation, selling a fuel with sulfur content >50 ppm is allowed until 31 December 2011. Euro IV diesel may in particular be availableat fueling stations selling to long-distance truck fleets servicing import and export flows between Russia and the EU.[29]

Sulphur oxides (SOx) – Regulation 14SOx and particulate matter emission controls apply to all fuel oil, as defined in regulation 2.9, combustion equipment and devices onboard and therefore include both main and all auxiliary engines together with items such boilers and inert gas generators. These controls divide between those applicable inside Emission Control Areas (ECA) established to limit the emission of SOx and particulate matter and those applicable outside such areas and are primarily achieved by limiting the maximum sulphur content of the fuel oils as loaded, bunkered, and subsequently used onboard. These fuel oil sulphur limits (expressed in terms of % m/m – that is by weight) are subject to a series of step changes over the years, regulations 14.1 and 14.4:

Outside an ECA established to limit SOx and particulate matter emissions

Inside an ECA established to limit SOx and particulate matter emissions

4.50% m/m prior to 1 January 2012 1.50% m/m prior to 1 July 2010

3.50% m/m on and after 1 January 2012 1.00% m/m on and after 1 July 2010

0.50% m/m on and after 1 January 2020* 0.10% m/m on and after 1 January 2015

* depending on the outcome of a review, to be concluded in 2018, as to the availability of the required fuel oil, this date could be deferred to 1 January 2025.

The ECA established are:

Baltic Sea area – as defined in Annex I of MARPOL (SOx only);

North Sea area – as defined in Annex V of MARPOL (SOx only);

North American area (entered into effect 1 August 2012) – as defined in Appendix VII of Annex VI of MARPOL (SOx, NOx and PM); and

United States Caribbean Sea area (expected to enter into effect 1 January 2014) – as defined in Appendix VII of Annex VI of MARPOL (SOx, NOx and PM).

Most ships which operate both outside and inside these ECA will therefore operate on different fuel oils in order to comply with the respective limits. In such cases, prior to entry into the ECA, it is required to have fully changed-over to using the ECA compliant fuel oil, regulation 14.6, and to have onboardimplemented written procedures as to how this is to be undertaken. Similarly change-over from using the ECA compliant fuel oil is not to commence until after exiting the ECA. At each change-over it is required that the quantities of the ECA compliant fuel oils onboard are recorded, together with the date, time and position of the ship when either completing the change-over prior toentry or commencing change-over after exit from such areas. These records are to be made in a logbook as prescribed by the ship’s flag State, in the absence of any specific requirement in this regard the record could be made, for example, in the ship’s Annex I Oil Record Book.

The first level of control in this respect is therefore on the actual sulphur content of the fuel oils as bunkered. This value is to be stated by the fuel oil supplier on the bunker delivery note and hence this, together with other related aspects, is directly linked to the fuel oil quality requirements as covered under regulation 18 – see below. Thereafter it is for the ship’s crew toensure, in respect of the ECA compliant fuel oils, that through avoiding loading into otherwise part filled storage, settling or service tanks, or in the course of transfer operations, that such fuel oils do not become mixed with other, higher sulphur content fuel oils, so that the fuel oil as actually used within an ECA exceeds the applicable limit.

Consequently, regulation 14 provides both the limit values and the means to comply. However, there are other means by which equivalent levels of SOx and particulate matter emission control, both outside and inside ECA, could be achieved. These may be divided into methods termed primary (in which the formation of the pollutant is avoided) or secondary (in which the pollutantis formed but subsequently removed to some degree prior to discharge of theexhaust gas stream to the atmosphere). Regulation 4.1 allows for the application of such methods subject to approval by the Administration. In approving such equivalents an Administration should take into account any relevant guidelines. As of October 2010 there are no guidelines in respect of any primary methods (which could encompass, for example, onboard blending of liquid fuel oils or dual fuel (gas / liquid) use). In terms of secondary control methods, guidelines (MEPC.184(59)) have been adopted for exhaust gas cleaning systems which operate by water washing the exhaust gas stream prior to discharge to the atmosphere, in using such arrangements there would be no constraint on the sulphur content of the fuel

oils as bunkered other than that given the system’s certification.

wallem

WMTC - Mumbai

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