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DEVELOPMENT OF GEOSPATIAL DATABASE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF PROPERTY TAX:
A CASE STUDY OF PARTS OF KAKURI, KADUNA STATE
BY
KATO JESSE ILIMI
U04LV1038
A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOMATICS
ENGINERRING, FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY,
ZARIA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE DEGREE OF THE REQUIREMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN LAND
SURVEYING
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare the this project has been composed by me and that it is a record of my
research under the supervision of Mr Ichioma Enebeli. This project report is a genuine and
authentic work which has not been presented in this form in the past
Kato Jesse Ilimi Date
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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this project is an original research carried out by KATO Jesse Ilimi with Registration number U04LV1038. This project has been prepared in accordance with the regulations governing the preparation and presentation of projects in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
Ichioma Enebeli Date
(project supervisor)
T.T Youngu Date
(Project Coordinates)
U.O Momoh Date
(Head Of Department)
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DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this project to my parents Lt Col J.A Kato (Rtd) and Mrs A.J Kato for their immense sacrifice and support for me in all aspect of my endeavours in life and also to my two younger sisters Jinkai and Zigwai. I thank God for you.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special thanks go to my supervisor Mr Ichioma Enebeli for his patience,
understanding and tenacity with which he put in place to make sure this work is a success.sir
you are Great. Also to the entire staff of Geomatics engineering DepartmentAhmadu Bello
University, for their toreless effort during the course of my study.
A big thank you Goes to my friend Alex Joseph Maidawa, we’ve been through it all
(Psalms 23:). Also to all my classmates thanks for everything. You guys are wonderful; may
God bless you all.
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Applications...................................................................................................................................32
Data representation.......................................................................................................................33
RASTER.............................................................................................................................33
Spatial data infrastructure................................................................................................................37
Database management systems.....................................................................................................39
Primary tasks of DBMS packages............................................................................................40
Application Development: used to develop prototypes of data entry screens, queries, forms, reports, tables, and labels for a prototyped application. Or use 4GL or 4th Generation Language or application generator to develop program codes..............................................................................40
Types of Database..........................................................................................................................40
Operational database................................................................................................................40
Analytical database..............................................................................................................40
Data warehouse....................................................................................................................40
Distributed database.............................................................................................................40
End-user database................................................................................................................40
External database.................................................................................................................40
Hypermedia databases on the web.......................................................................................40
Navigational database 40
In-memory databases...........................................................................................................40
Document-oriented databases..............................................................................................40
Real-time databases.............................................................................................................41
Relational Database.............................................................................................................41
Database design.................................................................................................................................41
Design process................................................................................................................................41
Purpose...........................................................................................................................................44
Hierarchies.................................................................................................................................44
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1PREAMBLE
Surveying can be defined as the art, science and technology of determining the relative
positions of points above, on, or beneath the earth surface or of establishing such points.
It is also a discipline which encompasses all methods for measuring and collecting
information about the physical earth and our environment, processing that information
and disseminating a variety of resulting products to a wide range of clients.
Taxation is a system of raising money to finance government expenditures. All
governments require payments of money-taxes-from people. Governments use tax
revenues to pay soldiers and police, to build dams and roads, to operate schools and
hospitals, to provide food to the poor and medical care to its citizens, and for hundreds of
other purposes. Without taxes to fund its socio economic activities, government could not
exist. (Microsoft ® Encarta 2009. (c))
Property tax is a tax that is based on a property’s value. It is sometimes called an
“Ad valorem” tax, which means “according to value.” The property tax is a local tax
imposed by local government taxing districts (e.g., school districts, municipalities, local
government areas) and administered by local officials (e.g. township assessors, tax
assessment officers, local boards of review, tax collectors). Property taxes are collected
and spent at the local level. The property tax is the largest single form of taxation, and is a
major source of tax revenue for local government taxing districts. Every person and
business is affected by property taxes — whether by paying the tax or receiving services
or benefits that are paid for by property taxes.
Owners of real property (like a house, land, commercial or industrial buildings) pay
property taxes directly. People who do not own real property most likely pay the tax
indirectly, perhaps in the form of rent to a landlord. Anyone who attends public school,
drives on roads or streets, uses the local library, has Police protection, has fire protection
services, or benefits from local government services, receives services paid for, at least in
part, by property taxes.
Property can be divided into two classes — real and personal.
• Real property is land and any permanent improvements. Examples include buildings,
Fences, landscaping, driveways, sewers, or drains.
• Personal property is all property that is not real property. Personal property includes
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Automobiles, livestock, money, and furniture.
1.2 AIM
The aim of this project is to build a database of all real properties for parts of Kakuri
using ArcGis tools with a view to providing a decision support system for the local
authorities towards increasing the annual tax revenue generation of Kaduna state.
1.3 OBJECTIVES
To obtain a digital image of Kakuri
To identify and map the locations of the various physical properties within the
study area.
To build a geospatial database based on the digital image showing the location of
every building and landed property within the study area.
To determine the existing spatial housing characteristics and conditions of the
area.
To review the principles and process of tax collection in Kaduna and how
property tax can be incorporated into the system.
To make appropriate recommendations as to how GIS can be an analysis and
management tool in the management of real property tax matters
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT
In these times when Governments raise revenue, mainly through taxation, in order to pay
for government expenditure like, the salaries of teachers, with the creation of a geospatial
database for property tax management it will aid the management board for internal
revenue to generate more revenue for the state to aid government in funding more
projects and keep the country’s budget from running at a deficit. Through a better
decision making process. Other advantages of creating the Digital parcel information
database are
1. Replaces manual procedures with automated ones
2. Streamlines and reduces time spent on current business procedures
3. Helps balance an increasing workload with decreasing resources by increasing
productivity and reducing duplication of work
4. Improves the quality and timeliness of service to the public
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5. Improves the security of information and protects the loss of valuable maps and
records in the event of a fire or other disaster.
6. Leverages the investment in data
7. Provides the ability to generate revenue
8. Provides information for better decision making
9. Improves the coordination and sharing of information – parcel information is
important to many government processes such as public safety, emergency
management, environmental regulation, infrastructure management, public health,
economic development, and other redevelopment,
1.5 METHODOLOGY.
A reconnaissance survey of the area will be carried out. A high resolution satellite image
of Kakuri area will be obtained and geo-referenced.Then, the coordinates of each building
will be obtained using a handheld Gps The next step will be to build a spatial data base
consisting of the map that shows the location of every building within the study area in
Kakuri which will provide a record of all buildings on the map in a tabular form with a
identification number or key to identify each building. The second step is to build a
property database giving details such as the name of the building, occupants, floor area,
and plot area, type of building, density and property type which will be gotten through the
use of questionnaires.
1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATION.
This project will cover selected areas and parts of Kakuri in Kaduna state and is limited to
the identification and locations of various real property in the study area.
1.7 EXPECTED OUTCOME
It is expected that at the end of this study a database will be created which can serve as a
foundation for developing an even bigger database for the state as a whole.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Project on tax mapping using GIS has been carried out in the past because they serve as the
most essential of all property assessment tools that accurately reflects the size, shape,
encumbrances and location of each parcel of land in a municipality, so the assessor can assign
fair and equitable values to the parcel. Examples of places where similar projects have been
carried out are discussed below
Applied data consultants (ADC) has been working with Pepin County for many years on a
variety of GIS projects including the management of parcels. An ArcGis 9.1 parcel
geodatabase structure was set-up conforming to the ArcGis Parcel Data Model. The Town of
Waubeek was used as a “pilot area”. Within the geodatabase ADC implemented an automatic
date, time, and GIS editor attribute stamp on all feature classes to help track and edit changes.
An auto calculated acreage field for each polygon feature class was also incorporated. During
the project ADC converted the parcel data from the Pepin County Coordinate System to the
newly defined Wisconsin Coordinate Reference System, Pepin County, and updated the
geodatabase from an ArcGis 9.1 version to an ArcGis 9.2 version. Parcels were constructed
using available information in the tax assessment database, Deeds, plat maps, and certified
survey maps. All parcel construction was performed using The standard tools available in
ArcGis. Feature linked annotation was implemented for several of the feature classes in the
geodatabase using a special attribution technique developed by ADC. Pepin County provided
GPS/survey based coordinates for all section corners and paper copies of documents. Check
plots were produced using Map Logic’s Layout Manager Application and mapped parcels
were cross-matched to the county tax assessment roll to ensure completeness.( Applied Data
Consultants | 1.888.933.6447)
Clackamas County is relatively new to GIS, using this technology since 1994. One of
the first layers to be produced was the representation of the ownership or tax lot layer based
on the Mylar maps produced by the County’s Assessor’s Office. Through the use of in-house
staff, consultants, and outside contractors, a tax lot layer emerged and has been maintained
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faithfully ever sense. Over the years, as demand for GIS products grew, so did the need to
increase the relative accuracy and mapping precision of this layer. Prior to its conception, the
County and a few of the jurisdictions within the County began an effort to vastly improve the
relative accuracy of the ownership tax lot GIS layer. In 1999, the City of Lake Oswego and
the County embarked on a re-mapping project utilizing Coordinate Geometry (COGO) data
capture and high precision surveyed ground control to map tax lots. Also in 1999, the City of
West Linn joined the re-mapping effort but had limited resources for ground control. Instead
an experiment to use digital orthophotography with 6 inch pixel resolution was to rectify tax
lot captured by COGO. This method proved to be very successful. (Clackamas County Tax
Lot Mapping Strategic Plan January 2003).
In Sweden geographic information systems (GIS) have been used for property valuation in
connection with tax assessment for real property since the 1996 general taxation of single
family housing units. The use of GIS has increased concurrently with the introduction of
improved methods and the availability of more accurate digital maps and is now a standard
and valuable tool for both the technical valuation preparatory work and for the assessment
itself. Other important factors that have contributed to the positive development include the
increased availability of spatial data, easily accessible information on real property
transactions and improved and customized working procedures. Above all, the use of GIS has
contributed to improvements to the tax assessment of single-family housing units.
Lyon County maintains a Parcel GIS layer, which is fused with an export file from the Lyon
County Tax System. This policy only relates to the Parcel GIS layers and the exported data
from said tax system. This policy is in no way applicable to Land Records from Lyon County
Recorder’s office or to information on the Lyon County Tax System. Lyon County reserves
the right to omit data deemed private from GIS datasets released to protect the privacy of the
General Public of Lyon County1. Data that may be omitted is owner name, physical address,
tax records, and other monetary related information or any other data believed by Lyon
County to affect the privacy of the General Public. Data omitted may at sometime be
accessible from public terminals within Lyon County Government Center. Data omitted may
be released within a cooperative agreement to another entity if deemed by Lyon County to
have a valid use for such data at that time. Data contained on any online mapping application
run by Lyon County will be limited to an extent determined by Lyon County at such a time
when an online mapping application is pursed. The information contained on these
cadastral/parcel GIS layers/datasets is used to locate, identify and inventory parcels of land in
Lyon County for reference purposes only (J:\GIS\Policy\ParcelTax&Land Records.doc)
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2.1 CONCEPT OF TAXATION
Taxation has existed in various forms since civilization began. In days of old the source of
wealth was land and its proceeds. Before the existence of a monetary system, taxes were paid
by a percentage of crops raised. Through most of history, the tax assessor and the tax
collector were the same person; therefore, “tax collector” is used interchangeably with “tax
assessor” throughout this project. Some of the most common forms of taxation over the
millennia were poll taxes, tariffs on goods, and property taxes on the value of land, buildings,
and other personal property.
2.1.1 Purposes of taxation
During the 19th century the prevalent idea was that taxes should serve mainly to finance the
government. In earlier times, and again today, governments have utilized taxation for other
than merely fiscal purposes.
2.1.2 CLASSES OF TAXES
Direct and indirect taxes
Taxes are most commonly classified as either direct or indirect, an example of the former
type being the income tax and of the latter the sales tax.
2.1.2.2Direct taxes
Direct taxes are primarily taxes on persons; they are aimed at the individual's ability to pay as
measured by his income or his net wealth. The main types of direct taxes are the following.
Individual income taxes are commonly levied on total personal net income in excess of some
stipulated minimum. They are also commonly adjusted to take into account the circumstances
influencing the ability to pay of the individual, such as family status, number and age of
children, and financial burdens resulting from illness. They are often levied at graduated
rates, that is, at rates that rise as income rises.
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2.1.2.2 Indirect taxes
Indirect taxes are levied on objects and services or transactions. They include general and
selective taxes on sales of consumer goods, value-added taxes, taxes on goods in the process
of production, taxes on legal transactions, and import or customs duties. General sales taxes
are levies that burden a substantial portion of consumer expenditures. The same tax rate can
be applied to all taxed items, or different items can be subject to different rates. Single-stage
taxes can be collected at the retail level, as by the U.S. states, or they can be collected at a
pre-retail (manufacturing or wholesale) level, as in many developing countries. Multistage
taxes are applied at each stage in the production-distribution process. Value-added taxes, one
of the most important fiscal innovations of the second half of the 20th century, are commonly
collected by allowing the taxpayer to deduct a credit for tax paid on purchases from liability
on sales. Such taxes have largely replaced turnover taxes, a defective form of tax in which tax
was collected at each stage, with no relief for tax paid at previous stages. Taxes on specific
commodities are called excises, as distinguished from sales taxes and other general
consumption levies. Generally applicable sales taxes sometimes exempt necessities in an
effort to reduce the burden on low-income households. Excises and customs duties are levied
on almost everything, from necessities such as bread, meat, and salt, to nonessentials such as
cigarettes, wine, liquor, coffee, and tea, to luxuries such as jewels and furs. Some excises and
customs duties are specific—i.e., they are levied on the basis of weight, length, volume, and
other specific characteristics of the tax object. Other taxes are ad valorem—levied on the
value of the goods as measured by the price. Taxes on consumer durables formerly were
applied to luxury commodities such as pianos, saddle horses, carriages, and billiard tables.
Today the main tax object is the automobile, largely because registration requirements
facilitate administration of the tax. Taxes on intermediate goods and production factors are
levied on raw materials, intermediate goods (e.g., mineral oil, alcohol), machines, or labour.
Taxes on legal transactions are levied on the issue of shares, on the sale of houses and land,
and on stock exchange transactions. For administrative reasons, they are frequently levied in
the form of stamp duties—that is, the legal or commercial document is stamped to denote
payment of the tax.
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2.1.3 Principles of taxation
The 18th-century philosopher Adam Smith attempted to systematize the rules that should
govern a rational system of taxation. In The Wealth of Nations (Book V, Chapter II) he set
down four general canons:
I. The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government,
as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in proportion to
the revenue which they respectively enjoy under the protection of the state
II. The tax which each individual is bound to pay ought to be certain, and not arbitrary.
The time of payment, the manner of payment, the quantity to be paid, ought all to be
clear and plain to the contributor, and to every other person
III. Every tax ought to be levied at the time, or in the manner, in which it is most likely to
be convenient for the contributor to pay it
IV. Every tax ought to be so contrived as both to take out and keep out of the pockets of
the people as little as possible over and above what it brings into the public treasury of
the state
Although they need to be reinterpreted from time to time, these principles, especially the first
and last, retain remarkable relevance. From the first can be derived both of the leading views
of what is fair in the distribution of tax burdens among taxpayers. These are the belief that
taxes should be based on the individual's ability to pay, known as the ability-to-pay principle,
and the benefit principle, the idea that there should be some equivalence between what the
individual pays and the benefits he derives from governmental activities. The fourth of
Smith's canons can be interpreted to underlie the emphasis many economists place on a tax
system that does not interfere with market decision making, as well as the more obvious need
to avoid complexity and corruption. From smiths principles the following can principles have
developed:
Distribution of tax burdens
The ability-to-pay principle
The benefit principle
The market economy
Ease of administration and compliance
Economic goals
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2.2PROPERTY TAX
Property tax is Levy that is imposed primarily upon land and buildings. In some countries,
tax is levied upon business and farm equipment and inventories. Sometimes the tax extends
to automobiles, jewellery, furniture, and even to such intangibles as bonds, mortgages, and
shares of stock that represent claims on, or ownership of, tangible wealth. The amount
payable is based not on a person's or a company's total net wealth but on gross value without
regard to debts. Levies not ordinarily classified as property taxes are those on transfer of
property (by sale, gift, or death), on net wealth, and on capital; special charges for some
public service or improvement certain types of agricultural imposts; and portions of income
taxes that apply to presumed or actual yield of farm or urban land.
The three principal approaches to the assessment of property are rental value, capital value,
and market value. Most Asian countries use annual rental value as the basis of assessment.
Under this principle, the tax is based on the average gross-rental income the property is
expected to generate under prevailing market conditions. A common approach to the
assessment of real property in European countries is that of capital value. The traditional idea
is that capital value can be estimated on the basis of rental values, treating them as earnings
on capital. Most European countries, however, endeavour to assess property according to its
market value. Some Asian countries employ a fourth, less complex but less fair approach.
They simply collect a fixed amount based on a particular unit of land measurement. Laos
collects a specific amount per square metre of land. In West Malaysia the annual tax on land
is a certain amount per 1,000 square feet.
The scope of the tax in different countries varies greatly, depending upon legal factors,
administrative realities, tradition, availability of other sources of revenue, the organization of
government—especially the relative role of local government, for which this levy is of key
significance—and the public services provided. Classification of property by different types
has served as a basis for varying the effective burdens, sometimes by providing for the
exclusion of a fraction of the value of some kinds of property (machinery, forests, mines,
securities, furniture, etc.), sometimes by adjusting the rates of tax.
In most countries, property taxes are used by local or state rather than national governments.
Property tax receipts supplied about half of the revenue raised by local governments in the
United States. Throughout much of Europe and Latin America and parts of Africa and Asia,
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one finds taxes that may be broadly classified as property taxes in their functioning and that
supply significant proportions of total tax revenue. In several countries the property tax
applies in fact primarily to urban real property. The intensity of use varies widely.
In some countries, property tax revenues have lagged far behind the growth of national
income because the tax has been based on measures that have not responded to changes in the
general level of prices. The original land surveys were designed to serve for long periods, and
the taxes were based on surface area or presumed income at rates that might have served
moderately well in a world of stable property values. War, inflation, and other forces,
however, have made them obsolete; and popular resistance and lack of administrative
capacity have generally prevented their modernization.
2.3Economic effects
Property taxation finances local government, not fully but enough to make the independence
of local government meaningful. This permits decentralization of government, which may be
considered a benefit because it enables a community to exercise a degree of choice.
The property tax may have substantial non revenue effects. Where it is heavy enough to bring
large revenues, it leads to changes in behaviour, not just because taxpayers have less to spend
and save but also because individuals and businesses conduct their affairs differently because
of it. Although property tax rates expressed as percentages are usually small, in the United
States they apply to capital values and are effectively much higher: if a property that yields 9
percent gross is taxed at 3 percent, the tax is equal to 33 percent of the pre-tax income—and
50 percent of the 6 percent remaining after tax. A tax of 20 cents for each 80 cents paid for
the costs of housing—not as high as actually prevails in many urban areas—is 25 percent
when expressed on the same basis as a retail sales tax.
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2.4 NIGERIAN TAXATION SYSTEM
In order to understand the Nigerian taxation system the following have to be defined
1. Who is a Nigerian
2. Legal basis for imposing taxes on Nigerians- the constitution and tax laws
3. Taxes payable by Nigerian to federal, state, and local governments
Section 25-27 of the Nigerian constitution defines a Nigerian as a person who attains
citizenship by birth, registration, or naturalization.
Citizenship by Birth:
section 25 says the following persons are citizen of Nigeria by Birth Namely
a. Every person born in Nigeria before the date of independence, ( 1st October 1960)
either of whose parents or any or whose grandparents belongs or belonged to a
community indigenous to Nigeria:
Provided that a person shall not become a citizen of Nigeria by virtue of this section if
neither of his parents nor any of his grandparents was born in Nigeria;
b. Every person born in Nigeria after the date of independence either of whose parents or
any of whose grandparents is a citizen of Nigeria; and
c. every person born outside Nigeria either whose of parents is a citizen of Nigeria
Citizenship by Registration:
Section 26 stipulates that a person may be registered as a citizen of Nigeria, if the president is
satisfied that-
a. he is a person of good character
b. he has shown a clear intention of his desire to ne domicile in Nigeria; and
c. He has taken the Oath of allegiance prescribed in the seventh schedule to the
constitution.
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These provisions on citizenship by registration apply to
a. any woman who is or has been married to a citizen of Nigeria; or
b. Every person of full age and capacity born outside Nigeria any of whose grandparents
is a citizen of Nigeria
Citizenship by Naturalisation.
Section 27 says the president may grant a certificate of naturalization to a person he deems fit
if he satisfies the presidents that-
a. He is a person of full age and capacity,
b. He is a person of good character;
c. He has shown a clear intention of his desire to be domicile ion Nigeria;
d. He is in the opinion of the Governor of the state where he is or he proposes to be
resident, acceptable to the local community in which he is to live permanently, and
has been assimilated into the way of life of Nigerians in that part of the federation.
e. He is a person who has made or is capable of making useful contribution to the
advancement; progress and well-being or Nigeria;
f. He has taken the oath of allegiance prescribed in the seventh schedule to this
constitution and
g. he has immediately preceding the date of his application, either
I. resided in Nigeria continuously for a period of fifteen years, or
II. Resided in Nigeria for a continuous period of twelve months, and during the
period of twenty years immediately preceding that period of twelve months
has resided, in Nigeria for periods amounting in the aggregate to not less than
fifteen years.
2.5 LEGAL BASIS FOR TAXATION IN NIGERIA
Various laws constitute the legal basis for taxation of Nigerian citizens. Usually,
Nigerians work as either employees or self-employed persons. They usually practice as sole
proprietorships or partnerships or limited firms. Whichever category a Nigerian falls into he
must pay tax for as long as he earns income except where the law provides otherwise.
Nigerians in different fields pay different taxes. this means that all Nigerians do not pay the
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same taxes. For example, Nigerians who are employees will pay taxes under the Pay As you
Earn (PAYE) Scheme monthly deduction from salaries at graduated rates after enjoying
reliefs. However Nigerians who are traders will pay as self-employed persons based on their
incomes either as individuals, partners, or as businessmen. This should be noted from the
onset as horizontal and vertical equity demand that Nigerians on the same income levels pay
different taxes. The various laws that impose taxes on individuals, partnerships, and property
under which Nigerians pay taxes are as follows
A. the 1999 Nigerian constitution
B. the tax laws
1. personal income tax act, CAP P8, LFN, 2004
2. Value Added Tax, CAP41VI, LFN,2004
3. Stamp Duties Act, Cap S8, LFN, 2004
4. Capital gains tax act
5. The companies income tax act Cap C21 LFn 2004
6. Customs and exercise management act cap c45 LFN 2004
7. Taxes and levies approved list for collection act , cap t2 LFN 2004
8. Local government bye-laws.
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2.6 TAXES PAYABLE BY NIGERIANS TO FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL
GOVERNMENTS
Nigerian citizens are required by law to pay taxes to the federal, state and local governments.
The taxes that are legally and validly payable by the Nigerians are clearly stated in the taxes
and levies (approved list for collection) Act, Cap T2, LFN 2004. As shown below.
FEDERAL TAXES STATE TAXES LOCAL GOVT, TAXES
AND LEVIES
Companies income tax Personal income tax in
respect of
a. Pay-As-You-Earn
(PAYE); and
b. Direct taxation (self
Assessment)
Shop and kiosks rate
Withholding tax on
companies residents of the
federal capital territory,
Abuja and non- resident
individuals
With-holding tax (individuals
only)
Tenement rates
Petroleum profit tax Capital gains tax Tenement rates
Value added tax Stamp duties on instruments
executed by individual
Slaughter lab fees
Education tax Pool betting and lotteries
gaming and casino taxes
Marriages, birth and death
registration fees
Capital Gains tax on the
residents of the federal
capital territory, Abuja
bodies’ corporate and non-
resident individuals.
Road taxes Naming of Street registration
fee, excluding any street in
the state capital
Stamp duties on bodies
corporate and residents of
the federal capital territory,
Business premises
registration fee in respect of
Right of occupancy fees on
lands in rural areas,
excluding those collected by
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Abujaa. Urban areas as
defined by each state
maximum of N10,000
for registration and
N5,000 per annum for
Renewal of
registration and
b. Rural areas: N2,000
for registration and
N1,000 per annum for
renewal of
registration
the federal and state
Government
Personal income tax in
respect of members of the
armed forces of the
federation, Nigeria police
force, residents of the federal
capita territory, Abuja and
staff of the ministry of
foreign affairs and non-
resident individuals
Development levy
(individuals only) not more
than N100 per annum on all
taxable individual
Market taxes and levies
excluding any market where
state finance is involved.
Naming of street registration
fees in the state capital
Motor park levies
Right of occupancy fees on
land owned by the state
government in urban areas of
the state.
Domestic animal license
fees.
Market taxes and levies
where state finance is
involved
Bicycle, truck, canoe,
wheelbarrow and cart fees,
other than mechanically
propelled truck
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Cattle tax payable by cattle
farmers only merriment and
road closure levy
Radio and television license
fees(other than radio and
television transmitter)
Vehicle radio license fees (to
be imposed by the local
government of the state on
which the car is registered.
Wrong parking charges
Public convenience, sewage
and refuse disposal fees
Customary burial ground
permit fees
Religious places ground
permit
Signboard and advertisement
permits fees.
2.7 PROPERTY TAX IN NIGERIA
In Nigeria today property is virtually nonexistence since no provision for it has been included
in any of our laws concerning taxation. But presently two states in the country have adopted
and implemented certain laws involving property namely Lagos state government and cross
river state government. The cross river state government property taxation policy called the
“urban development tax law “ will be used as a point of reference in this project to classify
properties into six categories as discussed below
2.7.1 Low Density Areas (LD)
This includes plots within state housing, federal Housing, satellite layouts, and Residential
Estate Quarters (private or public). A low density Area shall have at least 3 meters between
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structures with the road or street to the property. If the plot has joined structures they can only
have a join on one side and the other sides have to have 3 meters clearance.
High Density Areas (HD)
This includes all tenement plots outside the above mentioned areas, any area without access
to transportable roads or streets shall be classified as area of the city which is underdeveloped
with infrastructure is considered HD.
Multiple structure plots
Where there are two or more building units on a plot, each building units shall be taxed based
on its category (tax band role).
Business Plots
A standard shop is 12 feet by 12 feet with a nominal rate of N2, 000. A plot containing more
than one shop shall be assessed N2, 000 times number of shops. The assessed value will be
used to categorize the bands. If the amount falls between two bands the lower of the two
bands rates will used.
Mixed Plots
A plot shall be considered “mixed” if it is used for more than one purpose (i.e. Residential
and commercial, or House worship. A mixed plot shall deduct any structure which is exempt
and then classify the remaining structures.
Servant Quarters
Any house of 2 bedroom or more with a servant Quarters, the servants Quarter will be
considered part of the house. If the house is less than2 Bedroom, each bedroom will be
classified on its own.
2.8 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is an earth-orbiting-satellite based navigation system.
GPS is an operational system, providing users worldwide with twenty-four hour a day precise
position in three dimensions and precise time traceable to global time standards. GPS is
operated by the United States Air Force under the direction of the Department of Defense
(DOD) and was designed for, and remains under the control of, the United States military.
While there are now many thousands of commercial and recreational civil user’s worldwide,
DOD control still impacts many aspects of GPS planning, operation, and use. Primarily
designed as a land, marine, and aviation navigation system, GPS applications have expanded
to include surveying, space navigation, automatic vehicle monitoring, emergency services
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dispatching, mapping, and geographic information system. Because the dissemination of
precise time is an integral part of GPS, a large community of precise time, time interval, and
frequency standard users has come to depend on GPS as a primary source of control traceable
through the United States Naval Observatory to global time and frequency standards.
GPS Segments
The DOD has defined three divisions of GPS: the Control, Space, and User Segments.
Control Segment
The Control Segment consists of a network of global monitor stations, located at the British
colony of Ascension Island in the South Atlantic Ocean; Colorado Springs, Colorado; Diego
Garcia, a U. S. military base in the Indian Ocean; Hawaii; and Kwajalein Atoll in the
Republic of the Marshall Islands. These stations track the GPS satellites as they pass over
these sites twice a day. They relay satellite range and timing measurement data to the Master
Control Station at Falcon Air Force base in Colorado. There, orbital and clock data are
computed for all satellites. From Master Control at Falcon, or from ground antennas at
Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, or Kwajalein, orbit and clock data as well as system
parameters are uploaded daily to each individual space vehicle (SV) for rebroadcast in data
sets nominally replaced within the SVs every hour and used by the receiver to compute
position and time of signal transmission for each SV.
Space Segment
The GPS satellites comprise the Space Segment. The nominal operational constellation
consists of 21 satellites and three active spares, a total of 24 SVs that orbit the earth at
altitudes of about 20,200 kilometers above the earth. These satellites are arranged in six
orbital planes that are inclined at a 55 degree angle, providing worldwide coverage with at
least five SV visible (most of the time) from any point on the earth. Each space vehicle
broadcasts navigation signals at two microwave frequencies. These two carrier signals are
phase modulated by noise-like (pseudo-random) bit streams that spread the carrier
frequencies into a broader bandwidth of noise-like, spread-spectrum signals. In addition to
pseudo-random noise (PRN) codes, the signals are modulated with the Navigation Message
consisting of a set of orbital (ephemeris) data; satellite clock offset descriptions and other
system parameters.
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GPS CONSTELLATION
Figure 2.1 21 SATELLITES WITH 3 OPERATIONAL SPARES
6 ORBITAL PLANES, 55 DEGREE INCLINATIONS
20,200 KILOMETER, 12 HOUR ORBITS
User Segment
The User Segment consists of the receivers and the agencies or individuals that deploy them.
Originally conceived of as a military system, the User Segment now contains many thousands
of commercial and recreational civilian users as well as military users around the world.
GPS SPECIAL FEATURES
Selective Availability
Jamming Resistance
Anti-Spoofing
GPS Error Sources
Selective Availability
Clock and Ephemeris Errors
Ionospheric Delays
Tropospheric Delays
Multipath
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2.9GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM
A geographic information system (GIS) or geographical information system captures, stores,
analyzes, manages, and presents data that is linked to location. Technically, a GIS is a system
which includes mapping software and its application to remote sensing, land surveying, aerial
photography, mathematics, photogrammetry, geography, and tools that can be implemented
with GIS software. Still, many refer to "geographic information system" as GIS even though
it doesn't cover all tools connected to topology.
In the strictest sense, the term describes any information system that integrates stores, edits,
analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information. In a more generic sense, GIS
applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user created searches),
analyze spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations.
Geographic information science is the science underlying the geographic concepts,
applications and systems, taught in degree and GIS Certificate programs at many universities.
In simplest terms, GIS is the merging of cartography and database technology. Consumer
users would likely be familiar with applications for finding driving directions, like a GPS
program on their hand-held device. GPS (Global Positioning System) is the real time location
component that uses satellites to show your current position, "where am I now" on your
device.
Geographic information systems (GIS) provide a technology and method to analyze spatial
data, or information about the Earth. The earth’s climate, natural hazards, population,
geology, vegetation, soils, land use, and other characteristics can be analyzed in a GIS using
computerized maps, aerial photographs, satellite images, databases, and graphs. By analyzing
phenomena about the Earth’s hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere, a GIS
helps people understand patterns, linkages, and trends about our planet. A GIS (Geographic
Information System) can be considered the “next generation” of database management
systems (DBMS).
A computer-based DBMS organizes descriptions and/or measurements about a number of
items of the same kind by assigning attributes (descriptions) to individual records (items). In
use for over 50 years, DBMS greatly simplified the task of storing and searching through
large amounts of data. A serious drawback of DBMS, however, is the lack of geographic ties
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to the real world. Even when a record includes address attributes, the data is only a
description. A DBMS record has no way to relate its own address to its actual location, or to
the location of any other records near it.
GIS adds the spatial functionality missing from standard DBMS by using geographic
coordinates to describe each record it stores. Coordinates in a common system anchor the
record in its actual location, allowing it to be placed accurately on maps and photographs and
to relate to other records according to their position in geographic space. Simply put, a GIS
record not only knows its own location it knows where other records are as well.
A database management system for a tax assessor provides a good example of the expanded
Capabilities of a GIS. A standard DBMS typically assigns each parcel of land in the county a
unique parcel number. Each parcel is described by a set of attributes including ownership,
assessed value, address, and area. The tax assessor may “query”, or ask a question of, the
database to extract all records that meet the condition of the query, such as “select all parcels
that have an area greater than 10 acres.”
COMPONENTS OF A GIS
The components of a GIS fall into four main categories.
Computer hardware and software
Hardware is a computer on which a GIS operates. The software runs on a wide range
of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in
stand alone or networked configurations. GIS software provides functions and tools
needed to input and store geographic information. It also provides query tools;
perform analysis, and displays geographic information in the form of maps or reports.
All GIS software packages rely on an underlying database management system
(DBMS) for storage and management of the geographic and attribute data. The GIS
communicates with the DBMS to perform queries specified by the user.
Data
Data is one of the most important and often most expensive components of a GIS.
Geographic data, which is comprised of geographic features and their corresponding,
attribute information. Is entered into a GIS using a technique called digitizing. This
process involves digitally encoding geographic features, such as buildings, roads, or
local government boundaries. Digitizing is done by tracing the location, path or
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boundary of geographic feature either on a computer screen using a scanned map in
the background, or paper map that is attached to a digitizing tablet.
People
The real power of a GIS comes from the people who use them. Over the past decade,
computers have become much easier for people to use and more affordable for
companies, schools and organizations to purchase. Given this act the number of GIS
users has increased rapidly, and no longer includes only GIS specialists. Today GIS is
being used by people, in many different fields as a tool that enables them to perform
their jobs more effectively. Police use GIS to solve crimes, biologist use GIS to
protect plant and animal species, teachers use GIS to teach lessons in Geography,
history or engineering.
Infrastructure
The infrastructure refers to the necessary physical organizational, administrative and
cultural environments that support GIS operations. The infrastructure includes
requisite skills, data standards, data clearing houses and general organizational
patterns.
Applications
GIS technology can be used for scientific investigations, resource management, asset
management, archaeology, environmental impact assessment, urban planning, cartography,
criminology, geographic history, marketing, logistics, prospectivity mapping, and other
purposes. For example, GIS might allow emergency planners to easily calculate emergency
response times (i.e. logistics) in the event of a natural disaster, GIS might be used to find
wetlands that need protection from pollution, or GIS can be used by a company to site a new
business location to take advantage of a previously under-served market.
GIS software and List of GIS software
Geographic information can be accessed, transferred, transformed, overlaid, processed and
displayed using numerous software applications. Within industry, commercial offerings from
companies such as Autodesk, Bentley Systems, ESRI, Intergraph, Manifold System, MapInfo
and Small world dominate, offering an entire suite of tools. Government and military
departments often use custom software, open source products such as GRASS or UDig, or
more specialized products that meet a well defined need. Although free tools exist to view
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GIS datasets, public access to geographic information is dominated by online resources such
as Google Earth and interactive web mapping.
Data representation
GIS data represents real world objects (roads, land use, elevation) with digital data. Real
world objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete objects (a house) and continuous
fields (rain fall amount or elevation). There are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS
for both abstractions: Raster and Vector.
RASTER
A raster data type is, in essence, any type of digital image represented in grids. Anyone who
is familiar with digital photography will recognize the pixel as the smallest individual unit of
an image. A combination of these pixels will create an image, distinct from the commonly
used scalable vector graphics which are the basis of the vector model. While a digital image
is concerned with the output as representation of reality, in a photograph or art transferred to
computer, the raster data type will reflect an abstraction of reality. Aerial photos are one
commonly used form of raster data, with only one purpose, to display a detailed image on a
map or for the purposes of digitization. Other raster data sets will contain information
regarding elevation, a DEM, or reflectance of a particular wavelength of light, Raster data is
stored in various formats; from a standard file-based structure of TIF, JPEG, etc. to binary
large object (BLOB) data stored directly in a relational database management system
(RDBMS) similar to other vector-based feature classes. Database storage, when properly
indexed, typically allows for quicker retrieval of the raster data but can require storage of
millions of significantly-sized records.
VECTORS
In a GIS, geographical features are often expressed as vectors, by considering those features
as geometrical shapes. Different geographical features are expressed by different types of
geometry:
Points
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Zero-dimensional points are used for geographical features that can best be expressed
by a single point reference; in other words, simple location. For example, the location
of wells, peak elevations, features of interest or trailheads. Points convey the least
amount of information of these file types. Points can also be used to represent areas
when displayed at a small scale. For example, cities on a map of the world would be
represented by points rather than polygons. No measurements are possible with point
features.
Lines or polylines
One-dimensional lines or polylines are used for linear features such as rivers, roads,
railroads, trails, and topographic lines. Again, as with point features, linear features
displayed at a small scale will be represented as linear features rather than as a
polygon. Line features can measure distance.
Polygons
Two-dimensional polygons are used for geographical features that cover a particular
area of the earth's surface. Such features may include lakes, park boundaries,
buildings, city boundaries, or land uses. Polygons convey the most amount of
information of the file types. Polygon features can measure perimeter and area.
Each of these geometries is linked to a row in a database that describes their attributes. For
example, a database that describes lakes may contain a lake's depth, water quality, pollution
level. This information can be used to make a map to describe a particular attribute of the
dataset. For example, lakes could be coloured depending on level of pollution. Different
geometries can also be compared. For example, the GIS could be used to identify all wells
(point geometry) that are within 1-mile (1.6 km) of a lake (polygon geometry) that has a high
level of pollution.
Vector features can be made to respect spatial integrity through the application of topology
rules such as 'polygons must not overlap'. Vector data can also be used to represent
continuously varying phenomena. Contour lines and triangulated irregular networks (TIN)
are used to represent elevation or other continuously changing values. TINs record values at
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point locations, which are connected by lines to form an irregular mesh of triangles. The face
of the triangles represents the terrain surface.
2.10 GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION
Geospatial information is data referenced to a place—a set of geographic coordinates—which
can often be gathered, manipulated, and displayed in real time. In recent years consumer
demand has skyrocketed for geospatial information and for tools like GIS to manipulate and
display geospatial information. Global Positioning System (GPS) data and their integration
with digital maps have led to the popular handheld or dashboard navigation devices used
daily by millions. The federal government and policy makers increasingly use geospatial
information and tools like GIS for producing floodplain maps, conducting the Census,
mapping foreclosures, and responding to natural hazards such as wildfires and hurricanes. For
policy makers, this type of analysis can greatly assist in clarifying complex problems that
may involve local, state, and federal government, and affect businesses, residential areas, and
federal installations. The explosion of consumer demand for geospatial information and tools
such as geographic information systems (GIS) to manipulate and graphically display such
information has brought GIS into the daily lives of millions of People around the world,
whether they know it or not. Google Earth and handheld or dashboard navigation systems
represent enormously popular examples of the wide variety of applications made possible
through the availability of geospatial information. The release of Google Earth in 2005
represented a paradigm shift in the way people understand geospatial information, according
to some observers, because it offered multi-scale visualization of places and locations around
the globe that was free and easy to use.
GIS and Geospatial Data:
GIS is a computer system capable of capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying
geographically referenced information—information attached to a location, such as latitude
and longitude, or street location. Geographically referenced information is also known as
geospatial information. Types of geospatial information include features like highway
intersections, office buildings, rivers, etc. Information associated with a specific location is
referred to in GIS parlance as an attribute, such as the population of a local government
district. The power of GIS is the ability to combine geospatial information in unique ways—
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by layers or themes—and extract something new. For instance, a GIS analysis might include
the location of a highway intersection and the average number of vehicles that flow through
the intersection throughout the day, and extract information useful for locating a business.
GIS might include both the location of a river and the water depth along its course by season,
and enable an analysis of the effects of development on runoff within the watershed.
Overlaying the path of a severe thunderstorm with geospatial data on the types of structures
encountered—homes, stores, schools, post offices- could inform an analysis of what types of
building construction can survive high winds and rain storms.
SOURCES AND TYPES OF GEOSPATIAL DATA
Geospatial data may be acquired by federal, state, and local governments, private companies,
academic institutions, and nonprofit organizations. The collection and management of
geospatial data are considered by many to be the costliest components of a GIS—some
experts attribute close to 80% of GIS total costs to data acquisition. It should be recognized
that the amount of geospatial data is expanding rapidly, the methods for acquiring geospatial
data are growing, and the ways geospatial data are being used is diversifying throughout local
and state governments, as well as within the federal government. It is beyond the scope of
this project to encompass the universe of geospatial data and its utility to the federal
government. However, the federal government has had and continues to have a major role in
the overall framework for geospatial data, including its organization, coordination, and
sharing between federal agencies and with state and local entities.
Geospatial data can be acquired using a variety of technologies. Land surveyors, census
takers, aerial photographers, police, and even average citizens with a GPS-enabled cell phone
can collect geospatial data using GPS or street addresses that can be entered into GIS.9 The
attributes of the collected data, such as land-use information, demographics, landscape
features, or crime scene observations, can be entered manually or, in the case of a land survey
map, digitized from a map format to a digital format by electronic scanning. Remote sensing
data from satellites is acquired digitally and communicated to central facilities for processing
and analysis in GIS. Digital satellite images, for example, can be analyzed in GIS to produce
maps of land cover and land use. When different types of geospatial data are combined in
GIS (e.g., through combining satellite remote sensing land use information with aerial
photograph data on housing development growth), the data must be transformed so they fit
the same coordinates. GIS uses the processing power of a computer, together with geographic
mapping techniques (cartography), to transform data from different sources onto one
projection10 and one scale so that the data can be analyzed together.
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Geospatial Data from Local, State, and Federal Governments and the Private Sector
Local and state governments provide geospatial data for use in GIS for a variety of public
Services such as land records, property taxation, local planning, subdivision control and
zoning, and others. Some observers note that local governments often contract with private
sector companies to acquire more recent and higher-resolution data than what is available to
the federal government. Whether and how the most up-to-date and detailed geospatial
information is made available to users other than the local government for whom the data
were acquired are longstanding issues. In many instances, however, impediments to data
sharing such as lack of interoperability between systems, restrictions on use, concerns about
data security, and a lack of knowledge about what data exist and where the data can be found
could hinder a timely and effective emergency response.
Spatial data infrastructure
Spatial data infrastructure (SDI) is a framework of spatial data, metadata, users and tools that
are interactively connected in order to use spatial data in an efficient and flexible way.
Another definition is the technology, policies, standards, human resources, and related
activities necessary to acquire, process, distribute, use, maintain, and preserve spatial data.
Due to its nature (size, cost, and number of interactors) an SDI is usually government-related.
An example of an existing SDI is the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) in the
United States. At the European side, INSPIRE is a European Commission initiative to build a
European SDI beyond national boundaries and ultimately the United Nations Spatial Data
Infrastructure UNSDI will do the same for over 30 UN Funds, Programmers, Specialized
Agencies and member countries.
GIS Layers or Themes
The attributes of different types of geospatial data—such as land ownership, roads and
bridges, buildings, lakes and rivers, counties, or congressional districts—can each constitute a
layer or theme in GIS. (See Figure below for a schematic representation of data layers in
GIS.) GIS has the ability to link and integrate information from several different data layers
or themes over the same geographic coordinates, which is very difficult to do with any other
means. For example, GIS could combine a major road from one data layer as the boundary
dividing land zoned for commercial development with the location of wetlands from another
data layer. Precipitation data, from a third data layer, could be combined with a fourth data
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layer that shows streams and rivers. GIS could then be used to calculate where and how much
runoff might flow from the commercial development into the wetlands. Thus the power of
GIS analysis can be used to create a new way to interpret information that would otherwise
be very difficult to visualize and analyze.
2.11 GIS COORDINATE SYSTEMS
The geographic coordinate system is the location reference system for spatial features on the
earth’s surface. The geographic coordinate system is defined by longitude and latitude; both
longitude and latitude measures the angle east or west from the prime meridian and latitude
measures the angle north or south of the equatorial plane. (Kang-tsung chang)
Datum
A datum is a mathematical model of the earth which serves as the reference or the base for
calculating the geographic coordinates of a location (Burkard 1984: Moffit and Bossler
1998). The definition of a datum consists of an origin, the parameters of the spheroid selected
for the computations and the separation of the spheroid and the earth at the origin. Many
countries have developed their own datum for local surveys. Among these local datums are
the European datum, Australian Geodetic datum, the Tokyo datum, minna datum for Nigeria
just to mention a few
Map projections
This is a systematic arrangement of parallels and meridians on a plane surface representing
the geographic coordinate system
Types of map projection
Map projections can be grouped into by either the preserved property or the projection
surface. Cartographers group map projections by the preserved property into the following
four classes:
Conformal projection this type of map projection preserves local shapes
Equivalent projection this projection represents areas in correct relative sizes
Equidistant projection this projection maintains consistency of scale along certain
lines
Azimuthal projection retains certain accurate directions.
PROJECTED COORDINATE SYSTEM
A projected coordinate system also called a plane coordinate system is built on a map
projection. Projected coordinate system are designed for detailed calculations and positioning
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and are typically used in large- scale of 1:24,000 or larger. Accuracy in a features location
and its relative position to other features is therefore a key consideration in the design of a
projected coordinate system. The most commonly used coordinate system is the universal
traverse Mercator (UTM) grid system. Other gird systems used are
The universal polar stereographic (UPS grid system).
State plane coordinate system (spc) system.
Public land survey system (PLSS).
2.12 DATABASE
A Database is an integrated collection of logically related records or files consolidated
into a common pool that provides data for one or more multiple uses. One way of classifying
databases involves the type of content, for example: bibliographic, full-text, numeric, and
image. Other classification methods start from examining database models or database
architectures: see below. Software organizes the data in a database according to a database
model. As of 2009 the relational model occurs most commonly. Other models such as the
hierarchical model and the network model use a more explicit representation of relationships.
Databases consist of software-based "containers" that are structured to collect and store
information so users can retrieve, add, update or remove such information in an automatic
fashion. Database programs are designed for users so that they can add or delete any
information needed. The structure of a database is the table, which consists of rows and
columns of information.
Database management systems
A database management system (DBMS) consists of software that organizes the storage of
data. A DBMS controls the creation, maintenance, and use of the database storage structures
of social organizations and of their users. It allows organizations to place control of
organization wide database development in the hands of Database Administrators (DBAs)
and other specialists. In large systems, a DBMS allows users and other software to store and
retrieve data in a structured way.
Database management systems are usually categorized according to the database model that
they support, such as the network, relational or object model. The model tends to determine
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the query languages that are available to access the database. One commonly used query
language for the relational database is SQL, although SQL syntax and function can vary from
one DBMS to another. A common query language for the object database is OQL; although
not all vendors of object databases implement this, majority of them do implement this
method. A great deal of the internal engineering of a DBMS is independent of the data model,
and is concerned with managing factors such as performance, concurrency, integrity, and
recovery from hardware failures. In these areas there are large differences between the
products.
Primary tasks of DBMS packages
Database Development: used to define and organize the content, relationships, and
structure of the data needed to build a database.
Database Interrogation: can access the data in a database for information retrieval and
report generation. End users can selectively retrieve and display information and
produce printed reports and documents.
Database Maintenance: used to add, delete, update, correct, and protect the data in a
database.
Application Development: used to develop prototypes of data entry screens, queries,
forms, reports, tables, and labels for a prototyped application. Or use 4GL or 4th
Generation Language or application generator to develop program codes.
Types of Database
Operational database
Analytical database
Data warehouse
Distributed database
End-user database
External database
Hypermedia databases on the web
Navigational database
In-memory databases
Document-oriented databases
Real-time databases
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Relational Database
Applications
Databases function in many applications, spanning virtually the entire range of computer
software. Databases have become the preferred method of storage for large multiuser
applications, where coordination between many users is needed. Even individual users find
them convenient, and many electronic mail programs and personal organizers are based on
standard database technology. Software database drivers are available for most database
platforms so that application software can use a common API to retrieve the information
stored in a database.
Database design
Database design is the process of producing a detailed data model of a database. This logical
data model contains all the needed logical and physical design choices and physical storage
parameters needed to generate a design in a Data Definition Language, which can then be
used to create a database. A fully attributed data model contains detailed attributes for each
entity.
The term database design can be used to describe many different parts of the design of an
overall database system. Principally, and most correctly, it can be thought of as the logical
design of the base data structures used to store the data. In the relational model these are the
tables and views. In an object database the entities and relationships map directly to object
classes and named relationships. However, the term database design could also be used to
apply to the overall process of designing, not just the base data structures, but also the forms
and queries used as part of the overall database application within the database management
system (DBMS).
Design process
The process of doing database design generally consists of a number of steps which will be
carried out by the database designer. Not all of these steps will be necessary in all cases.
Usually, the designer must:
Determine the relationships between the different data elements
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Superimpose a logical structure upon the data on the basis of these relationships.
Within the relational model the final step can generally be broken down into two further steps
that of determining the grouping of information within the system, generally determining
what are the basic objects about which information is being stored, and then determining the
relationships between these groups of information, or objects. This step is not necessary with
an Object database.
The tree structure of data may enforce a hierarchical model organization, with a parent-child
relationship table. An Object database will simply use a one-to-many relationship between
instances of an object class. It also introduces the concept of a hierarchical relationship
between object classes, termed inheritance
A database model or database schema is the structure or format of a database, described in a
formal language supported by the database management system, In other words, a "database
model" is the application of a data model when used in conjunction with a database
management system.
Collage of five types of database models.
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Schemas are generally stored in a data dictionary. Although a schema is defined in text
database language, the term is often used to refer to a graphical depiction of the database
structure.[1]
A database model is a theory or specification describing how a database is structured and
used. Several such models have been suggested.
Common models include:
Hierarchical model
Network model
Relational model
Entity-relationship
Object-relational model
Object model
2.13 META DATA
Metadata (Meta data, or sometimes Meta information) is "data about data", of any sort in any
media. Metadata is text, voice, or image that describes what the audience wants or needs to
see or experience. The audience could be a person, group, or software program. Metadata is
important because it aids in clarifying and finding the actual data. An item of metadata may
describe an individual datum, or content item, or a collection of data including multiple
content items and hierarchical levels, such as a database schema. In data processing, metadata
provides information about, or documentation of, other data managed within an application or
environment. This commonly defines the structure or schema of the primary data.
For example, metadata would document data about data elements or attributes, (name, size,
data type, etc) and data about records or data structures (length, fields, columns, etc) and data
about data (where it is located, how it is associated, ownership, etc.). Metadata may include
descriptive information about the context, quality and condition, or characteristics of the data.
It may be recorded with high or low granularity.
An example of metadata occurs within file systems. Associated with every file on the storage
medium is metadata that records the date the file was created, the date it was last modified
and the date the file (or indeed the metadata itself) was last accessed.
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Purpose
Metadata provides context for data and facilitate the understanding, usage, and management
of data, both by human and computers. Thus metadata can describe the data conceptually so
that others can understand them; it can describe the data syntactically so others can use them;
and the two types of descriptions together can facilitate decisions about how to manage the
data. The metadata is required to effectively work with data with the type of data, their
context of use, and their purpose. Often data providers will provide users access to a variety
of metadata fields, which can be used individually or in combinations, and applied by
different users to achieve different goals. These users can be human 'end users', or other
computing systems.
Hierarchies
When structured into a hierarchical arrangement, metadata is more properly called an
ontology or schema. Both terms describe "what exists" for some purpose or to enable some
action. For instance, the arrangement of subject headings in a library catalog serves not only
as a guide to finding books on a particular subject in the stacks, but also as a guide to what
subjects "exist" in the library's own ontology and how more specialized topics are related to
or derived from the more general subject headings.
Metadata is frequently stored in a central location and used to help organizations standardize
their data. This information is typically stored in a metadata registry.
USE
Metadata is used to speed up and enrich searching for resources. In general, search queries
using metadata can save users from performing more complex filter operations manually. It is
now common for web browsers (with the notable exception of Mozilla Firefox), P2P
applications and media management software to automatically download and locally cache
metadata, to improve the speed at which files can be accessed and searched.
Metadata can be classified by:
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Content. Metadata can either describe the resource itself (for example, name and size
of a file) or the content of the resource (for example, "This video shows a boy playing
football").
Mutability. With respect to the whole resource, metadata can be either immutable (for
example, the "Title" of a video does not change as the video itself is being played) or
mutable (the "Scene description" does change).
Logical function. There are three layers of logical function: at the bottom the sub
symbolic layer that contains the raw data itself, then the symbolic layer with metadata
describing the raw data, and on the top the logical layer containing metadata that
allows logical reasoning using the symbolic layer
Types of metadata are;
1. Descriptive metadata.
2. Administrative metadata.
3. Structural metadata.
4. Technical metadata.
5. user metadata
Metadata can be divided into 3 distinct categories:
Administrative
Descriptive
Structural
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CHAPTER 3
3.0 METHODOLOGY
This entails the description of the methods and techniques employed in the
acquisition of data, data processing and display
3.1 RECONNAISANCE
A reconnaisance survey was carried out to have a view of the general area to be
mapped. In addition awareness was created by contacting the head of the community and
enlightening him about the purpose of the mapping project. A google earth image of the
area I question ca be seen in appendix A.
3.2 DATA SOURCES
The data used in this study were obtained from two basic sources
a) Primary data source: a properly prepared questionnaire used to question occupants
living in the study area and a handheld GPS (Garmin gpsmap 60 map navigator)
for obtaining coordinates of waypoints.
b) Secondary data source: a high resolution satellite image of part of kakuri east
( unqwan mai azure, kachia road, united road, industrial estate) from google earth
pro see appendix B
3.3 EQUIPMENT
The following equipment were available for the project:
1. Hp pavilion dv5 laptop with ARCGIS 9.2, GPS Garmin Map source, DNR
Garmin, and Microsoft software
2. Hand held GPS (Garmin GPSmap 60 map navigator)
3. Hp deskjet F2280 all-in-one printer
4. Booking sheet and questionnaire
3.4 PROCEDURE
3.4.1 using the Global Positioning System
The instrument used for the collection of waypoints at the study area was a hand
held GPS receiver. The process involved picking waypoints within the boundaries of the
property where it was possible and close to the property where it was not. The reliability
of the data depended on the proper utilization and accurate recording of information on the
data sheets.
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3.4.1.1 GPSmap 60
The GPS receiver is a typical civilian GPS receiver which provides an accuracy
of < 15meters at a velocity of 0.05m/s steady state. It is wide area augmentation system
enabled (WAAS) with a 12 parallel channel, it has an acquisition time of 15sec in warm
and 45sec in cold climatic conditions respectively with an auto locate of approximately 2
minutes. It also has an inbuilt American Marine Point Base map. A pictorial representation
of the GPS is shown below
Fig 3.1 Garmin GPSmap 60
When you turn on the GPSmap 60 the receiver begins to search for satellites in order to
determine its location. This process is called initialization.in order to receiver satellites
signals you must be outdoors and have a clear view of the sky. Satellites signals cannot pass
through solid materials.
Initializing the receiver
press and hold the power key to turn on the unit
observe the “power” on page followed by the satellite page
While the GPS receiver is searching for the satellites signals an “Acquiring satellites”
appears until enough satellites signal are acquired to fix your location. You will also
see a sky view array of satellites overhead with your position centered in the array.
The outer circle represents the horizon and the inner circle a position 450 from the
horizon. The numbers displayed indicate the number assigned to each satellite. A bar
graph displays the strength from each satellite.
When the receiver has signals from at least three signals the display at the top of the
page will change to indicate position, accuracy and location coordinates. The status
bar at the top of the display indicates the GPS status and status of other features.
A pictorial representation is shown below
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Fig 3.2
3.4.1.2 Taking waypoints
Way points are sets of coordinates that identify a point in physical space. During mapping,
waypoints were picked within the boundaries of the properties. To take waypoints the
following steps were carried
I. The projection and datum were first of all set using the following steps
Press the page button until you get to the main menu
Scroll with the rocker button unitl you get to setups and press enter
Scroll to units and press enter
Set the parameters as desired
A pictorial representation of the page is shown below
II. After the parameters have been set, press page until you get to the satellite page
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III. When the desired accuracy has been achieved press mark and fill in the parameters as
desired as depicted below.
After all the data has been collected it can downloaded to the garmin mapsource software to
edit and view the points in Google earth as shown below
3.4.1.3 Questionnaire administration
A questionnaire was given to each occupant within the study area to collect
tax related data such as occupant name, occupation, type of property, actual use of property,
etc. see appendix
The field work was carried out by going from house to house to obtain attribute and
spatial Data.the spatial data was downloaded to the Garmin map source and then viewed in
Google Earth to make sure the coordinates were within the range of the study area. A
downloaded copy of the map is shown in appendix.
3.5 CREATING THE DATABASE AND DESIGNING THE MAP
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The process involved in creating the database and designing the map was carried out using
ARCGIS 9.2, DNR Garmin and Google earth professional software
3.5.1 ArcGIS Applications Description:
ArcCatalog allows the user to easily access and manage geographic data that is stored in
folders on local disks or relational databases that are available on the user's network. Data can
be copied, moved, deleted, and quickly viewed before it is added to a map. In addition,
metadata can be either read or created using this ArcGIS application.
ArcMap allows the user to display and query maps, create quality hardcopy maps and
perform many spatial analysis tasks. ArcMap provides an easy transition from viewing a map
to editing its spatial features.
ArcToolbox provides an environment for performing geoprocessing operations (i.e.,
operations that involve alteration or information extraction). Tools step the user through the
many geoprocessing tasks. ArcToolbox is embedded in both ArcCatalog and ArcMap.
3.5.1.2Data Retrieval:
Data collection and preparation is one of the most expensive and time‐consuming aspects of
creating a GIS facility. There are many governmental and commercial data sources that
provide digital and tabular data sets as well as analogue data including maps, aerial
photographs, and satellite imagery.
3.5.1.3ArcGIS Supported Data Formats:
ArcGIS allows the user to work with an extensive array of data sources. These are listed
below.
• Data Types Supported in ArcGIS (ArcView, ArcEditor, and ArcInfo)
ArcIMS feature services
ArcIMS map services
ArcInfo coverages
DGN (through v8)
DWG (through v2004)
DXF
Geodatabases
Geography Network connections
OLE DB Tables
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PC ARC/INFO coverages
Raster Formats
3.5.1.4 Data Sources:
A data source is any geographic data that may be used as input to or output from a
geoprocessing tool. Supported data sources include:
Geodatabase feature datasets
Geodatabase feature classes
Shapefile datasets
Coverage datasets
Coverage feature classes
CAD feature datasets
CAD feature classes
SDC datasets
SDC feature classes
VPF datasets
VPF feature classes
Raster datasets
Raster dataset bands
Raster catalogs
TIN datasets
Layers
Layer files
Tables
Table views
When working with data it is helpful to understand how ArcGIS organizes the data sources
with which the program's tools work. Data sources are organized into folder hierarchies on
your computer. ArcGIS generally recognizes three different workspaces:
Folders
Personal geodatabases
ArcSDE geodatabases
with the option set more. When you open ArcCatalog you will likely see one or more of the
following workspaces in the catalog tree with various data sources contained within them.
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3.5.1.5 Folders
Folders may contain other folders, geodatabases, data sources (e.g., rasters, shapefiles, tables,
etc.), and toolboxes. Some data sources (coverages, shapefiles, TIN datasets, layers, and layer
files) can only live inside folders. Other data sources (raster data, feature classes, and tables,
and more) can be exported from a folder to a geodatabase ‐ either personal or ArcSDE.
Feature datasets within a folder (coverages, Smart Data Compression [SDC], Vector Product
Format [VPF] and more) can be set as workspaces.
3.5.1.5 Geodatabases
There are two types of geodatabases in ArcGIS:
Personal
ArcSDE.
Geodatabases contain geographic information organized in the form of feature
classes, feature datasets, tables, and toolboxes. Feature classes can be organized into feature
datasets or may exist independently in geodatabases.
Personal geodatabases
Personal geodatabases can be created in which to store and manage your own spatial
database. With personal geodatabases many users may read the database simultaneously but
only one user may edit.
A personal geodatabase was created in arc catalogue named “Kakuri”
ArcSDE geodatabases
With ArcSDE geodatabases many simultaneous editors are supported. Geographic data used
as input to or output from a geoprocessing tool is considered a data source. The list of
supported data sources includes: Geodatabase feature datasets and feature classes
Shapefile datasets
Coverage datasets and feature classes
Computer‐aided design (CAD) datasets and feature classes
SDC feature datasets and feature classes
VPF datasets and feature classes
Raster datasets and raster dataset bands
TIN datasets, layers, layer files, tables, and table views
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3.5.1.6 feature class is one of the most commonly used data sources. A feature class is
composed of a collection of geographic features with identical type of geometry (point, line,
polygon) and the same set of attributes. Feature classes can be found within a geodatabase
feature, shapefile, coverage, CAD, SDC, and VPF, as well as within a geodatabase.
3.5.1.7 Feature data
Geodatabase feature datasets
Geodatabase feature datasets live inside personal or ArcSDE geodatabases. Feature datasets
contain feature classes that are of the same extent and coordinate system.
Geodatabase feature classes
Geodatabase feature classes are stores of geographic features represented as points, lines,
polygons, annotations, dimensions, attributes, and more. Feature classes that store topological
features are contained within a feature dataset to ensure a common coordinate system. Other
feature classes that are outside a feature dataset are called standalone feature classes.
3.5.1.8 Raster data
Raster datasets
A collection of one or more bands of a supported raster type such as TIFF, ESRI GRID or
MrSID. Raster datasets can live in a folder in a file system.
Raster dataset bands
A band is a matrix of square cells that describes the characteristics of an area and their
relative positions in space. Each cell contains a value indicating what it represents.
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3.5.1.9 Raster catalogs
Raster catalogs are a collection of raster datasets organized in a table. Table records define
the individual raster datasets included in the catalog. There are times when it is necessary or
desirable to display adjacent or overlapping raster datasets without having to mosaic them
into a large file. Raster catalogs are designed to avoid the need to mosaic.
3.5.10 Layer data
Layer data is temporarily stored in memory; it is not stored on saved on disk. As such, it only
remains available within the current session. Layers created in ArcCatalog cannot be used in
ArcMap and layers created in ArcMap cannot be used in ArcCatalog.
One of the principal purposes of layers is to allow for attribute or locational selections
without affecting the original data source.
Layer files
Layer files (.lyr) are files that contain multiple references to geographic data stored on your
disk. When layer files are opened multiple geographic files are accessed. Most of the data
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sources supported in ArcCatalog can be referenced. Layer files are used to present a
cartographic view of your geographic data.
3.5.11 Viewing Data in ArcCatalog:
Once you have successfully acquired GIS data in one of the aforementioned supported
formats, it can be previewed using the ArcCatalog application. Note: If the data format is
listed under the above heading "ArcGIS Supported Data Types," it can be simply viewed
without the need to actually import using an import utility. If the data format is listed under
any of the other headings (above), the data will first need to be imported. This can be done
using ArcToolbox.
The ArcCatalog application window includes the catalog display that allows you to preview
data, either spatially or tabularly, a catalog tree for browsing the data, and several toolbars.
The data can be previewed by navigating to its location in the catalog tree. If the folder or
network drive that contains the user's data is not shown in the existing catalog tree, the
Connect to Folder button can be used.
Once the GIS data is listed in the catalogue tree, navigate to it using the plus sign ("+") next
to the data folders and simply click on the data layer. Select the Preview tab at the top of the
catalogue display. The layer will now be visible in the catalog display section of ArcCatalog.
Connect button
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ZOOMN/OUTPAN
VIEW FULL EXTENT
IDENTIFYCREATE THUMBNAIL
The geography toolbar can be used to zoom in and out, pan around the image, view the full
extent of the data layer, identify attributes contained within the features of the data layer, and
create a thumbnail view of the image.
Zoom In/Out: to use this tool, y can select the Zoom button from the geography
toolbar. Within the catalog display, a box can be drawn around the desired area the user
wishes to zoom in or out. Alternatively, the user may click within the catalog display on a
specific location to zoom in/out.
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Pan: To use this tool, you can select the Pan button from the geography toolbar.
Within the catalog display, the user can click and drag the entire map layer to its desired
location.
Full Extent: To use this tool, you can select the Full Extent button from the
geography toolbar. This will automatically update the catalog display so that it displays the
entire data layer within the frame.
Identify: To use this tool, you can select the Identify button from the geography
toolbar. Within the catalog display, the user can click on a feature (point, line, or area). A
flash screen will appear that shows the attributes (from the data layer's attribute table)
associated with the selected feature.
Create Thumbnail: To use this tool, you can select the Create Thumbnail button
from the geography toolbar. An image of the data shown on the Preview tab is saved as a
thumbnail graphic. This graphic appears in the contents tab of the catalog display.
As well as previewing the geography of a data set, you can also preview the attributes.
At the bottom of the catalog display, there is a preview drop‐down list. This allows the user
to view either the geography or the associated attribute table for the data layer.
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Once the attribute table is visible, the user can scroll through the table to see the attributes
contained within the data layer.
In addition to previewing the geography and the attribute table of a data layer, you can view
or create metadata. By clicking on the Metadata tab in the catalog display, technical
information about the data set (such as its coordinate system, its spatial extent, description of
its attributes, and descriptive information about when and how the data was created) can be
obtained.
The technical metadata is maintained automatically by ArcCatalog. However, the descriptive
information must be updated by the user who manipulates and manage the data. Though
ArcCatalog does not require the user to maintain this information, it is important for you to
do this
3.5.12 Viewing Data in ArcMap:
The ArcMap application window consists of a map display for viewing spatial data, a table of
contents for listing the layers shown in the display and a variety of toolbars for working with
data.
PREVIEW DATA ATTRIBUTES BY SWITCHING BETWEEN TABLE AND GEOGRAPHY VIEW
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When ArcMap opens, the ArcMap dialog appears on top of the application window. To open
a data layer, you can specify, whether or not you want to start using ArcMap with a new
empty map, a template, or an existing map.
A New Empty Map: you can select this option if you have data layers you would like
to view and/or manipulate. After selecting this option, you can add all of your GIS data layers
and save it as a map file. Once this operation has been performed, you can begin your next
ArcMap session by opening the existing map file, instead of adding all of their data layers
again.
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ADD DATA BUTTON
A Template: The user can select this option if they want to use layouts and base maps
that have already been created/provided for various geographic regions.
An Existing Map: The user can select this option if they have already created a map
file that contains all of the data layers they wish to work with.
There are two ways to add data layers to the map display:
1. Go to File / Add Data... on the main menu toolbar OR click on the Add Data button
on the standard toolbar.
2. Navigate to the data layer of interest. Select it, and click the Add button.
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3. Simply click the name of the data layer from the ArcCatalog data tree, and drag it
anywhere within the ArcMap display.
You can add multiple data layers to the ArcMap Display; regardless of whether or not all data
layers are spatially alike (have the same projection and datum). ArcGIS transforms layers of
different projection and datum "on the fly" to the ArcMap Display. These layers can be
temporarily made visible or invisible by clicking on the check box located next to each layer
name in the ArcMap table of contents. When multiple data layers are visible, the user can
drag a layer to the top of the table of contents in order to place that data layer on top of all of
the other layers. In the table of contents, the user can right click on the name of a data layer.
A context menu opens, which allows the user to begin a variety of operations.
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The ArcMap Tools toolbar can be used to do a variety of operations. The toolbar may
initially be oriented vertically, but its orientation can be changed by dragging one of its
corners. Additionally, it can be moved so that its location is next to the standard toolbar.
Zoom In/Out: To use this tool, the user can select the zoom button from the Tools
toolbar. Within the map display, a box can be drawn around the desired area the user
wishes to zoom in/out. Alternatively, the user may click within the map display on a
specific location to zoom in/out.
Fixed Zoom In/Out: To use this tool, the user can click on the fixed zoom in/out
button on the Tools toolbar. The map display will zoom in/out on the centre of the
data layer.
Pan: To use this tool, the user can select the pan button from the Tools toolbar.
Within the map display, the user can click and drag the entire map layer to its desired
location.
Full Extent: To use this tool, the user can select the full extent button from the Tools
toolbar. This will automatically update the map display so that it displays the entire
data layer within the frame.
ZOOM IN/OUT
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Go Back to Previous Extent: To use this tool, the user can select the go back to
previous extent button on the Tools toolbar. The map display automatically goes
back to the previous extent the user was viewing.
Go to Next Extent: To use this tool, the user can select the go to next extent button
on the Tools toolbar. The map display will go forward again through the sequence of
extents the user has been viewing in the map display.
Select Features: To use this tool, the user can select the select features button on the
Tools toolbar. Then, the user can click on a feature within the data layer to select it.
The tool can also be used to draw a box around a set of features to select them all.
Additionally, the SHIFT key can be held down in order to select multiple features.
Select Elements: To use this tool, the user can select the select elements button on
the Tools toolbar. This button allows the user to select, resize, and move graphics
such as lines, boxes, text, labels, north arrows, scale bars, and picture drawn on your
map. The user can click on a graphic to select it; hold down SHIFT while clicking to
select multiple graphics; or draw a box with the tool to select all the graphics inside
the box.
Identify: To use this tool, the user can select the identify button from the Tools
toolbar. Within the map display, the user can click on a feature (point, line, or area). A
flash screen will appear that shows the attributes associated with that feature that is
contained in the data layer's attribute table.
Find: To use this tool, the user can select the find button from the Tools toolbar. This
finds particular geographic features in the map. Features can be found based on the
value of one of their attributes.
Measure: To use this tool, the user can select the measure button from the Tools
toolbar. This tool allows the user to measure distances on the data layer. As a line is
drawn with this tool, the length of the line is shown in the status bar. A line can be
drawn with multiple segments. The user can click once to start a new segment, and
double click or press ESC to finish. The distance is shown in the distance units
specified in the data frame properties dialog.
Hyperlink: To use this tool, the user can select the hyperlink button from the Tools
toolbar. This tool allows the user to click on a feature to trigger a hyperlink. This tool
will be inactive if no hyperlinks have been defined for any of the feature layers in the
map display. If a user wants to use hyperlinks they have to be defined before this tool
can be used. More about hyperlinks can be found in the ArcMap help section.
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3.5.12 Using ArcToolbox:
ArcToolbox is the application that provides an environment for performing geographic
information system (GIS) analysis. Arc Toolbox allows you to perform a variety of
geoprocessing tasks including data conversion. Geoprocessing tools are organized into
toolboxes and toolsets within ArcToolbox. The toolbox is organized into toolsets that provide
solutions for different types of tasks. The eleven toolsets may be seen listed in the graphic
immediately below. Four of the more frequently used are briefly described.
Analysis Tools: This toolset is designed to allow you to perform analysis of vector data
including feature and attribute extractions, geographic overlays, create buffers, calculate
statistics on attribute data, and perform proximity analysis. If you want to solve a spatial
or statistical problem in the vector environment, this toolset should be used.
Conversion Tools: This toolset contains the tools needed to convert data between various
formats. The tools are organized into smaller toolsets that pertain to the type of
conversion being performed. Most commonly used data formats are supported. you can
convert raster to other formats, prepare and convert features to a native computer‐aided
design (CAD) format, convert: feature classes to coverage format; tables to dBase format;
features and CAD files to geodatabase feature classes; data to rasters; and convert
features to shapefiles. This toolset should be used whenever you need to change from one
type of dataset to another.
Data Management Tools: This toolset allows you to manage and maintain feature
classes, datasets, layers, and raster data structures. Database join operations, topology
building, projections and transformations operations, workspace management, and much
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more. If you need to modify the characteristics of a particular dataset you can do so using
this toolset.
Spatial Analyst Tools: This toolset is designed to allow you to perform cell‐based
(raster) analysis including a variety of neighborhood, overlay, reclass, map algebra,
extractions, density, distance, cost surface functions, and more. If the you want to solve a
spatial or statistical problem in the raster environment, this toolset should be used.
3.6 Collecting Data and Importing it to ArcGIS with the DNR Garmin
Run the DNR Garmin Program to Download GPS Data with the GPS unit off; attach the GPS
cord, with one end connected to the back of the Garmin GPS unit and the other end to your
computer.Turn the GPS unit ON.
If the DNR Garmin software has been properly installed, there should be a DNR Garmin
‘shortcut’ icon (see below) on your desktop that will launch the DNR Garmin program
whenever you wish to download Garmin GPS data.
Double-click on the icon, making sure that BEFORE you double-click the icon and start the
software that the GPS unit is ON and the cords between the GPS unit and the computer are
all properly connected.
The first time (and only the first time) that you start up the DNR Garmin software; a ‘pop-
up’ window should appear that prompts you to “accept the default projection (UTM zone 15).
Do NOT accept this projection. Instead, respond ‘NO’ and the following window will
appear:
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Select ‘No Projection’ from the above window. Again, these windows concerning default
projections will only appear the first time after you initially install the DNR Garmin software.
The following window for the DNR Garmin software should now ‘pop up’ on your monitor:
If you have not properly connected your GPS unit or the unit is not turned on, an error
message will appear.Correct the problem. Then restart the DNR Garmin software so that it
looks like this:
Note in the lower left-hand corner of the window that the software is ‘Connected’ to you GPS
unit. Depending upon what type of data that you collected with your Garmin GPS unit and
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that you now want to download from your GPS unit, select the Waypoint or Track menu at
the top of the DNR Garmin window. Click on download.
The points (or tracks if you use the Track Menu) from the GPS unit will download and a
dialog box will pop up telling you how many records were downloaded.
Note at the bottom of the above window that the GPS unit is still ‘Connected’ and that there
were 495 records downloaded from the GPS unit into the DNR Garmin software. Next, you
will use the DNR Garmin software to convert the GPS data into a format usable by ArcGIS.
select the File Menu at the top of the screen, then select the Save To option.
At this point, you will be prompted
1. Where to save the file,
2. What name you want to call the file, and
3. What file type you want the file to be.
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Where you want the file to be stored is entirely up to you and how you want to organize your
data.Similarly, what name you use is your choosing, And finally, the File Type that you will
want to select should be ‘ArcView Shapefile (Unprojected or projected (*.shp)
When you select SAVE, the GPS Waypoints will be saved in a format that can be added into
ArcGIS. Regardless of whether or not you are downloading Waypoints or Tracks, if you have
ArcGIS running before you use the File Menu to save your data, the DNR Garmin has an
option to save your data in an ArcGIS Shapefile format AND directly add your data into your
current ArcGIS session. if you select this option to save your data to a Shapefile (with
ArcGIS already running) you will then be prompted what name you want for the data file and
where you want to save the file the result will be that your ArcGIS session will now have
your data already loaded into a map If you already have an existing ArcMap document, select
“An existing map”, followed by selecting the existing map name. Otherwise (certainly the
first time you start ArcMap) select “A new empty map” and then “OK”.
If you started ArcGIS before you saved the GPS data as an ArcView Shapefile Layer, the
Waypoints or Tracks that you saved in the DNR Garmin software as an ArcView Shapefile
Layer should show up in your ArcGIS Map Document.
3.7 GOOGLE EARTH
Google Earth is virtual globe computer program, first released to the public in 2006. The
globe consists of satellite and aerial photographs of most of the earth, and allows for users to
zoom in and out for more or less detailed views. ArcGIS and Google Earth allow for some
inter-compatibality through the use of Keyhole Markup Language (KML). KML, a
programming language similar to HTML, was specifically designed to allow spatial map data
to be displayed in virtual earth browsers, such as Google Earth. By supporting KML, ArcGIS
allows shapefiles to be converted for viewing in Google Earth.
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Views from Google Earth can be saved as a JPEG file, but Google Earth doesn’t provide an
automatic method of including geospatial reference data with the image. Therefore, this
information must be added to the image manually by a method known as GeoreferencingThe
professional version was used to acquire 32 raster data which was georeferenced and
mosaicked to form the base map for the project. The 32 raster data are shown in appendix…..
3.8 GEOREFERENCING
All the elements in a map layer have a specific geographic location and extent that enables
them to be located on or near the earth's surface. The ability to accurately describe geographic
locations is critical in both mapping and GIS. This process is called Georeferencing.
From the Start menu, select Program>ArcGIS>ArcMap. Click OK when asked
you if you’d like to begin with a new empty map. Maximize the window and dock
(drag) any toolbars so they are out of the way.
Using the Zoom and Pan Tools, get the data frame extent in ArcMap to match the area
displayed on the image, as closely as you can. adjust your image data frame scale to
the same to start, using the top scale window
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Once you have the same approximate areas displayed in ArcMap and the image
viewer, close the image viewer.
Add the image file to ArcMap. You will get a message stating that spatial reference
information is missing. Click OK. You may also get a message asking if you want to
build pyramids; click OK.
Add the Georeferencing toolbar by right clicking over the toolbar area and checking.
From the toolbar, click the Layer dropdown arrow and select the image file as your
target,
Then click Georeferencing – Fit to Display.
Once you have the raster image file centred in its approximate location and scale,
from the Window menu, select Magnifier. You can change the magnification by
right clicking the window and selecting properties.
Move the Magnifier window over an area where you can see the same feature clearly
on both layers you might look for features like street intersections or stream
confluences – but no matter what you choose, they should be features with a fairly
precise location that are visible on the layer.
Click the Control Points tool from the Georeferencing toolbar to add control points.
These will be used to rubber sheet the image.
Click the Georeferencing button, and check that Auto Adjust is on (checked). This
will update the image with the addition of each control point (as a personal
preference, some people may prefer to turn this off while adding points).
To add control points (links), within the magnifier window: click the mouse pointer
on a landmark (building corner, in this case), right click and click add control points
type in the coordinates for the point and click ok. This should be repeated for four
more well spread points
Click View Link Table to evaluate the transformation, and choose the type (first
order) from the bottom Transformation drop-down menu (do not select Adjust). You
can also examine the residual error for each link and delete control points (select, then
use delete key or X in upper right). Click OK to close the Link Table.
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If you chose to turn Auto Adjust off earlier, on the Georeferencing toolbar, select
Update Display. If you’re satisfied with the registration, you can stop entering links.
Click Georeferencing and click Update Georeferencing to save the transformation
information with the raster dataset. Do not click update georeferencing more than
once. This will result in the image being distorted. If you mistakenly do this, remove
the layer and delete the accessory .tfw and .aux files from the data folder before
reloading the data (The files will be rebuilt using internal information).
You can permanently save the transformation of the image itself by selecting Rectify
from the Georeferencing menu. For data that represents discrete or “thematic” values
(as with a DRG or land use/land cover map) choose the nearest neighbour resample
type. The other resample types are for continuous data types like satellite imagery and
aerial photos, which will “smooth” the values for each cell. You should rectify your
raster dataset if you plan to perform analysis with it or want to use it with another
software package that doesn’t recognize the external Georeferencing information
created by ArcMap.
Scanned images can also be georeferenced without reference layers if you have
labelled coordinates on your image, by editing the Link Table after entering “place
holder” control points. Make sure your data frame coordinate system is set to the
same system your image coordinates are in (View>Data Frame
Properties>Coordinate System).
3.9 MOSAICING GEOSPATIAL DATA
3.9.1The Merge Tool
The Merge Tool combines input features from input sources (of the same data type) into a
single, new, output feature class. The input data sources may be point, line or polygon feature
classes or tables.
3.9.2 The Mosaic Tool, Mosaic to New Raster Model Tool and Create Raster Dataset in a
File Geodatabase
The Mosaic Tool “mosaics” [merges] multiple input rasters in to an existing raster dataset.
The Mosaic to New Raster model tool “mosaics” [merges] multiple datasets into a new raster
dataset in one simple step. The Create Raster Dataset in a File Geodatabase also creates a
new raster dataset. For this project the mosaic to new raster model tool was used.
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The merge tool, in effect, joins multiple rasters to an existing raster dataset. The mosaic to
new raster tool retains the input rasters as individual datasets and creates a new raster
combining all the individual datasets.
3.9.3 Using the Mosaic to New Raster Model Tool (Raster Data)
Mosaic multiple raster datasets into a new raster dataset. The inputs must have the same
number of bands and same bit depth.
Open the Mosaic to New Raster model
1. Open Arc Toolbox
2. Expand the Data Management Tools, the Raster Tools and the Raster Dataset tools.
3. Open the Mosaic to New Raster model. It is helpful to open the Help while you enter the
inputs. Enter the Mosaic to New Raster model tool inputs and outputs.
A model simply consists of one process or a sequence of processes connected together.
Models can be run from a dialog box and behave like any tool.
1. Use the drop down arrow to select the input raster datasets or click and drag the raster
datasets from the ArcMap Table of Contents.
2. For the Output Location navigate to the personal geodatabase using the Browse button.
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3. In the Raster dataset name with extension enter a name for the new mosaiced dataset.
formats that can be used are bmp, gif, img, jpg, jp2 or png.]
4. Optional - Enter the Coordinate system for the raster. Since all inputs are projected to
Minna_UTM_Zone_32N the output will be in this projection.
5. Optional – Pixel type. (To determine the pixel type of the input rasters opens its
properties.)
6. Optional – Cellsize. The cell size of the input is optional
7. Choose a Mosaic Method - Blend. (In many cases, there will be some overlap of the raster
dataset edges that are being mosaicked together. These overlapping areas can be handled in
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several ways; for example, you can specify to keep only the first or last raster dataset's data,
you can blend the overlapping cell values using a weight-based algorithm, you can take the
mean of the overlapping cell values, or you can take the minimum or maximum value. For
mosaicking of discrete data, the First, Minimum, or Maximum options will give the most
meaningful results. The Blend and Mean options are best suited for continuous data. If any of
the input rasters are floating point, the output will be floating point. If all the inputs are
integer and First, Minimum, or Maximum is used, the output will be integer.)
8. Optional – Mosaic Colormap Mode – applies when the input raster datasets have a colour
map. Note the information in the help column.
9. Click OK to run the model tool. The Output will be a merged floating point grid that can be
symbolized using an elevation colour ramp.
3.10 Digitizing in ArcMap
3.10.1Manual Digitizing
Digitizing is the process of interpreting and converting paper map or image data to
vector digital data. In manual digitizing you trace the lines or points from the source
media. You control a cursor, usually with a mouse or digitizing puck, and sample
vertices to define the point, line, or polygonal features you wish to capture. The source
media may be hardcopy, e.g., maps taped to a digitizing table, or softcopy, e.g., a
digital image or scanned map. ESRI software allows us to digitize using either
hardcopy or softcopy sources.
3.10.2 On Screen Digitizing in ArcMap
Digitizing directly on screen is sometimes called “heads-up” or softcopy digitizing.
Flatbed scanners and digital cameras are common, so softcopy digitizing is a standard
procedure. Scanned photos have some geometric distortion that depends primarily on
how the photo was taken (flying height, terrain, camera tilt, and other factors). GIS data
are commonly entered from scanned photos because we can easily adjust the display
scale, zooming in or out as needed. This often reduces both interpretation and
digitizing errors.
3.10.3 Digitizing
Start ArcMap, and create a new, blank document.
Select the add Add Data button; navigate to the personal geodatabase folder, and add the
mosaicked raster image notice how the coordinates change in the lower right corner of the
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ArcGIS window whenever you move the mouse. These are the coordinates for the view, and
they have been established from the image data.
3.10.4 Digitzing Features
The goal was to digitize all the feature classes in the kakuri dataset an example of such were
the trees which where represented as points (selected Fields) from the image.
Left click on Editor, Start Editing
After you start editing and select “trees” as your target layer, select the layer to digitize.
Note that the trees (or whatever you named the point file) should appear as the Target of
your edits.
Notice the Task in the Editor toolbar. You control your actions by selecting “tasks” clicking
the inverted triangle to the left of the window, e.g., to “Create New” or “Modify Feature”.
Finally, note the caret and the sketch tools that are locate between the Editor and
Task options on the edit toolbar. The caret is a selection tool. You use the caret to
select existing features or parts of features to edit. You use the sketch tool to add new features
or parts of features. You left click on each of these tools to activate them.
When you activate the sketch tool, your cursor appears as a cross, sometimes with an
embedded circle. This indicates your clicks will add data. When you activate the caret, the
cursor appears as a caret, indicating that clicks will select features.
To digitize points place the cursor over a tree, and single left-click. Each click creates
a feature. You should use the pan and zoom tools to locate all the features, and set an
appropriate scale to accurately place positions. Scale is important when digitizing. Too small
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a scale magnifies errors, e.g., 1:50,000. Too large a scale is inefficient, e.g., digitizing at
1:100 you will be very accurate but will require frequent panning. The best scale depends in
part on the level of accuracy you need, and how the objects appear on the images.
When you are done digitizing ponds, use Editor > Save Edits.
Notice that the last point you digitized may be cyan, or some different color from the rest of
the points. This means the point is selected point. To de-select it, left click on ArcMap main
Selection menu and left click on Clear Selected Features. The color should now match the
rest of the features. Now switch the Target to specify the roads layer.
Verify that the Task is set to “Create a New Feature”. Activate the sketch tool by left clicking
on the pencil icon. Move the cursor to the start of the road you wish to digitize, and left
click. Move along the center of the road, left-clicking when you need a vertex. Note that this
shows both the vertices (knots on the path) and the “thread” connecting these knots. This is
your digitized line. Double click to end a line. If the entire road segment you wish to digitize
is not in the view, navigate around the image using the pan and zoom tool. You may need to
refresh after a pan and zoom, using the refresh button next to the data and layout view
buttons.
3.10.5 Fixing Mistakes
if you make a mistake while digitizing Placing the sketch cursor over the last point digitized,
and right clicking reveals a dropdown menu, as shown at right. You may then select Delete
Vertex, but only to remove the last vertex digitized. If there are a sequence of bad vertices,
you can move backward, positioning the cursor and right clicking over each one in turn. If
you wish to remove an entire line, you may terminate the line (double click with the sketch
tool to end digitizing), then left click on the line with the caret tool, then -right click and
select Delete from the dropdown menu. You may select several lines by holding down the
shift key, and left clicking on each of them.
3.10.6 Set Snapping
You may notice that it is difficult to get different lines to join correctly. you may introduce
undershoots or overshoots while digitizing. To avoid these, it is best to set snapping when
digitizing lines.Left click on Editor and click Snapping
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This reveals the snapping options, as shown above.
Check the Vertex, Edge, and End boxes. Click the X in the upper right of the options pane
to close this window. To set the snapping distance, left click on Editor > Options This
should display the window at right. You may specify the snapping tolerance, either in image
pixels or in map units. Map units is usually best, as you can set this to be equal to the level of
precision you think appropriate for the data set. Any vertices within this distance will be
“snapped together” to the same location. Continue until all indicated roads are digitized, and
then use Editor > Save Edits. Save frequently using the Save Edits option of the Editor
toolbar, and Stop Edits option when you are done.
3.11 Querying Data in ArcMap
3.11.1 Identifying, Selecting, and Finding Features:
There are many ways to retrieve information about features in ArcMap you can identify
features by clicking on them in order to display their attributes. The user can select features
by clicking on the features to highlight them and look at their records in the layer attribute
table. You can find features by using known information about the feature in order to search
the map for that particular feature.
3.11.2 Identifying Features:
The fastest way to get information about a single feature is to identify it, using the Identify
Tool. To use the Identify tool, you must select it from the Tools Toolbar. Within the mapust
click on the feature of interest in order to view the attribute information for that particular
feature.
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3.11.3 Selecting Features:
If you want to compare information about several features, the best way is to select the
features on the map and look at their records in the layer attribute table. The easiest way to
select multiple features is by using the Select Features Tool on the Tools Toolbar.
To use the Select Features Tool, the user must select it from the Tools Toolbar. On the map,
all features of interest may be selected by holding down the shift key and clicking on the
various features of interest. The selected features will be outlined in blue. If a feature is
selected by mistake it can be de‐selected by holding down the shift key and clicking the
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feature again. All features that have been selected, can be cleared by clicking the Selection
menu from the Standard Toolbar and selecting the Clear Selected Features option.
To view the selected features' attribute table, the user must right‐click on the data layer where
features have been selected. The Open Attribute Table option should then be clicked.
After the Open Attribute Table option has been selected, the attribute table will appear with
all of the selected features highlighted in blue.
The user can group all of the selected attributes, by clicking on the Selected button at the
bottom of the attribute table. Only those features that were highlighted will appear.
Now the user can easily compare various attribute values, such as type of ownership.
3.11.4 Finding Features:
When you have a piece of information about a feature, but your not sure where that feature is
on the map, the user can search the map for that feature using the known piece of
information.
The user can find a feature, by selecting the Find tool on the Tools toolbar. When the Find
dialog Box appears, the Features tab should be selected. The known attribute information
should be typed in the Find box. In the In Layers drop down box, the layer that you wish to
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find features in should be selected. In the Search options, you should choose to either search
all fields in the attribute table or a specific field. Once all parameters are set, the Find button
should be clicked.
In the following example, the Mr Joseph Onoja was found in the KAK_WAYPOINTS Layer
by typing in the known attribute information (i.e. Name of occupant =Mr Joseph Onoja).
Once the Find button is clicked and the feature is found,you can locate it on the map and get
its attributes. This can be done when youright click on the feature row found in the Find
dialog box and clicks Identify Feature(s). The feature will briefly flash within the map
display and the Identify Results dialog box will open.
3.11.5 Selecting Features by Attributes:
In addition to identifying, selecting, and finding features, you can select features by attributes
by writing a query that automatically selects features that meet a specified criteria. The
simplest type of query consists of an attribute (such as OCCUPANT_NAME), a value (such
as 'MR JOSEPH ONOJA'), and a relationship between the two (such as 'equal to'). A more
complex query combines these simple queries using operators like 'and' / 'or'. These queries
are constructed using Structured Query Language (SQL). ArcMap creates the query
automatically in this format.
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To create an attribute query, you must click the Selection menu on the Standard Toolbar.
The Select by Attributes option should be clicked. In the Select by Attributes dialog box, the
Layer drop down arrow should be clicked and the data layer of interest should be selected the
fields in the attribute table appear in the Fields box on the left of the dialog box. When a
particular field is highlighted, sample values display in the Unique values list on the right. If
the user wishes to see all of the attribute values, the Complete List button may be selected.
The buttons in the middle are used to choose operators and to connect queries.
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To perform a query, you must double‐click an attribute field of interest, in order for it to
display in the bottom portion of the Select by Attributes dialog box. Then the user must click
on the appropriate operator button. A unique value of interest may be double clicked on
within the Unique Values box, or a value may be directly typed into the query string. . An
alternative method is to use the query builder by right clicking on a layer in the table of
contents and select properties and select the definition query tab, click on query builder and
type in or select your query expression as desired. Your query expression can be saved so as
to used whenever needed. Click ok and click apply. It should be noted that when the query
builder is used it shows only features that are been queried for on the map. In this project the
query builder was used and all expressions were saved for confirmation.
3.11.6 Selecting Features by Location:
Instead of selecting features by their attribute values, the user may also select them by their
location (their spatial relationship to other features, whether in another layer or in the same
layer). To select features by location, the user specifies a selection method, a selection layer,
a spatial relationship, a reference layer, and sometimes a distance buffer.
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To begin selecting features by location, the user must click the Selection menu and click the
Select by Location option. The Select by Location dialog box opens.
By default, the selection method is select features from. This option should be used when the
user wants to create a new selected set. The other options allow you to add to an existing
selected set of features, remove from an existing selected set of features, or select from an
existing selected set of features Within the scrolling list of selection layers, the user may
select the layer from which they wish to select features.
There is a list of spatial relationships that can be chosen using the drop down arrow. The
following describes the various options that are available.
Are Crossed by the Outline of: This method selects the features that are overlapped
by the features of another layer.
Intersect: This method selects any features that are overlapped by the features of
another layer as well as those features that border the reference features.
Are Within a Distance of: This method selects features near or adjacent to features
in the same layer or in a different layer. The user must specify the numerical distance
of interest.
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Have Their Center in: This method selects the polygon features in one layer that
have their centroid in the polygon features of another layer.
Are Completely Within: This method selects features in one layer that fall
completely inside the polygons of another.
Completely Contain: This method selects polygons in one layer that completely
contain the features in another layer.
Share a Line Segment with: This method selects line and polygon features that share
line segments with other features.
Touch the Boundary of: This method selects lines and polygons that share line
segments, vertices, or end‐points (nodes) with the lines in the layer. The lines or
polygons will not be selected if they cross the lines in the layer.
Are Identical to: This method selects any feature having the same geometry as a
feature of another layer; however, the feature types (point, line, or polygon) must be
the same.
Contain: This method selects features in one layer that contain the features of
another. The boundaries of the features ARE allowed to touch.
Are Contained by: This method selects features in one layer that are contained by the
features in another.
Next, the reference layer should be chosen using the drop‐down arrow.
If the user wishes to apply a distance buffer, then the box next to the Apply a buffer to
the features in ... option should be checked (or clicked). A distance and a unit of
measure should be chosen. Once all parameters are set, the Apply button should be
clicked. The results will be selected in the map display.
3.12 METADATA
Metadata, simply put, is information about your data. Since data is the backbone of a GIS, it
is important to know what the characteristics of your data are. Metadata gives the user an
understanding of the data, information on how it can be used, and a decision can be made on
whether or not the data should be used. Useful information would include who created the
data, what year the data was produced, and what is the data projection. Information that
should be included in metadata:
description of the data
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the publication information (who created the data)
the date stamp of the data (when it was produced)
the projection and coordinate information
the attribute information
3.12.1 Viewing your Metadata in ArcMap
Note: In ArcMap you can view metadata but no changes can be made. Changes can only be
made in ArcCatalog.
Start ArcMap.
Navigate to where you have saved the personal geodatabase
Double-click on the kakuri.mdb folder to view the datasets inside.
Select all the datasets by clicking on the first one in the list and while holding
down the Shift key, select the last dataset.
Click Add.
You will notice the layers will be in your ArcMap legend now and the layers will
be drawn on the right side of the screen, in the Table of Contents.
Notice the layers are all selected (highlighted in blue). Click the white space in the
Table of
Contents to unselect the layers
Page 4 of 13 Tutorials for ArcGIS Metadata
Right-click over the layer called kak_waypoints in the Table of Contents and
scroll down to Data in the context menu and then select View Metadata….
The metadata page will appear containing three tabs.
Each tab contains different information about the data.
1) Description of the data - The Description tab includes information about
the status of the data source, its location, and any enclosed files.
2) Spatial information about the data - The Spatial tab shows the data’s
extent, as well as detailed feature or raster properties.
3) Attributes information- The Attributes tab lists each attribute and describes
its values and its data type.
On the Metadata page (Description tab), click the green text to access the information
contained in each section. For example, click on the Publication Information to find out who
created the data. Click each section and read the information available with the data.layers.
Page 7 of 13 Tutorials for ArcGIS Metadata
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3.12.2Viewing Metadata in ArcCatalog
When working with data, it is always a good practice to have a look at its metadata before
deciding to use it.
Open ArcCatalog. If you have ArcMap open, click on the ArcCatalog icon on the
standard toolbar at the top of the screen.
If you do not have ArcMap opened, click Start > Programs > ArcGIS > ArcCatalog
Navigate to where the personal geodatabase folder is located (C:\kakuri).
Open the kakuri folder. You will see the datasets (feature classes) located on the right
side of the screen under the Contents tab.
Click on the kak_waypoints dataset and click the Preview tab to view it.
Click on the Metadata tab.
Click on the different headings and have a look at the sections in each of the tabs
(Description, Spatial, and Attributes).e 9 of 13 Tutorials for ArcGIS Metadata
3.12.3 Documenting and Editing Metadata in ArcCatalog
ArcCatalog is used to view, edit and document your metadata. All changes made and new
information added is automatically updated. For example, when you change the data
projection the information will automatically be revised in the metadata (spatial tab).
In ArcCatalog, navigate to the Metadata folder and open the folder.
If you do not see the Metadata toolbar, go to the View menu, click Toolbars and then
select Metadata.
The Metadata toolbar will appear but you will notice the options are grayed out.
Click on buildings and click the Metadata tab to activate the Metadata toolbar.
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Click on the tabs (Description, Spatial, and Attributes) below the Metadata tab to view
thedifferent information available.
Click on the Edit Metadata tool on the Metadata toolbar.
A new window will appear. You are now in editing mode.
Click on the different sections (above the tabs) and the tabs to view the information
available.
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If you have made changes to the metadata click Save.
If you have no changes, click Cancel to exit the Metadata editor screen and then click
Yes.
3.12.4 Metadata Stylesheets
A stylesheet is similar to a database query; it selects which metadata elements to display and
defines how their values appear. Each stylesheet in ArcCatalog presents the same body of
metadata using a different set of rules. The default stylesheet in ArcCatalog is FGDC ESRI.
o Change the stylesheet for your metadata by clicking on the down arrow on the Metadata
toolbar and select a different stylesheet.
Note: You can import a metadata document into ArcCatalog using the Import metadata
button. You can also export a metadata document to share with others using the Export
metadata button.
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CHAPTER FOUR
IV.0 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
IV.1 Results
The results obtained from the queries and analysis carried out is shown below as
thematic maps with their respective attribute tables. 27 queries were carried out using the
query builder and the results are shown in the following pages. Other queries were
obtained using the query options and their results are depicted below
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